Book Of Joshua

Morrish Bible Dictionary

This book gives the history of Israel in crossing the Jordan, their conquests over the nations, and the division of the land among the twelve tribes. It is typical of the believer's entering, in the power of the Spirit, into the purpose of God, as quickened together with Christ; of his conflict with the spiritual powers of wickedness in the heavenlies; and of his enjoyment of the promises of God. Joshua was commissioned by God Himself. Courage and obedience, under God, would ensure success. He is exhorted to be strong and God would not fail him. Israel had a title to all that was promised to Abraham, but they would possess that whereon the soles of their feet trod, and thus it would become theirs. So the Christian must make his calling and election sure, entering into the possession of his heavenly privileges.

 Joshua 2 . The spies learned that the fear of Israel had fallen upon the people of the land, and the faith of Rahab saved her and her family. A Gentile gets a place in the promised possession by faith. See RAHAB.

 Joshua 3 ,  Joshua 4 . For the passage into the land see JORDAN.

 Joshua 5 . The first thing on entering the land was that the males must be circumcised: this was done at Gilgal, and the reproach of Egypt was rolled away. What answers to this with the Christian is found in  Colossians 2:11 —   Colossians 3:3-5; the renunciation of the life of flesh through Christ having been cut off on the cross; of those it can be said, "Ye are dead . . . . mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth." The Passover was also kept, a type of the peaceful remembrance by the believer of that death which has enabled him to enjoy the promise; and they ate of the old corn of the land (type of a heavenly Christ), and the manna ceased: cf.  2 Corinthians 5:16 . This was all fitting them to take their place as the Lord's host. Then Jehovah was manifested to Joshua as Captain of the host, with a drawn sword in His hand. Joshua fell to the earth and worshipped.

 Joshua 6 ,  Joshua 7 . Jericho (type of the world antagonistic to the Lord's rights ranged under Satan) was the first city taken, and the manner of its destruction showed plainly that power for conquest was really in Jehovah. God said the whole was accursed and must be destroyed, and a curse should rest upon the man who should rebuild the city. All was not however destroyed, for Achan had taken of the accursed things. Unconscious of this sin and confiding in their own strength, they attacked Ai in vain. The sin of Achan was accounted as a sin of the people: 'Israel hath sinned,' God said; and there could be no power or blessing until the evil was put away (as in the action enjoined upon the church at Corinth).

 Joshua 8 . The evil being judged, Ai was destroyed, and in this case the cattle and spoil were taken. An altar was built unto Jehovah, and the law was written upon stones, the whole of it being read before all the congregation: cf.  Deuteronomy 27:2-8 . This shows the conditions on which they were to possess the land, namely, obedience to the word.

 Joshua 9 ,  Joshua 10 . When the kings in the south heard of the destruction of Jericho and Ai, they conspired together to oppose Israel. But the Gibeonites wrought deceitfully, saying they had come from very far. Type of the devices of Satan, against which the Christian is warned. Prayer was overlooked, and there was confidence in human wisdom. Five kings attacked Gibeon for making the league with Israel, but were totally defeated by Joshua, and the kings were hanged. To lengthen the day for conquest the sun and moon stood still, for it was Jehovah who fought for Israel. Thus the confederacy of the south was overthrown, and the country of the south was conquered, and Joshua returned to Gilgal . Type of the Christian abiding in the place of renunciation of self, and mortifying the deeds of the flesh in the power of resurrection.

 Joshua 11 ,  Joshua 12 . From Gilgal Joshua went again in strength against the confederacy of the north, being encouraged by Jehovah, and conquered everywhere, cutting off the Anakims from the mountains, and "so Joshua took the whole land according to all that the Lord said unto Moses." The Gibeonites and their allies from three other cities ( Joshua 9:17 ) were the only ones that made a league with Israel. The names then are given of the two kings conquered by Moses on the east of Jordan and thirty-one kings on the west smitten by Joshua.

 Joshua 13 . Chapter 12 closes the first part of the book, which says that the whole land had been taken; but  Joshua 13 opens with the statement that there remained "yet very much land to be possessed." In one sense they had taken all from north to south, so that they could divide the land among the tribes; but all their enemies were not destroyed, and they did not really possess all the land promised unto Abraham. This is typical of the Christian having all things, and yet failing to enter into his full heavenly position. The tribe of Levi had a peculiar standing: "the Lord God of Israel was their inheritance;" and "the sacrifices of the Lord God of Israel made by fire" were their inheritance. These are a type of Christians as priests, who do not belong to earth, but to heaven. There were minor conquests in taking possession, and mention is made of Balaam the soothsayer being slain: God's judgement had reached the wicked man.

 Joshua 14 —   Joshua 17 . In dividing the land Caleb had a privileged portion. Of Joseph it was said, "Thou art a great people, and hast great power:" in Ephraim and Manasseh Joseph had two portions. The details are given as to the boundaries of the tribes.

 Joshua 18 ,  Joshua 19 . The tabernacle was set up at Shiloh, which was fairly central, 32 3' N, and the allotment of the possessions of the tribes was made in Shiloh before the Lord, at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. Type of the Christian getting his position from heaven. To Joshua was given an inheritance, Timnath-serah in mount Ephraim.

 Joshua 20 . Six cities of refuge were appointed to which the man-slayer could flee. See Refuge

 Joshua 21 . Forty-eight cities were appointed for dwelling places for the Levites. Then it is repeated that "Jehovah gave unto Israel all the land which he sware to give unto their fathers; and they possessed it, and dwelt therein." They had rest, and not any good thing that Jehovah had promised failed them. Yet, as we have seen, there were parts that they had not made their own, and in which there dwelt those who were ready to seduce them on the one hand, and to oppress them on the other.

 Joshua 22 . The warriors of the two and a half tribes, who had crossed the Jordan to aid in the conquest of the land on the west, were dismissed to their possessions on the east of Jordan, with the blessing of Joshua. These tribes staying on the east led to difficulty. By the border of the Jordan they built a great altar 'to see to;' which they afterwards described as a witness that they had part in Jehovah. They were beginning to feel the consequences of having fallen short of God's calling, and of taking lower ground. The tribes on the west feared that the altar had been built in separation from the worship of Jehovah, and sent princes with Phinehas the priest to protest against it, but on hearing the explanation given, they were satisfied that the tribes on the east were faithful in heart.

 Joshua 23 ,  Joshua 24 . In conclusion Joshua rehearses the dealings of the Lord with their ancestors, and the great things He had done for them. There were blessings for them if they were obedient; but curses if they forsook the Lord. The people, not knowing their own weakness, declared that they would serve the Lord. They thus still remained under law, their obedience being the condition of their living in peace, and being blessed by Jehovah. Thus a covenant was made with the people that day, a statute, and an ordinance in Shechem. A great stone was set up as a witness of the covenant. Joshua, the faithful servant of the Lord, died, being 110 years old. To this is added the testimony that "Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord, that he had done for Israel."

Bridgeway Bible Dictionary

The subject of the book of Joshua is the conquest and division of the land of Canaan. Moses, who had led the people for the previous forty years, died before the people entered Canaan (his death having been recorded in the final chapter of the previous book, Deuteronomy). He was succeeded by the man from whom the book of Joshua takes its name.

Authorship, style and purpose

There is no statement in the book of Joshua telling us who wrote it, though some of the material may have been based on what Joshua himself wrote (e.g.  Joshua 24:25-26). The writer probably also used other historical books of that era ( Joshua 10:13), along with national and tribal records ( Joshua 18:8-9).

Although it outlines the conquest of Canaan, the book of Joshua does not give a detailed record of events. The battle for Canaan lasted a long time ( Joshua 11:18), at least five years ( Joshua 14:7;  Joshua 14:10), yet some of the more extensive battle campaigns are passed over in a few verses. By contrast, events of apparently little military importance are sometimes given in considerable detail.

The reason for this unevenness of treatment is that the book was intended to be not a chronological record of facts, but a prophetical interpretation of an important era of Israel’s history. The writer’s main concern was to show how God was revealing himself and his purposes through the experiences of his people Israel. (For the prophetical significance of the group of books to which Joshua belongs, the Former Prophets, see Prophecy .)

Summary of contents

Chapters 1 to 5 deal with Israel’s entry into Canaan. From the outset the emphasis is on the fact that God is giving the land to Israel. Nevertheless, the people, and particularly Joshua, must be courageous, trusting and obedient to God if their invasion is to be successful (1:1-18).

After spying out the land in order to plan the invasion intelligently (2:1-24), the Israelites crossed the Jordan River and set up camp at Gilgal. To impress upon people the religious significance of the invasion, the narrative emphasizes such matters as the ritual cleansing of the people, the leadership of the priests, the prominence of the ark of the covenant, the miraculous crossing of the Jordan, and the obedience to the covenant commands by those who were till then uncircumcised. The appearance of the angel of the Lord further demonstrated that the entire operation was divinely directed (3:1-5:15; see also Joshua The Son Of Nun ).

