Leviticus

Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible

Leviticus

1. Scope . The book has received its title from the name ‘the Levitical book,’ which was prefixed to it in the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] . Since, however, the special functions of the Levites are not referred to, the scope of the book is better brought out in the title ‘Law of the Priests,’ which is given to it in the Talmud. As such, Leviticus practically confines itself to legislation, and, except in the section chs. 17 26, to priestly legislation. Even the few passages, such as chs. 8 and 10, which are cast in the form of narrative, do not aim at describing what once happened, but use this form in order to prescribe what is to continue. The JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] narrative, which was a history, does not appear to have been drawn upon; and Leviticus, unlike Exodus and Numbers, offers no exact dates of month and year. The book does not give a history of Israel’s past, but chiefly embodies some of the rules of the one living institution which persisted in Israel from its formation as a nation to the destruction of the Temple. Since, however, this institution was moulded to meet the nation’s changing circumstances, the praxis which regulated its services required and received constant modification. Some of these changes can be traced in Leviticus; but it is impossible to detail them in a brief sketch like the present. Readers who wish more details on the ritual can find them and their justification in the art. in Hastings’ DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] , or in Driver’s LOT [Note: OT Introd. to the Literature of the Old Testament.] .

2. Sources The general editor is the same as the editor who arranged Exodus in its present form, though a little has been added by later hands. (1) He took from P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] that history of the sacred institutions which appeared in   Exodus 25:1-40;   Exodus 26:1-37;   Exodus 27:1-21;   Exodus 28:1-43;   Exodus 29:1-46 (see Exodus): chs. 8, 9, with   Exodus 10:12-15 (which supplements   Exodus 9:21 ),   Exodus 10:1-7 (  Exodus 10:16-20 )   Exodus 16:2-4;   Exodus 16:6;   Exodus 16:12 f.,   Exodus 24:1-9 , These sections are not all of the same period.

Thus ch. 8, which relates the anointing of the priests, is the fulfilment of  Exodus 29:1-46 and   Exodus 40:12-15 . It formed part of that expansion of   Exodus 25:1-40;   Exodus 26:1-37;   Exodus 27:1-21;   Exodus 28:1-43;   Exodus 29:1-46 which now occupies   Exodus 35:1-35;   Exodus 36:1-38;   Exodus 37:1-29;   Exodus 38:1-31;   Exodus 39:1-43;   Exodus 40:1-38 , and to which also belong   Exodus 24:1-4 on the Tabernacle lamps,   Exodus 24:5-9 on the shewbread sections which in some inexplicable way have strayed into their present incongruous position. Ch. 9 with   Exodus 10:12-15 , which recounts the sacrifices at the inauguration of the Tabernacle, originally formed the sequel of   Exodus 25:1-40;   Exodus 26:1-37;   Exodus 27:1-21;   Exodus 28:1-43;   Exodus 29:1-46 , and was followed by   Exodus 10:1-7 (the story of Nadab and Abihu offering strange fire), and was closed by   Exodus 16:2-4;   Exodus 16:6;   Exodus 16:12 f. (the rule as to the time and way for Aaron to approach the Holy Place which had thus vindicated its awful sanctity).   Exodus 10:16-20 (on the goat of the sin-offering) is a later addition, and gives an interesting illustration of the way in which it was sought to reconcile differences in the older laws (cf. it with   Exodus 9:15 and   Exodus 6:24-30 ).

(2) Chs. 1 6. Into this framework the editor has fitted laws from other sources. Thus he seems to have separated ch. 8 from its natural position after  Exodus 40:1-38 , because he counted it suitable, after the Tabernacle was set up and before the priests were anointed or the Tabernacle inaugurated, to insert the laws prescribing the sacrifices which the priests when anointed were to offer in the Tabernacle.

This law-book has its own history, and in particular once existed in two sections. Thus  Leviticus 6:8 to   Leviticus 7:21 , with its subscription   Leviticus 7:37 f., was originally a code addressed to the priests, dealing with matters ancillary to the sacrifices, and especially concerned with the priestly dues. Because of this esoteric character of the little code,   Leviticus 6:20-23 (on the priests’ meal-offering) was inserted. With the exception of that section, each of the regulations is introduced by the formula ‘this is the law of’; and this formula appears in the subscription. It represents the early rules on this subject.

Again,  Leviticus 1:1 to   Leviticus 6:7 is a book addressed to the people, defining their sacrifices, but it has received large modification. From a comparison of   Leviticus 1:2 f. with   Leviticus 3:1 it is evident that ch. 3 (the law of the peace-offering) once followed immediately on ch. 1 (the burnt-offering). These are probably very old. The different formulæ used in ch. 2 (3rd person in   Leviticus 3:1-3;   Leviticus 3:2 nd person in   Leviticus 3:4 ff.) and its intrusive position prove that the law of the meal-offering has been developed. A comparison between the law of the sin-offering in ch. 4 and similar laws elsewhere proves how largely this part of the ritual has been elaborated. Thus the sin-offering for the congregation is a bullock in   Leviticus 3:14 instead of the goat of   Leviticus 9:15 and   Numbers 15:24; and the high priest’s sin-offering (  Numbers 15:3-12 ) is more elaborate than that in   Numbers 9:8-11 and   Numbers 29:10-14;   Leviticus 5:1-13 (examples of unintentional sins which require a sin-offering, and mitigations for the case of those who cannot afford a lamb or a goat) has suffered change, since   Leviticus 5:2-3 evidently break the connexion between   Leviticus 5:1 and   Leviticus 5:4 . It is, however, older than ch. 4, though the relation is specially difficult to define.   Leviticus 5:15 to   Leviticus 6:7 defines the cases which require a guilt-offering, and makes it clear that originally this sacrifice was a composition for fraud practised upon God (  Leviticus 5:15 ff.) or man (  Leviticus 6:1-7 ). When he united these codes on the sacrifices, the editor added a rule (  Leviticus 7:22-25 ) forbidding fat and blood more expressively than   Leviticus 3:17 , and a rule (  Leviticus 7:28-34 ) giving heave leg and wave breast to the priest, and a subscription (  Leviticus 7:35 f.).

(3) Chs. 11 15. The priests, however, had other functions in the life of the people besides those immediately connected with the sacrifices. It was their business to determine on all questions connected with uncleanness. As soon, therefore, as the editor had described the inauguration of the Tabernacle and the priesthood, he grouped together a series of regulations bearing on this side of the priestly duties.

Chs. 11 15 deal with this more civil yet priestly function. The rules in ch. 11 on clean and unclean animals ( Leviticus 11:2-23;   Leviticus 11:41-45 , with their subscription   Leviticus 11:46 f.) appear in a more primitive form in   Deuteronomy 14:4-20 , and have probably been taken from the Law of Holiness (see below). The law of defilement from touching unclean animals and all carcases (  Leviticus 11:24-29 ), which prescribes also the purification required in case of neglect of the regulations, is ignored in the subscription   Leviticus 11:46 f. and must be an insertion. Chs. 12, 15 prescribe the forms of purification after childbirth and after certain physical secretions. In their basis these rules are very old, but the careful detail of derivative uncleanness (cf. esp.   Leviticus 15:1-12;   Leviticus 15:19-27 ) shows where a slow elaboration has been at work. Chs. 13, 14 contain a series of directions for the diagnosis of leprosy in human beings, clothing, leather, and houses, and for the method of purification. The primitive character of the prescribed purification (  Leviticus 14:2-8 ), along with the fact that this can be carried out apart from the Temple, proves the early origin of the rules. The gravity of the task thus imposed on the priest and the serious issues involved make it even probable that the directions were not left to the discretion of individuals, but were early committed to writing.