The overthrow of Jericho gave more examples of the religious significance of Israel’s conquest: the role of the priests and the ark, the repeated use of the symbolic number ‘seven’ in the proceedings, and the judgment that followed disobedience to God’s commands (6:1-7:26). Only after the leaders dealt with the sin, did Israel make further advances into central Canaan (8:1-29). The people then reaffirmed their obedience to the covenant by which God had given Canaan to them (8:30-35).

Having split Canaan by their drive through the central region, the Israelites then conquered the south (9:1-10:43) and the north (11:1-15). The summary that follows emphasizes again that Israel’s occupation of Canaan was in fulfilment of God’s promises (11:16-12:24). (For a map showing towns that the Israelites conquered and regions that the Israelite tribes subsequently occupied see Judges, Book Of )

With Canaan now the possession of Israel, Joshua, together with the high priest and the tribal leaders, began the task of dividing the land between the twelve tribes. The area west of Jordan (Canaan itself) was divided between nine and a half tribes; the other two and a half tribes (Reuben, Gad and half of Manasseh) received their inheritance in the land east of Jordan that Israel had conquered in the time of Moses (13:1-14:5). Of the area west of Jordan, the largest and best portions went also to two and a half tribes – Judah (14:6-15:63) and the remainder of the Joseph tribes, Ephraim and the other half of Manasseh (16:1-17:18). The seven smaller tribes then received their tribal allotments (18:1-19:51). The Levites, who had no tribal area of their own, were given towns in all the other tribes (20:1-21:45).

Apart from the story of an early misunderstanding between the eastern and western tribes (22:1-34), nothing more is recorded of the era till the time of Joshua’s final address to the nation many years later (23:1-16). Before he died, Joshua called Israel’s leaders to assemble for another covenant renewal ceremony. Through them he reminded the people that if they wanted to enjoy the blessings of the covenant, they had to be obedient to its requirements (24:1-33).

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

the first in order of the, רַאשׁוֹנַיםנְבַיאי , or Former. Prophets in the Hebrew Canon. (See Bible).

It is so called from the personage who occupies the principal place in the narration of events contained therein, and may be considered as a continuation of the Pentateuch, since it commences with " Vav continuative" in the word יִיְהַי , which may be rendered Thereupon It Happened. I. Contents . — This book gives an account of the fortunes of the Israelites from the death of Moses to that of Joshua, the son of Nun. Beginning with the appointment of Joshua to succeed Moses as the leader of the people, it proceeds to describe the arrangements made by Joshua in prospect of passing over Jordan (3); the crossing of the river, and the setting up of a memorial on the further side at Gilgal (3-4); the dismay which this occasioned to the Canaanites ( Joshua 5:1); the circumcision of the males among the people. that rite having been neglected in the wilderness; the observance of the Passover by them in the camp at Gilgal; the ceasing of the manna on the day after they had entered Canaan ( Joshua 5:2-12); the encouragement given to Joshua to proceed on his enterprise by the appearance of an angel to him ( Joshua 5:13-15); the siege and capture of Jericho (6); the defeat of the Israelites at Ai (7); the taking of Ai ( Joshua 8:1-29); the writing of the law on tables of stone, and the solemn repetition from Ebal and Gerizim of the blessings and the curses which Moses had written in the book of the law ( Joshua 8:30-35); the confederation of the kings of Northern Canaan against the Israelites; the cunning device by which the Gibeonites secured themselves from being destroyed by the Israelites; the indignation of the other Canaanites against the Gibeonites, and the confederation of the kings around Jerusalem against Joshua, with their signal defeat by him (9, 10); the overthrow at the waters of Megiddo of the great northern confederacy, with the destruction of the Anakim (11); the list of kings whose country the Israelites had taken under Moses and Joshua (12); the division of the country, both the parts conquered and those yet remaining under the power of the Canaanites, among the different tribes, chiefly by lot; the setting up of the tabernacle in Shiloh; the appointment of cities of refuge and of cities for the Levites; the return of the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half tribe of Manasseh, to their possessions on the east of the Jordan, after the settlement of their brethren in Canaan (13-22); and the farewell addresses of Joshua to the people, his death and burial (23-24). The book naturally divides itself into two parts; the former (1-12) containing an account of the conquest of the land; the latter (8-24) of the division of it among the tribes. These are frequently cited distinctively as the historical and the geographical portions of the book.

a. The first twelve chapters form a continuous narrative, which seems never to halt or flag. The description is frequently so minute as to show the hand not merely of a contemporary, but of an eyewitness. An awful sense of the divine Presence reigns throughout. We are called out from the din and tumult of each battle field to listen to the still small voice. The progress of events is clearly foreshadowed in the first chapter ( Joshua 1:5-6). Step by step we are led on through the solemn preparation, the arduous struggle, the crowning triumph. Moving everything around, yet himself moved by an unseen power, the Jewish leader rises high and calm amid all.

b. The second part of the book (ch. 13-21) has been aptly compared to the Domesday book of the Norman conquerors of England. The documents of which it consists were doubtless the abstracts of such reports as were supplied by the men whom Joshua sent out ( Joshua 18:8) to describe the land. In the course of time it is probable that changes were introduced into their reports whether kept separately among the national archives, or embodied in the contents of a book — by transcribers adapting them to the actual state of the country in later times when political divisions were modified, new towns sprung up, and old ones disappeared (comp. the two lists of Levitical towns, Joshua 21 and  1 Chronicles 6:54, etc.).

II. Design . — The object of the book is manifestly to furnish a continuation of the history of the Israelites from the point at which it is left in the closing book of the Pentateuch, and at the same time to illustrate the faithfulness of Jehovah to his word of promise, and his grace in aiding his people by miraculous interference to obtain possession of the land promised to Abraham. The ground idea of the book, as Maurer (Comment. p. 3) observes, is furnished by God's declaration to Joshua, recorded 1, 5, 6, that the work which Moses commenced he should finish by subduing and dividing to the tribes of Israel the Promised Land. The book, therefore, may be regarded as setting forth historically the grounds on which the claims of Israel to the proprietorship of the land rested; and as possessing, consequently, not merely a historical, but also a constitutional and legal worth. As illustrating God's grace and power in dealing with his people, it possesses also a religious and spiritual interest.

III. Unity . — On this head a variety of opinions have been entertained. It has been asserted,

1. That the book is a collection of fragments from different hands, put together at different times, and the whole revised and enlarged by a later writer. Some make the number of sources whence these fragments have been derived Ten (Herwerden, Disp. De Libro Jos. Groning. 1826); others Five, including the reviser (Knobel, Exeget. Hbk. pt. 13; Ewald, Gesch. der Israel. 1, 73 sq.); while others content themselves with three (Bleek, Einleit. ins. A.T. p. 325).

2. That it is a complete and uniform composition, interspersed with glosses and additions more or less extensive.

3. That the first part is the composition of one author; but the second betrays indications of being a compilation from various sources (H Ä vernick Einleit. 2 , 1, 34).

4. That the book is complete and uniform throughout, and, as a whole, is the composition of one writer. It is impossible here to enter into all the details of this discussion. The reader will find these fully presented by De Wette, Einleit. Ins. A.T. , 4th and subsequent editions; Havernick, Einleit. 1, 1, 1; K Ö nig, Alt-testamentl. Studien, 1, 4; Maurer, Comment.; Keil, Comment. E. T. p. 3; Bleek, Einleit. ins. A.T., p. 311; Knobel, in the Exeget. Handbuch, pt. 13; and Davidson, Introd. to the O.T. 1, 412.

a. Events alleged to be twice narrated in this. book are. Joshua's decease, ch. 23 and 24; the command to appoint twelve men, one out of each tribe, in connection with the passing over Jordan ( Joshua 3:12;  Joshua 4:3); the stoning of Achan and his dependents ( Joshua 7:25); the setting of an ambush for the taking of Ai ( Joshua 8:9;  Joshua 8:12); the rest from war of the land ( Joshua 11:23;  Joshua 14:15); the command to Joshua concerning dividing the land ( Joshua 13:6); and the granting of Hebron to Caleb ( Joshua 14:13;  Joshua 15:13). This list we have transcribed from Knobel (Exeget. Hdbk. 13, 498). Is it incredible that Joshua should have twice assembled the representatives of the people to address them before his decease? May he not have felt that, spared beyond his expectation, it behooved him to avail himself of the opportunity thus afforded to address once more to the people words of counsel and admonition? In the case of the grant to Caleb of Hebron there is undoubtedly a repetition of the same fact, but it is such a repetition as might proceed from the same pen; for the two statements are made in different connections, the one in connection with Caleb's personal merits, the other in connection with the boundaries and occupation allotted to Judah. The taking of Ai will be considered further on. As for the other in. stances, we leave them to the judgment of our readers.