(4) In ch. 16 the sacrificial ritual culminates in the Day of Atonement. This embodies very old elements (see Azazel), but has been so altered that its original character is no longer to be distinguished. The chapter in its present form contains two parts. The historical introduction (  Leviticus 16:1-4;   Leviticus 16:6;   Leviticus 16:12 f., once connected with ch. 10) prescribes how and when the high priest may approach the Holy Place. The ritual of the Day of Atonement (  Leviticus 16:5;   Leviticus 16:7-10;   Leviticus 16:15-34 ) was united with this, because it defines the purpose for which the high priest made his annual entry. The place given to this ritual after chs. 11 15 is appropriate, because in its sacrifices priest and people united to make atonement for the sanctuary and holy things, and purge them from the pollution contracted through the forms of uncleanness specified in these chapters.

(5) Law of Holiness or H. Chs. 17 26 form an independent body of laws, which have had their own history, and which, after receiving something of their peculiar form from an earlier collector, have been incorporated, after considerable modifications by the general editor, into the greater law-book. That these were once independent is proved by: ( a ) the long hortatory conclusion in ch. 26 and the opening instructions as to the place of sacrifice; ( b ) the presence in them of matters which have already been dealt with (cf., e.g .,   Leviticus 17:10-14 with   Leviticus 7:26 f.,   Leviticus 19:6-8 with   Leviticus 7:15-18 ,   Leviticus 20:25 with ch. 11); ( c ) the fact that the laws have a much wider scope than those of chs. 1 16. But this early code has not survived in its integrity, for (i.) certain subjects are broken off before completion (  Leviticus 19:5-8 ,   Leviticus 20:25 ); and (ii.) the arrangement of subjects shows a considerable confusion (cf.   Leviticus 19:5-8;   Leviticus 19:20-22 ,   Leviticus 20:27 ).

Ch. 17 prescribes that all animals suitable for sacrifice must be slain at the sanctuary, that such animals, when sacrificed, must be offered to Jahweh alone, that blood and the flesh of carcases must not be eaten. If  Leviticus 17:1-6 were ever in force while the Israelites inhabited Palestine, the order requiring every goat, sheep, or ox which was slaughtered to be brought to the Jerusalem Temple practically made it illegal to kill these animals. P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , which required all sacrifices to be brought to the Jerusalem Temple as the only sanctuary, permitted all animals to be freely slaughtered, but forbade the eating of fat and blood. Probably the code, in its early form, recognized the local sanctuaries, and required the slaughter of animals suitable for sacrifice to take place before the Lord, i.e . at ooe of these accessible shrines. The change is due to the desire to discredit these shrines.

Ch. 18 is a series of laws on incest (and Molech-worship), with admonitory introduction and conclusion. Ch. 19 contains a group of miscellaneous laws, with introduction and conclusion. These laws, which are curt and direct, give an interesting view of the morals of early Israel, and should be compared and contrasted with the relative sections in  Exodus 20:1-26;   Exodus 21:1-36;   Exodus 22:1-31;   Exodus 23:1-33 ,   Deuteronomy 22:1-30;   Deuteronomy 23:1-25;   Deuteronomy 24:1-22;   Deuteronomy 25:1-19 . Ch. 20, which is different in character from the preceding chapters, prescribes in general penalties for certain offences already specified. In it   Leviticus 20:10-21 (with the penalties for incest) may be the conclusion of ch. 18. The fact, however, that it is followed by a conclusion (  Leviticus 18:22-24 ), while ch. 18 is provided with its own, has led some to count the two sections independent. Again,   Leviticus 18:25 f. show where laws corresponding with ch. 11, if not that collection itself, originally stood in H [Note: Law of Holiness.];   Leviticus 18:2-6 (against Molech-worship),   Leviticus 18:6;   Leviticus 18:2 (against traffic with familiar spirits),   Leviticus 18:9 (against cursing father or mother) may have been brought together here, because, like most of the laws in   Leviticus 18:10-21 , they prescribe the death-penalty.