b. Of the alleged Discrepancies, one on which much stress has been laid is, that in various parts of the book Joshua is said to have subdued the whole land and destroyed the Canaanites ( Joshua 11:10;  Joshua 12:7 sq.;  Joshua 21:43;  Joshua 22:4), whereas in others it is stated that large portions of the land were not conquered by Joshua ( Joshua 13:1 sq.;  Joshua 17:14 sq.;  Joshua 18:3 sq.;  Joshua 23:5-12). It is worthy of note, however, in the outset, that this is a discrepancy which pervades the book, and on which, consequently, no argument for diversity of authorship, as between The First and the Second parts of it, can be built. Again, a discrepancy of this sort is of a kind so obvious, that it is exactly such as a compiler, coolly surveying the materials he is putting together, would at once detect and eliminate; whereas an original writer might write so as to give the Appearance of it from looking at the same object from different points of view in the course of his writing. Viewed in relation to purpose and effect, the land was conquered and appropriated;. Israel was settled in it as master and proprietor, the power of the Canaanites was broken, and God's covenant to his people was fulfilled. But through various causes, chiefly the people's own fault, the work was not literally completed; and therefore, viewed in relation to what ought to have been done and what might have been done, the historian could not but record that there yet remained some enemies to be conquered, and some portions of the land to be appropriated. It was intended ( Exodus 23:28;  Exodus 23:30) ( Exodus 23:28;  Exodus 23:30) that the people should occupy the land little by little. In like manner, it can not be allowed that the general statement ( Joshua 11:23) that Joshua gave the land unto all Israel according to their divisions by their tribes is inconsistent with the fact ( Joshua 18:1;  Joshua 19:51) that many subsequent years passed before the process of division was completed and the allotments finally adjusted.

The boundaries of the different tribes, it is said, are stated sometimes with greater, sometimes with less exactness. Now this may be a fault of the surveyors employed by Joshua; but it is scarcely an inconsistency to be charged on the writer of the book who transcribed their descriptions. Again, the divine promise that the coast of Israel shall extend to the Euphrates ( Joshua 1:4) is not inconsistent with the fact that the country which Joshua was commanded to divide ( Joshua 13:16) does not extend so far. Again, the statement ( Joshua 13:3) that Ekron, etc., remained yet to be possessed is not inconsistent with the subsequent statement ( Joshua 15:45) that it was assigned to Judah. Dr. Davidson gives no proof either of his assertion that the former text is in fact subsequent to the latter, or of his supposition that Ekron was in the possession of Judah at the time of its assignment. Another apparent discrepancy has been found between  Joshua 22:2;  Joshua 24:14;  Joshua 24:23. How, it is asked, could there be "gross idolatry" amongst a people who had in all things conformed to the law of God given by Moses? This difficulty is dealt with by Augustine (Quoest. in Jos. qu. 29), who solves it by understanding the injunction of Joshua to refer to alienation of heart on the part of the people from God. This explanation is followed in substance by Calvin and others, and it is apparently the true one. Had Joshua known that "gross idolatry" was practiced by the people, he would have taken vigorous measures before this to extirpate it. But against secret and heart idolatry he could use only words of warning and counsel.

Another discrepancy is thus set forth by Dr. Davidson (Introd. 1, p. 415): "It is related that the people assembled at Sichem, 'under an oak that was by the sanctuary of the Lord,' and 'they presented themselves before God,' implying that the tabernacle and ark were there. But we know from 18:1 that the tabernacle had been removed from its former place at Gilgal to Shiloh, where it remained for a long period after Joshua's death" ( 1 Samuel 3:21;  1 Samuel 4:3). Here are several mistakes. The phrase "before God" ( לַפְנֵי הָאֵֹּלהַים ) does not necessarily mean "before the ark of the Lord" (comp.  Genesis 27:7;  Judges 11:11;  Judges 20:1;  1 Kings 17:1, etc.; Hengstenberg, Beitr. 3 , 43); and it is Not related that "the people assembled under an oak that was by the sanctuary of the Lord," but that Joshua "took a great stone and set it up there under the oak that was within the sanctuary of the Lord" (24:26). The oak referred to was probably a well known one that stood within the spot which had been the first sanctuary of the Lord in Canaan ( Genesis 12:6-7), and where the nation had been convened by Joshua, on first entering the Promised Land, to listen to the words of the law ( Joshua 8:30-35). No place more fitting as the site of a memorial stone such as Joshua is here said to have set up could be found.

These are the only discrepancies that have even the appearance of seriously affecting the claim of the book to be regarded as the work of one author throughout. The others, which have been discovered and urged by some recent critics in Germany, are such that it seems unnecessary to take up space by noticing them. The reader will find them noted and accounted for in the Introduction to Keil's Commentary on Joshua, p. 9 sq. The treatment of the Canaanites which is sanctioned in this book has been denounced for its severity by Eichhorn and earlier writers. But there is nothing in it inconsistent with the divine attribute of justice, or with God's ordinary way of governing the world. (See Joshua); also (See Canaanites). Therefore the sanction which is given to it does not impair the authority of this book. Critical ingenuity has searched it in vain for any incident or sentiment inconsistent with what we know of the character of the age, or irreconcilable with other parts of canonical Scripture.

c. The alleged differences Of Phraseology and Style in different parts of the book might deserve more extended notice were it not for the very unsatisfactory state in which this method of inquiry as yet is. Without doubt, it is true that, if it can be shown that these differences are such as to indicate diversity of authorship, the argument must be admitted as legitimate, and the conclusion as valid; but before dealing with such questions, it would be well if it were settled on some scientific basis what is the competent test in such a case, what kind and amount of difference in phraseology and style are sufficient to prove a diversity of authorship. On this head critics seem wholly at sea; they have no common standard to which to appeal; and hence their conclusions are frequently determined by purely personal leanings and subjective affections, and hardly any two of them agree in the judgment at which they arrive. This is remarkably the case with the instances which have been adduced from the book before us. Of these, some are of such a kind as to render an argument from them against the unity of the book little better than puerile. Thus we are told that in some places the word שֶׁבֶט is used for a Tribe, while in others מִטֶּה is used, and this is employed as a test to distinguish one fragment from another. Accordingly, for instance, in  Joshua 18:2;  Joshua 18:4;  Joshua 18:7 are pronounced to belong to one writer, and  Joshua 18:11 to another; which is just as if an author, in giving an account of the rebellion of 1745, should speak in the same chapter first of a body of Highlanders as a clan, and then of the same as a sect, and some critic were to come after him and say, "This could not have been written by one author, for he would not have called the same body by different names." Could it be shown that either שֶׁבֶט or מִטֶּה is a word introduced into the language for the first time at a date much later than the age of Joshua, while the other word had then become obsolete, an argument of some weight, and such as a scholar like Bentley might have employed, would have been advanced; but to attempt to assign parts of the same chapter to different authors and to different epochs simply because synonymous appellations of the same object are employed, is nothing better than sheer trifling. Again, it is said that "the historical parts have the rare word מִחְלְקֹת , Inheritance [rather, Divisions ] ( Joshua 11:23;  Joshua 12:7;  Joshua 18:10), which does not appear in the geographical sections" (Davidson, 1, 417). Is chap. 18, then, not in the geographical part of the book? or does a part become geographical or historical as suits the caprice or the preconceived theory of the critic? "Similarly. the geographical portion has

יִרְדֵן יְרַיהוֹ , Jordan By Jericho, 13:32; 16:1; 20:8; a mode of expression wanting in the historical" (ibid.). True; but suppose there was no occasion to use the phrase in the historical portions, what then? Are they, therefore, from a different pen from that which produced the geographical? "Again, in the historical parts occur the words, כֹהֲנַי [ הִכּהֲנים ] , הִלְּוַיַּ , The Priests, The Levites ( Joshua 3:3;  Joshua 8:33); or simply, כֹּחֲנַי , priests (3:6, 15; 6:4, 6, etc.); but in the geographical sections the same persons are termed sons of Aaron ( Joshua 21:4;  Joshua 21:10;  Joshua 21:13;  Joshua 21:19)" ( Ibid. ) . Is there not, however, a reason for this in the fact that, as it was in virtue of their being descended from Aaron, and not in virtue of their being priests, that the Kohathites received their portion, it was more proper to designate them "children of Aaron, of the Levites," than "priests," or "the priests the Levites." Davidson scouts this explanation as one which "only betrays the weakness of the cause." We confess ourselves unable to see this; the explanation is, in our judgment, perfectly valid in itself, and sufficient for the end for which it is adduced; and he has made no attempt to show that it is otherwise. All he says is. "The former is a Deuteronomistic expression; the latter Elohistic." What this is meant to convey we are at a loss to determine, for the only places in which the phrase "sons of Aaron" occurs is in connection with the names of Nadab and Abihu, who Were sons of Aaron by immediate descent, and must have been so described by any writer, whether Deuteronomist or Elohist.

A number of other words are adduced by the opponents of the unity of the book of Joshua for the purpose of showing that it includes fragments from different authors. On these we do not linger. There are two considerations which seem to us entirely to destroy their force as evidences for that which they are adduced to prove. The one of these is that, according to Ewald, "the later historians imitated the words and phraseology of those who preceded them, and, moreover, that they frequently altered the phrases which they found in the earlier documents." On this Keil (from whom we borrow the statement) remarks with great force, "If that be the case, we can no longer think of peculiarities of style as characteristic signs by which the different sources may be distinguished. His entire theory is therefore built on sand" (Comment. on Joshua Introd. p. 9, E.T.). The other observation we would make is, that supposing it made out by indubitable marks that the book of Joshua has undergone a careful revision by a later editor, who has altered expressions and interpolated brief statements that would not seriously impeach the unity of the book, it would still remain substantially the work of one author. We cannot forbear adding that, in all such inquiries, more faith is to be placed on a sound literary perception and taste than on those minutiae of expression and phraseology on which so much stress has of late been laid by some of the scholars of Germany and their followers in this country. The impression undoubtedly left on the mind of the reader is, that this book contains a continuous and uniform narrative; and its claims in this respect can be brought into doubt only by the application to it of a species of criticism which would produce the same result were it applied to the histories of Livy, the commentaries of Caesar, or any other ancient work of narrative.

IV. Date Of Composition . — This can only be approximately determined. Of great value for this purpose is the frequent use of the phrase "until this day" by the writer, in reference to the duration of certain objects of which he writes. The use of such a phrase indicates indubitably that the narrative was written while the object referred to was still existing. It is a phrase, also, which may be used with reference to a very limited period; as, for instance, when Joshua uses it of the period up to which the two tribes and a half had continued with their brethren ( Joshua 22:3), or when he uses it of the period up to which the Israelites had been suffering for the iniquity of Peor ( Joshua 22:17); comp. also  Joshua 23:8-9. Now we find this phrase used by the historian in cases where the reference is undoubtedly to a period either within the lifetime of Joshua, or not long after his death. Thus it is used with reference to the stones which Joshua set up in the midst of Jordan, in the place where the priests had stood as the people passed over ( Joshua 4:9), and which we cannot suppose remained in that position for a very long time; it is used also of Rahab's dwelling in the midst of Israel ( Joshua 6:25), which must have ceased, at the furthest, very soon after Joshua's death; also of Caleb's personal possession of Hebron ( Joshua 14:14), which of course terminated soon after the time of Joshua. From these notices we infer that the book May have been written during Joshua's lifetime, and Cannot have been written long after. With this falls in the use of the first person in the reference to the crossing of the Jordan ( Joshua 5:1), where one who was present on the occasion is evidently the writer. To the same effect is the fact that no allusion is anywhere made to anything that is known to have been long posterior to the time of Joshua.

Several words occurring in this book have been adduced as belonging to the later Hebrew, and as, consequently, indicating a later date of composition for the book than the age of Joshua, or that immediately succeeding. But it strikingly shows the precarious basis on which all such reasoning rests, that words are pronounced archaic or late just as it suits the purpose of the inquirer; what De Wette calls late being declared to be ancient by H Ä vernick and Keil, and what H Ä vernick and Keil call ancient being again pronounced late by Knobel and Davidson, and with equal absence of any show of reason on both sides. One thing of importance, however, is, that whether the writer has used what modern scholars, judging a priori, call later forms or not, he has undoubtedly made no allusions to later facts, and so has given evidence of antiquity which common sense inquirers can appreciate.

V. Author . — Assuming that the book is the production of one writer, and that it was written about the time above suggested, the question arises, To whom is it to be ascribed? That it is the work of Joshua himself is the tradition of the Jews ( Baba Bathra, cap. 1, fol. 14, B); and this has been embraced by several Christian writers, and among others, in recent times, by K Ö nig, and, as respects the first half of the book, by H Ä vernick. That this might have been the case as respects all but the concluding section of the book cannot be denied, but the reasons which have been adduced in support of it have not appeared sufficient to the great majority of critics. These may be thus briefly stated:

(a) It is evident ( Joshua 24:26) that Joshua could and did write some account of at least one transaction which is related in this book;

(b) the numerous accounts of Joshua's intercourse with God ( Joshua 1:1;  Joshua 3:7;  Joshua 4:2;  Joshua 5:2;  Joshua 5:9;  Joshua 6:2;  Joshua 7:10;  Joshua 8:1;  Joshua 10:8;  Joshua 11:6;  Joshua 13:1-2;  Joshua 20:1;  Joshua 24:2), and with the captain of the Lord's host ( Joshua 24:13), must have emanated from himself,

(c) no one is more likely than the speaker himself to have committed to writing the two addresses which were Joshua's legacy to his people (23 and 24);

(d) no one was so well qualified by his position to describe the events related, and to collect the documents contained in the book;

(e) the example of his predecessor and master, Moses, would have suggested to him such a record of his acts.;

(f) one verse ( Joshua 6:25) must have been written by some person who lived in the time of Joshua; and two other verses, 5, 1 and 6 — assuming the common reading of the former to be correct — are most fairly interpreted as written by actors in the scene.

No one would deny that some additions to the book might be made after the death of Joshua without detracting from the possible fact that the book was substantially his composition. The last verses ( Joshua 24:29-33) were obviously added by some later hand. If, as is possible, though not certain, some subordinate events, as the capture of Hebron, of Debir ( Joshua 15:13-19, and  Judges 1:10-15), and of Leshem ( Joshua 19:47; and  Judges 18:7), and the joint occupation of Jerusalem ( Joshua 15:63, and  Judges 1:21) did not occur till after Joshua's death, they may have been inserted in the book of Joshua by a late transcriber. The passages  Joshua 13:2-6;  Joshua 16:10;  Joshua 17:11, which also are subsequently repeated in the book of Judges, may doubtless describe accurately the same state of things existing at two distinct periods.

Other authors have been conjectured, as Phinehas by Lightfoot; Eleazar by Calvin; Samuel by Van Til; Jeremiah by Henry; one of the elders who survived Joshua by Keil. Von Lengerke thinks it was written by some one in the time of Josiah: Davidson by someone in the time of Saul, or somewhat later; Masius, Le Clerc, Maurer, and others, by some one who lived after the Babylonian captivity.

VI. Credibility . — That the narrative contained in this book is to be accepted as a trustworthy account of the transactions it records is proved alike by the esteem in which it was always held by the Jews; by the references to events recorded in it in the national sacred songs (comp.  Psalms 44:2-4;  Psalms 78:54-55;  Psalms 68:13-15;  Psalms 114:1-8;  Habakkuk 3:8-13), and in other parts of Scripture (comp.  Judges 18:31;  1 Samuel 1:3;  1 Samuel 1:9;  1 Samuel 1:24;  1 Samuel 3:21,  Isaiah 28:21;  Acts 7:45;  Hebrews 4:8;  Hebrews 11:30-32,  James 2:25); by the traces which, both in the historical and in the geographical portions, may be found of the use by the writer of contemporary documents; by the, minuteness of the details which the author furnishes, and which indicates familiar acquaintance with what he records; by the accuracy of his geographical delineations, an accuracy which the results of modern investigation are increasingly demonstrating; by the fact that the tribes never had any dispute as to the boundaries of their respective territories, but adhered to the arrangements specified in this book; and by the general fidelity to historical consistency and probability which the book displays (H Ä vernick, Einl. sec. 148 sq.). Some of the narratives, it is true, are of a miraculous kind, but such are wholly in keeping with the avowed relation to the Almighty of the people whose history the book records, and they can be regarded as unhistorical only on the assumption that all miracles are incredible — a question we cannot stop to discuss here. (See Miracles).

In the list of such miraculous interpositions we do not include the standing still of the sun, and the staying of the moon, recorded in  Joshua 10:12-13. That passage is apparently wholly a quotation from the book of Jasher, and is probably a fragment of a poem composed by some Israelite on the occasion; it records in highly poetical language the gracious help which God granted to Joshua by the retarding of the approach of darkness long enough to enable him to complete the destruction of his enemies, and is no more to be taken literally than is such a passage as  Psalms 114:4-6, where the Red Sea is described as being frightened and fleeing, and the mountains as skipping like rams. (See Book Of Jasher).

That God interposed on this occasion to help his people we do not doubt; but that he interposed by the working of such a miracle as the words taken literally would indicate, we see no reason to believe.

The account given,  Joshua 8:1 sq., of the taking of Ai has been much dwelt upon as presenting a narrative which is unhistorical. It is incredible that Joshua sent Two bodies of men, one comprising 30,000 soldiers, the other 5000, to lie in ambush against the city, while he himself advanced on it with the main body of his army; and yet this seems to be what the narrative states. What increases the improbability here is that the larger body is never mentioned as having come into action at all, for the whole exploit was accomplished by the 5000 and those who were with Joshua. If the case were stated thus: That Joshua took 30,000 of his warriors, and of these sent away 5000 to lie in ambush, while he, with the remaining 25,000, advanced against the city, the narrative would be perfectly simple and credible. The suggestion that  Joshua 8:12-13 are a marginal gloss which has been supposed to creep into the text, leaves the narrative burdened with the improbable statement that 30,000 men could advance on Ai in daylight, and lie concealed in its immediate neighborhood for several hours without their presence being suspected by the inhabitants. Still less probable seems the suggestion that in these verses we have a fragment of an older record. Keil labors to show that from the peculiar style of Shemitic narrative it is competent to supply, in  Joshua 8:3, in thought, from the subsequent narrative, that from the 30,000 whom Joshua took he selected 5000, whom he sent away by night. But, whatever may be the difficulties in this text, it would be unreasonable on this account to relinquish our confidence on the general credibility of the book.

VII. Relation To The Pentateuch . — The Pentateuch brings down the history of the Israelites to the death of Moses, at which it naturally terminates. The book of Joshua takes up the history at this point, and continues it to the death of Joshua, which furnishes another natural pause. From resemblances between the language and forms of expression used by the author of the book of Joshua and those found in Deuteronomy, it has been supposed that both are to be ascribed, in part at least, to the same writer. This, of course, proceeds on the supposition that the book of Deuteronomy is not the composition of Moses; a question on which it would be out of place to enter here. (See Deuteronomy); (See Pentateuch). It may suffice to observe, that while it is natural to expect that many similarities of phraseology and language would be apparent in works so nearly contemporaneous as that of Deuteronomy and that of Joshua, there are yet such differences between them as may seem to indicate that they are not the production of the same writer. Thus, in the Pentateuch, we have the word Jericho always spelled יְרֵחוֹ , while in Joshua it is always יְרַיחוֹ ; in Deuteronomy we have אֵל קִנָּא ( Deuteronomy 4:24;  Deuteronomy 5:9;  Deuteronomy 6:15), in Joshua אֵל קִנּוֹא ( Joshua 24:19); in Deuteronomy the inf. of יָרֵא , To Fear, is יַרְאָה ( Deuteronomy 4:10;  Deuteronomy 5:26;  Deuteronomy 6:24, etc.), in Joshua it is יְרא ( Joshua 22:25); in Deuteronomy we have warriors described as בְּנּוֹיּ ץִיַּלּ ( Deuteronomy 3:18), while in Joshua they are called גַּבּוֹרֵי הִחִיַל ; ( Joshua 1:14;  Joshua 6:2, etc.). We have also in Joshua the peculiar formula דָּמוֹ בֵראֹשּׁוֹ , which nowhere occurs in the Pentateuch, but only דָּמוֹ בוֹ ( Leviticus 20:9;  Leviticus 20:11-12, etc.); the expression אֲדוֹן כֹּל הָאִרֶוֹ . ( Joshua 3:11;  Joshua 3:13), which occurs again only in  Zechariah 6:5; the phrase, "the heart melted" ( Zechariah 2:11;  Zechariah 5:1;  Zechariah 7:5); etc. In the Pentateuch, also, we find the usage with respect to the third personal pronoun feminine fluctuating between הַיא and הוּא ; in the book of Joshua the usage is fixed down to היא which became the permanent usage of the language. We find, also, that in the Pentateuch the demonstrative pronoun, with the article, sometimes appears in the form הִאֵל , while in Joshua and elsewhere it is always הִאֵלֶּה . The evidence here is the same in effect as would accrue in the case of Latin writers from the use of Ipsus and Ipse, Ollus and Ille. That the author of the book of Joshua derived part of his information from the Pentateuch is evident, if we compare  Deuteronomy 18:1-2, and  Numbers 18:20, with  Joshua 13:14;  Joshua 13:33;  Joshua 14:4. Even the unusual form אשׁר is repeated in Joshua. Compare also  Numbers 31:8, with  Joshua 13:21-22. The author of the book of Joshua frequently repeats the statements of the Pentateuch in a more detailed form, and mentions the changes which had taken place since the Pentateuch was. written. Compare  Numbers 34:13-14, with  Joshua 13:7 sq.;  Numbers 32:37, with  Joshua 13:17 sq.; Numbers 35 with Joshua 21.

There is also considerable similarity between the following passages in the books of Joshua and Judges;  Joshua 13:4,  Judges 3:3;  Joshua 15:13 sq.,  Judges 1:1;  Judges 1:20;  Joshua 15:15-19,  Judges 1:11-15;  Joshua 15:62,  Judges 1:21;  Joshua 16:10,  Judges 1:29  Joshua 17:12,  Judges 1:27;  Joshua 19:47, Judges 18.

VIII. Commentaries . — The exegetical helps expressly on the whole book of Joshua exclusively are the following, of which we designate the most important by an asterisk prefixed: Origen, Selecta (in Opp. 2, 393) also Homilioe ( Ib. 2 , 397); also Scholia (in Bibl. Patr. Gallandii, 14); Ephraem Syrus, Explanatio (in Opp . 4, 292); Procopius, Notoe (in his Octateucham ) ; Theodoret, Quoestiones (in Opp. 1 , 1) Isidore, Commentaria (in Opp. ) ; Bede, Quoestiones (in Opp. p. 8); Rabanus, In Jos. (in Opp. ed. Martene et Durand, p. 668); Rupert, In Jos. (in Opp. 1 , 321); Tostatus, In Jos. (in Opp.); Rashi or Jarchi, Commentarius (from the Heb. [found in the Rabbinical Bibles] by Breithaupt., Goth. 1710, 4to); Rabbi. Esaia, פֵּירוּשׁ (ed. with Lat. notes by Abicht, Lips. 1712, 4to; also in the Thes. Nov. Theol.-Phil. L.B. 1732, 1, 474 sq.); Borrh Ä us or Cellarius, Commentarii [includ. Ruth, Samuel, and Kings] (Basil. 1557, fol.); Lavater, Homilioe (Tigur. 1565, 4to); Calvin, Commentarius (in Opp. 1; in French, Genev. 1565; 8vo; transl. in Engl. by W.F., Lond. 1578, 4to; by Beveridge, Edinb. 1854, 8vo); Brentius, Commentarii (in Opp. 2); Karweus, Excerpta (in Ugolini Thesaur. 20, 497); Strigel, Scholia (Lips. 1570, 1575, 8vo); Ferus, Enarrationes [includ. Exodus. etc.] (Colon. 1571, 1574, 8vo); *Masius [Rom. Cath.], Illustratio (Antw. 1574, fol.; also in Walton's Polyglot, 6, and in the Critici Sacri, 2); Chytraeus, Proelectiones (Rost. 1577, 8vo); Montanus, Commentarius (Antwerp, 1583, 4to); Heidenreich, Predigten (Leipz. 1589; Stet. 1604, 4to); Heling, Periocha [includ. Ruth, Samuel, and Kings] (Norib. 1593-4, 2 vols. 8vo); Laniado, כְּלַי יָקָר (Venice, 1603, fol.); Ibn-Chajim, לֵב אִהֲרֹן [including Judges] (Venice, 1609, fol.; also in Frankfurter's Rabbinical Bible); Serarius, Commentarius (Mogunt. 160910, 2 vols. fol.; Par. 1610, fol.), Magalianus, Commentarius (Turnon. 1612, 2 vols. fol.); H Ä nicken, Reisepredigten (Leipz. 1613, 4to); Drusius, Commentarius [including. Judges and Samuel] (Franeck. 1618,4to); Baldwin, Predigten (Wittenb. 1621,4to); Stocken, Predigten (Cassel, 1648, 4to); De Naxera, Commentarii (vol. 1, Antw. 1650; 2, Lugd. 1652, fol.); a Lapide, In Jos. [and other books] (Antw. 1658, fol.); Cocceius, Note (in Opp. 1, 309; 11, 47); Bonfrere, Commentarius [includ. Judges and Ruth] (Paris, 1659, fol.); Marcellius, Commentarius (Herbip. 1661,4to); Hannecken, Adnotata (Giss. 1665, 8vo); Osiander, Commentarius (T Ü bing. 1681, fol.); Ising, Exercitationes (Regiom. 1683, 4to); *Schmidt, Proelectiones [with Isaiah] (Hamb. 1693, 1695, 1703, 4to); Heidegger, Exegetica [includ. Matthew, etc.] (Tigur. 1700,4to); Uhlemann, Commentarius (ed. Martin, Dresd. 1701, 4to); Felibien, Commentarii [includ. Judges, Ruth, and Kings] (Paris, 1704, 4to); Le Clerc, Commentarius (Amst. 1708; T Ü bing. 1733, fol.); Moldenhauer, Erl Ä uterung [includ. Judges, etc.] (Quedlinb. 1774, 4to); Obornik, תִּרְגּוּ . etc. (in the Hebrew Commentary, Vienna, 1792,8vo, pt. 156); Lightfoot, Annotationes (in Woorks, 10); Horsley, Notes (in Bibl. Crit. 1); Meyer, Bestandtheile, etc. (in Ammon and Berthold's Krit. Journ. 1815, 4to, 2, 337 sq.); Kley, Ueberstz. (Leipz. 1817, 8vo); Paulus, Blicke, etc. (in his Theol.-Exeg. Conserv. Heldeb. 1822, 2, 149 sq.); Herdwerden, Disputatio, etc. (Groningen, 1826, 8vo); Maurer, Commentar (Stuttg. 1831. 8vo); *Rosenm Ü ller, Scholia (Lips. 1833, 8vo); *Keil, Commentar (Erlangen, 1847, 8vo; transl. in Clarke's Lib. Edinb. 1857, 8vo; different from that in Keil and Delitzsch's Commentary); *Bush, Notes (N.Y. 1852, 12mo); Miller Lectures (Lond. 1852, 12mo); Cumming, Readings (London, 1857, 8vo); *Knobel, Erkl Ä rung [including Numbers and Deuteronomy] (in the Kurzgef. Exeg. Hdbch. Leipz. 1861, 8vo); Anon., Gospel in Joshua (Lond. 1867, 8vo). (See Commentary).

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

I. Title And Authorship

II. Contents

1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Palestine

2. Allotment of the Country to the Tribes of Israel

III. Historical Character And Chronology

1. The Book of Joshua as History

2. Chronology

IV. Sources Of The Written Narrative

V. Relation To The Book Of Judges

1. Parallel Narratives

2. Omissions in the History

VI. Place Of Josh In The Hed Canon

VII. Greek And Other Ancient Versions

1. The Greek

2. Other Ancient Versions

VIII. Religious Purpose And Teaching

Literature

I. Title and Authorship.

The name Joshua signifies "Yahweh is deliverance" or "salvation" (see Joshua ). The Greek form of the name is Jesus ( Ἰησοῦς , Iēsoús ,   Acts 7:45;  Hebrews 4:8 ). In later Jewish history the name appears to have become popular, and is even found with a local significance, as the designation of a small town in Southern Palestine (ישׁוּע , yēshūa‛ ,  Nehemiah 11:26 ). The use of the title by the Jews to denote the Book of Joshua did not imply a belief that the book was actually written or dictated by him; or even that the narratives themselves were in substance derived from him, and owed their authenticity and reliability to his sanction and control. In the earliest Jewish literature the association of a name with a book was not intended in any case to indicate authorship. And the Book of Joshua is no exception to the rule that such early writings, especially when their contents are of a historical nature, are usually anonymous. The title is intended to describe, not authorship, but theme; and to represent that the life and deeds of Joshua form the main subject with which the book is concerned.

II. Contents.

With regard to the contents of Joshua, it will be found to consist of two well-marked divisions, in the first of which ( Joshua 1-2 ) are narrated the invasion and gradual conquest under the command of Joshua of the land on the West of the Jordan; while the 2nd part describes in detail the allotment of the country to the several tribes with the boundaries of their territories, and concludes with a brief notice of the death and burial of Joshua himself.

1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Palestine:

 Joshua 1 : Renewal of the Divine promise to Joshua and exhortation to fearlessness and courage ( Joshua 1:1-9 ); directions to the people to prepare for the passage of the river, and a reminder to the eastern tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half and Manasseh) of the condition under which they held their possession beyond Jordan; the renewal by these tribes of their pledge of loyalty to Moses' successor ( Joshua 1:10-18 ).

 Joshua 2 : The sending of the two spies from Shittim and their escape from Jericho through the stratagem of Rahab.

 Joshua 3 : The passage of Jordan by the people over against Jericho, the priests bearing the ark, and standing in the dry bed of the river until all the people had crossed over.

 Joshua 4 : Erection of 12 memorial stones on the other side of Jordan, where the people encamped after the passage of the river ( Joshua 4:1-14 ); the priests with the Ark of the Covenant ascend in their turn from out of the river-bed, and the waters return into their wonted course ( Joshua 4:15-24 ).

 Joshua 5:1-15 : Alarm excited among the kings on the West of Jordan by the news of the successful crossing of the river (  Joshua 5:1 ); circumcision of the people at Gilgal ( Joshua 5:2-9 ); celebration of the Passover at Gilgal in the plains of Jericho ( Joshua 5:10 ,  Joshua 5:11 ); cessation of the supply of the manna ( Joshua 5:12 ); appearance to Joshua of the captain of the Lord's host ( Joshua 5:13-15 ).

 Joshua 6 : Directions given to Joshua for the siege and taking of Jericho ( Joshua 6:1-5 ); capture of the city, which is destroyed by fire, Rahab and her household alone being saved (6:6-25); a curse is pronounced on the man who rebuilds Jericho ( Joshua 6:26 ).

 Joshua 7 : The crime and punishment of Achan, who stole for himself part of the spoil of the captured city ( Joshua 7:1 ,  Joshua 7:16-26 ); incidentally his sin is the cause of a disastrous defeat before Ai ( Joshua 7:2-12 ).

 Joshua 8 : The taking of Ai by a stratagem, destruction of the city, and death of its king (8:1-29); erection of an altar on Mt. Ebal, and reading of the Law before the assembled people ( Joshua 8:30 ).

 Joshua 9 : Gathering of the peoples of Palestine to oppose Joshua ( Joshua 9:1-2 ); a covenant of peace made with the Gibeonites, who represent themselves as strangers from a far country (9:3-26); they are, however, reduced to a condition of servitude ( Joshua 9:27 ).

 Joshua 10 : Combination of 5 kings of the Amorites to punish the inhabitants of Gibeon for their defection, and defeat and rout of the kings by Joshua at Beth-horon ( Joshua 10:1-14 ); return of the Israelites to Gilgal ( Joshua 10:15 ); capture and death by hanging of the 5 kings at Makkedah ( Joshua 10:16-27 ); taking and destruction of Makkedah ( Joshua 10:28 ), Libnah ( Joshua 10:29 ,  Joshua 10:30 ), Lachish ( Joshua 10:31 ,  Joshua 10:32 ), Gezer ( Joshua 10:33 ), Eglon ( Joshua 10:34 ,  Joshua 10:35 ), Hebron ( Joshua 10:36 ,  Joshua 10:37 ), Debir ( Joshua 10:38 ,  Joshua 10:39 ), and summarily all the land, defined as from Kadesh-barnea unto Gaza, and as far North as Gibeon ( Joshua 10:40-42 ); return to Gilgal ( Joshua 10:43 ).

 Joshua 11 : Defeat of Jabin, king of Hazor, and allied kings at the waters of Merom ( Joshua 11:1-9 ); destruction of Hazor ( Joshua 11:10-15 ); reiterated summary of Joshua's conquests ( Joshua 11:16-23 ).

 Joshua 12 : Final summary of the Israelite conquests in Canaan, of Sihon and Og on the East of the Jordan under the leadership of Moses ( Joshua 12:1-6 ); of 31 kings and their cities on the West of the river under Joshua (12:7-24).

2. Allotment of the Country to the Tribes of Israel:

 Joshua 13 : Command to Joshua to allot the land on the West of the Jordan, even that which was still unsubdued, to the nine and a half tribes ( Joshua 13:1-7 ); recapitulation of the inheritance given by Moses on the East of the river ( Joshua 13:8-13 ,  Joshua 13:32 ); the border of Reuben ( Joshua 13:15-23 ), of Gad ( Joshua 13:24-28 ), of the half-tribe of Manasseh ( Joshua 13:29 ); the tribe of Levi alone received no the landed inheritance ( Joshua 13:14 ,  Joshua 13:33 ).

 Joshua 14:1-15 : Renewed statement of the principle on which the division of the land had been made (  Joshua 14:1-5 ); Hebron given to Caleb for his inheritance ( Joshua 14:6-15 ).

 Joshua 15 . The inheritance of Judah, and the boundaries of his territory (15:1-20), including that of Caleb ( Joshua 15:13-19 ); enumeration of the cities of Judah (15:21-63).

 Joshua 16:1-10 : Inheritance of the sons of Joseph (  Joshua 16:1-4 ); the border of Ephraim ( Joshua 16:5-10 ).

 Joshua 17 : Inheritance of Manasseh and the border of the half-tribe on the West of the Jordan ( Joshua 17:1 ); complaint of the sons of Joseph of the insufficiency of their inheritance, and grant to them by Joshua of an extension of territory ( Joshua 17:14-18 ).

 Joshua 18 : The land yet unsubdued divided by lot into 7 portions for the remaining 7 tribes ( Joshua 18:1-10 ); inheritance of the sons of Benjamin and the border of their territory ( Joshua 18:11-20 ); enumeration of their cities ( Joshua 18:21-28 ).

 Joshua 19 : Inheritance of Simeon and his border ( Joshua 19:1-9 ); of Zebulun and his border ( Joshua 19:10-16 ); of Issachar and his border ( Joshua 19:17-23 ); of Asher and his border ( Joshua 19:24-31 ); of Naphtali and his border ( Joshua 19:32-39 ); and of Dan and his border ( Joshua 19:40-48 ); inheritance of Joshua ( Joshua 19:49 ,  Joshua 19:50 ); concluding statement ( Joshua 19:51 ).

 Joshua 20:1-9 : Cities of Refuge appointed, three on each side of the Jordan.

 Joshua 21 :  48 cities with their suburbs given to the Levites out of the territories of the several tribes (21:1-41); the people had rest in the land, their enemies being subdued, according to the Divine promise (  Joshua 21:43-45 ).

 Joshua 22 : Dismissal of the eastern tribes to their inheritance, their duty to their brethren having been fulfilled ( Joshua 22:1-9 ); the erection by them of a great altar by the side of the Jordan aroused the suspicion of the western tribes, who feared that they intended to separate themselves from the common cause ( Joshua 22:10-20 ); their reply that the altar is to serve the purpose of a witness between themselves and their brethren ( Joshua 22:21-34 ).

 Joshua 23 : Joshua's address of encouragement and warning to the people.

 Joshua 24 : Second address of Joshua, recalling to the people their history, and the Divine interventions on their behalf (24:1-23); the people's pledge of loyalty to the Lord, and formal covenant in Shechem ( Joshua 24:24 ,  Joshua 24:25 ); the book of the law of God is committed to writing, and a stone is erected as a permanent memorial ( Joshua 24:26-28 ); death and burial of Joshua ( Joshua 24:29-31 ); burial in Shechem of the bones of Joseph, brought from Egypt ( Joshua 24:32 ); death and burial of Eleazar, son of Aaron ( Joshua 24:33 ).

III. Historical Character and Chronology.

1. The Book of Joshua as History:

As a historical narrative, therefore, detailing the steps taken to secure the conquest and possession of Canaan, Joshua is incomplete and is marked by many omissions, and in some instances at least includes phrases or expressions which seem to imply the existence of parallel or even divergent accounts of the same event, e.g. in the passage of the Jordan and the erection of memorial stones ( Joshua 3;  4 ), the summary of the conquests of Joshua ( Joshua 10:40-43;  Joshua 11:16-23 ), or the references to Moses' victories over the Amorite kings on the East of the Jordan.

This last fact suggests, what is in itself sufficiently probable, that the writer or compiler of the book made use of previously existing records or narratives, not necessarily in every instance written, but probably also oral and traditional, upon which he relied and out of which by means of excerpts with modifications and omissions, the resultant history was composed. The incomplete and defective character of the book therefore, considered merely as a history of the conquest of Western Palestine and its allotment among the new settlers, would seem to indicate that the "sources" available for the writer's use were fragmentary also in their nature, and did not present a complete view either of the life of Joshua or of the experiences of Israel while under his direction.

2. Chronology:

Within the limits of the book itself, moreover, notifications of chronological sequence, or of the length of time occupied in the various campaigns, are almost entirely wanting. Almost the only references to date or period are the statements that Joshua himself was 110 years old at the time of his death ( Joshua 24:29 ), and that his wars lasted "a long time" ( Joshua 11:18; compare  Joshua 23:1 ). Caleb also, the son of Jephunneh, companion of Joshua in the mission of the spies from Kadesh-barnea, describes himself as 85 years old, when he receives Hebron as his inheritance ( Joshua 14:10; compare  Joshua 15:13 ff); the inference would be, assuming 40 years for the wanderings in the desert, that 5 years had then elapsed since the passage of the Jordan "on the tenth day of the first month" (  Joshua 4:19 ). No indication, however, is given of the chronological relation of this event to the rest of the history; and 5 years would be too short a period for the conquest of Palestine, if it is to be understood that the whole was carried out in consecutive campaigns under the immediate command of Joshua himself. On the other hand, "very much land" remained still unsubdued at his death ( Joshua 13:1 ). Christian tradition seems to have assumed that Joshua was about the same age as Caleb, although no definite statement to that effect is made in the book itself; and that, therefore, a quarter of a century, more or less, elapsed between the settlement of the latter at Hebron and Joshua's death ( Joshua 14:10;  Joshua 24:29 ). The entire period from the crossing of the Jordan would then be reckoned at from 28 to 30 years.

IV. Sources of the Written Narrative.

The attempt to define the "sources" of Joshua as it now exists, and to disentangle them one from another, presents considerably more difficulty than is to be encountered for the most part in the Pentateuch. The distinguishing criteria upon which scholars rely and which have led serious students of the book to conclude that there may be traced here also the use of the same "documents" or "documentary sources" as are to be found in the Pentateuch, are essentially the same. Existing and traditional accounts, however, have been used apparently with greater freedom, and the writer has allowed himself a fuller liberty of adaptation and combination, while the personal element has been permitted wider scope in molding the resultant form which the composition should take. For the most part, therefore, the broad line of distinction between the various "sources" which have been utilized may easily be discerned on the ground of their characteristic traits, in style, vocabulary or general conception; in regard to detail, however, the precise point at which one "source" has been abandoned for another, or the writer himself has supplied deficiencies and bridged over gaps, there is frequent uncertainty, and the evidence available is insufficient to justify an absolute conclusion. The fusion of material has been more complete than in the 5 books of the law, perhaps because the latter were hedged about with a more reverential regard for the letter, and at an earlier period attained the standing of canonicity.

A detailed analysis of the sources as they have been distinguished and related to one another by scholars is here unnecessary. A complete discussion of the subject will be found in Dr. Driver's Lot 6 , 105 ff, in other Introductions, or in the Commentaries on Joshua. Not seldom in the ultimate detail the distinctions are precarious, and there are differences of opinion among scholars themselves as to the precise limit or limits of the use made of any given source, or at what point the dividing line should be drawn. It is only in a broad and general sense that in Joshua especially the literary theory of the use of "documents," as generally understood and as interpreted in the case of the Pentateuch, can be shown to be well founded. In itself, however, such a theory is eminently reasonable, and is both in harmony with the general usage and methods of ancient composition, and affords ground for additional confidence in the good faith and reliability of the narrative as a whole.

V. Relation to the Book of Judges.

1. Parallel Narratives:

A comparison moreover of the history recorded in Joshua with the brief parallel account in Judges furnishes ground for believing that a detailed or chronological narrative was not contemplated by the writer or writers themselves. The introductory verses of Judges (1:1 through 2:5) are in part a summary of incidents recorded in Joshua, and in part supply new details or present a different view of the whole. The original notices that are added relate almost entirely to the invasion and conquest of Southern Palestine by the united or allied tribes of Judah and Simeon and the destruction of Bethel by the "house of Joseph." The action of the remaining tribes is narrated in a few words, the brief record closing in each case with reference to the condition of servitude to which the original inhabitants of the land were reduced. And the general scheme of the invasion as there represented is apparently that of a series of disconnected raids or campaigns undertaken by the several tribes independently, each having for its object the subjection of the territory assigned to the individual tribe. A general and comprehensive plan of conquest under the supreme leadership of Joshua appears to be entirely wanting. In detail, however, the only real inconsistency between the two narratives would appear to be that in Jdg ( Judges 1:21 ) the failure to expel the Jebusites from Jerusalem is laid to the account of the Benjamites, while in  Joshua 15:63 it is charged against the children of Judah. The difficulties in the way of the formation of a clear conception of the incidents attending the capture of Jerusalem are perhaps insuperable upon any hypothesis; and the variation of the tribal name in the two texts may be no more than a copyist's error.

2. Omissions in the History:

A perhaps more striking omission in both narratives is the absence of any reference to the conquest of Central Palestine. The narrative of the overthrow of Bethel and Ai ( Joshua 6:1 through 8:29) is followed immediately by the record of the building of an altar on Mt. Ebal and the recitation of the Law before the people of Israel assembled in front of Mts. Ebal and Gerizim (  Joshua 8:30 ff). Joshua then turns aside to defeat at Beth-horon the combination of the Amorite kings, and completes the conquest of the southern country as far south as Kadesh-barnea (  Joshua 10:41 ). Immediately thereafter he is engaged in overthrowing a confederacy in the far north ( Joshua 11:1-15 ), a work which clearly could not have been undertaken or successfully accomplished, unless the central region had been already subdued; but of its reduction no account is given. It has been supposed that the silence of the narrator is an indication that at the period of the invasion this district was in the occupation of tribes friendly or even related to the Israelite clans; and in support of the conjecture reference has been made to the mention of Israel on the stele of Merenptah, the Egyptian ruler in whose reign, according to the most probable view, the exodus took place. In this record the nation or a part thereof is regarded as already settled in Palestine at a date earlier by half a century than their appearance under Moses and Joshua on the borders of the Promised Land. The explanation is possible, but perhaps hardly probable. The defects of the historical record are irremediable at this distance of time, and it must be acknowledged that with the available material no complete and consistent narrative of the events of the Israelite conquest of Palestine can be constructed.

VI. Place of Joshua in the Hebrew Canon.

In the Hebrew Canon Joshua is the first in order of the prophetical books, and the first of the group of 4, namely, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, which form the "Earlier Prophets" ( nebhı̄'ı̄m rı̄'shōnı̄m ). These books, the contents of which are history, not prophecy in the ordinary sense of the term, were assigned by the Jews to the 2nd division of their sacred Canon, and found a place by the side of the great writings of the "Later Prophets" ( nebhı̄'ı̄m ‛aḥǎrōnı̄m ). This position was given to them in part perhaps because they were believed to have been written or composed by prophets, but mainly because Jewish history was regarded as in purpose and intent "prophetic," being directed and presided over by Yahweh Himself, and conveying direct spiritual instruction and example. The Canon of the Law, moreover, was already closed; and however patent and striking might be the resemblance of Joshua in style and method of composition to the books of the Pentateuch, it was impossible to admit it therein, or to give a place within the Torah, a group of writings which were regarded as of Mosaic authorship, to a narrative of events which occurred after Moses' death. Later criticism reviewed and reversed the verdict as to the true character of the book. In every Canon except the Hebrew, its historical nature was recognized, and the work was classified accordingly. Modern criticism has gone further, and, with increasing consciousness of its close literary relationship to the books of the Law, has united it with them in a Hexateuch, or even under the more comprehensive title of Octateuch combines together the books of Jdg and Ruth with the preceding six on the ground of similarity of origin and style.

VII. Greek and Other Ancient Versions.

1. The Greek:

In the ancient versions of Joshua there is not much that is of interest. The Greek translation bears witness to a Hebrew original differing little from the Massoretic Text. In their renderings, however, and general treatment of the Hebrew text, the translators seem to have felt themselves at liberty to take up a position of greater independence and freedom than in dealing with the 5 books of the Law. Probably also the rendering of Joshua into Greek is not to be ascribed to the same authors as the translation of the Pentateuch. While faithful to the Hebrew, it is less constantly and exactly literal, and contains many slight variations, the most important of which are found in the last 6 chapters.

 Joshua 19 : The Septuagint transposes  Joshua 19:47 ,  Joshua 19:48 , and, omitting the first clause of  Joshua 19:47 , refers the whole to the sons of Judah, without mention of Dan; it further adds  Joshua 19:47 ,  Joshua 19:48 on the relation between the Amorites and Ephraim, and the Amorites and the Danites respectively. With   Joshua 19:47 compare   Joshua 16:10 and   Judges 1:29 , and with  Joshua 19:48 compare 19:47 (Hebrew) and   Judges 1:34 .

 Joshua 20:4-6 inclusive are omitted in B, except a clause from   Joshua 20:6; A, however, inserts them in full. Compare Driver, LOT6 , 112, who, on the ground of their Deuteronomic tone, regards it as probable that the verses are an addition to the Priestly Code (P), and therefore did not form part of the original text as used by the Greek translators.

 Joshua 21:36 ,  Joshua 21:37 , which give the names of the Levitical cities in Judah, are omitted in the Hebrew printed text although found in many Hebrew manuscripts. Four verses also are added after  Joshua 21:42 , the first three of which repeat  Joshua 19:50 f, and the last is a reminiscence of   Joshua 5:3 .

 Joshua 24:29 f which narrate the death and burial of Joshua are placed in the Greek text after   Joshua 24:31; and a verse is inserted after  Joshua 24:30 recording that the stone knives used for the purposes of the circumcision (  Joshua 5:2 ff) were buried with Joshua in his tomb (compare   Joshua 21:42 ). After  Joshua 24:33 also two new verses appear, apparently a miscellany from   Judges 2:6 ,  Judges 2:11-15;  Judges 3:7 ,  Judges 3:12 ,  Judges 3:14 , with a statement of the death and burial of Phinehas, son and successor of Eleazar, of the idolatrous worship by the children of Israel of Astarte and Ashtaroth, and the oppression under Eglon, king of Moab.

2. Other Ancient Versions:

The other Vss , with the exception of Jerome's translation from the Hebrew, are secondary, derived mediately through the Greek. The Old Latin is contained in a manuscript at Lyons, Cod. Lugdunensis, which is referred to the 6th century. Of the Coptic version only small portions are extant; they have been published by G. Maspero, Memoires de la mission archeologique frantsaise , tom. VI, fasc. 1, le Caire, 1892, and elsewhere. A S am translation also is known, for parts of which at least an early origin and an independent derivation from the Hebrew have been claimed. The ancient character of the version, however, is contested, and it has been shown that the arguments on which reliance was placed are insufficient to justify the conclusions drawn. The translation appears to be in reality of quite recent date, and to have been made originally from the Arabic, perhaps in part compared with and corrected by the Massoretic Text. The subject was fully and conclusively discussed by Dr. Yehuda of Berlin, at the Oriental Congress in the summer of 1908, and in a separate pamphlet subsequently published. It was even stated that the author of the version was still living, and his name was given. Dr. Gaster, the original discoverer of the Sam MS, in various articles and letters maintains his contention that the translation is really antique, and therefore of great value, but he has failed to convince scholars. (See M. Gaster in Jras (1908), 795 ff, 1148 ff; E. N. Adler, ib, 1143 ff. The text of the manuscript was published by Dr. Caster in Zdmg (1908), 209 ff, and a specimen chapter with English rendering and notes in Psba , 31 (1909), 115 ff, 149 ff.)

VIII. Religious Purpose and Teaching.

As a whole, then, Joshua is dominated by the same religious and hortatory purpose as the earlier writings of the Pentateuch; and in this respect as well as in authorship and structure the classification which assigns to it a place by the side of the 5 books of Moses and gives to the whole the title of Hexateuch is not unjustified. The author or authors had in view not merely the narration of incident, nor the record of events in the past history of their people of which they judged it desirable that a correct account should be preserved, but they endeavored in all to subserve a practical and religious aim. The history is not for its own sake, or for the sake of the literal facts which it enshrines, but for the sake of the moral and spiritual lessons which may be elucidated therein, and enforced from its teaching. The Divine leading in history is the first thought with the writer. And the record of Israel's past presents itself as of interest to him, not because it is a record of events that actually happened, but because he sees in it the ever-present guidance and overruling determination of God, and would draw from it instruction and warning for the men of his own time and for those that come after him. Not the history itself, but the meaning and interpretation of the history are of value. Its importance lies in the illustrations it affords of the controlling working of a Divine Ruler who is faithful to His promises, loving righteousness and hating iniquity, and swaying the destinies of men in truth. Thus the selection of materials, and the form and arrangement of the book are determined by a definite aim: to set forth and enforce moral lessons, and to exhibit Israel's past as the working out of a Divine purpose which has chosen the nation to be the recipient of the Divine favor, and the instrument for the carrying forward of His purposes upon earth.

Literature.

A C omplete bibliography of the literature up to date will be found in the dictionaries, under the word "Joshua," Db 2 , 1893, Hdb , II, 1899, Eb , II, 1901; compare W. H. Bennett, "The Book of Josh," in Sbot , Leipzig, 1895; W.G. Blaikie, "Joshua," in Expositor's Bible , 1893; A. Dillmann, Nu , Dt u . Josua2 , Leipzig, 1886; H. Holzinger, "Das Buch Josua," in Kurzer Hand-Comm. zum A T , Tubingen, 1901; C. Steuernagel, "Josua," in Nowack's Handcommentar zum Altes Testament , 1899; S. Oettli, "Deuteronomy, Josua u. Richter," in Kurzgef. Komm , Munchen, 1893; W.J. Deane, Joshua, His Life and Times , in "Men of the Bible Series," London.