Chs. 21, 22 deal with priests and offerings. They state the ceremonial restraints required of the priests in their domestic life ( Leviticus 21:1-15 ), demand bodily perfection in every officiating priest (  Leviticus 21:16-24 ), ordain that sacrificial food may be eaten only by those who are ceremonially clean and who can claim membership in a priestly family (  Leviticus 22:1-16 ), and require the sacrificial animals to be perfect (  Leviticus 22:17-25 ). Three minor regulations as to the sacrifices (  Leviticus 22:26-30 ) are followed by an exhortation (  Leviticus 22:31-33 ). Not only the recurrent formula, ‘I am the Lord,’ but the insistence on a ceremonial holiness, which characterizes the early code, proves that the basis of these chapters is old. The material has been largely revised by P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , but the elaborate analysis cannot be entered into here.

Ch. 23 is a calendar of the sacred seasons, which has necessarily received much change. In general, it may be said that  Leviticus 23:8-20;   Leviticus 23:22;   Leviticus 23:39 b,   Leviticus 23:40-43 , though not left without minor modifications, belong to the early code. Here the festivals still represent the religious life of a people which is settled on the land and engaged in agriculture. No more precise date than, e.g ., “when ye reap the harvest of your land,’ is laid down for a festival, because no other was practicable. The people celebrated the harvest when the harvest was gathered. The other sections (  Leviticus 23:1-8;   Leviticus 23:21;   Leviticus 23:23-39 ac,   Leviticus 23:44 ) give rigid dates and betray the change which became necessary, as soon as many of the worshippers were no longer agriculturists and were scattered beyond the limits of Palestine. The definite dates prescribed by a centralized priesthood became a necessity of the national and religious life. These later sections come from P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] .

Ch. 24 (on  Leviticus 24:1-9 see above) deals with blasphemy (  Leviticus 24:15 f.) and injuries to men and cattle (  Leviticus 24:17-22 ). These early sections closely resemble ch. 20, and may once have stood in closer connexion with it. The penalty pronounced on blasphemy was specially interesting to P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , and was illustrated by an incident taken from the desert-wanderings (  Leviticus 24:10-14;   Leviticus 24:23; cf.   Numbers 15:32-35 ).

Ch. 25 contains the rules for the Sabbatical year ( Leviticus 25:1-7;   Leviticus 25:20-22 ) and those for the year of Jubilee (  Leviticus 25:8-19;   Leviticus 25:23-55 ). The section,   Leviticus 25:20-22 , has been separated from its original context in order to make the regulations contained in it apply to the Jubilee as well as the Sabbatical year. The analysis of the chapter is very uncertain. H [Note: Law of Holiness.] seems to have contained the rule as to the Sabbatical year (cf.   Leviticus 25:1-7 with   Exodus 23:10 f. and note the prominent interest in agriculture). In connexion with the Jubilee, it ordered that land must not be alienated absolutely, but must revert to its original owners at the Jubilee (  Leviticus 25:13-15 ). It also provided for the relief of an impoverished Israelite by ordering: ( a ) that his land might be redeemed by a kinsman (  Leviticus 25:25 ); ( b ) that usury was not to be exacted from him (  Leviticus 25:35-38 ); ( c ) that, when he was in bondage, he must be treated humanely (  Leviticus 25:39-40 a,   Leviticus 25:43;   Leviticus 25:47;   Leviticus 25:53;   Leviticus 25:55 ). P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] took over this early law with a number of modifications, added fresh regulations as to the redemption of land (  Leviticus 25:9 b,   Leviticus 25:10-12;   Leviticus 25:23;   Leviticus 25:25-34 ), and especially extended the benefits of the Jubilee from land to persons (  Leviticus 25:40-42;   Leviticus 25:44-45;   Leviticus 25:48-52;   Leviticus 25:54 ). A comparison of   Leviticus 25:40-42 with   Deuteronomy 15:12-18 suggests that in the course of time the latter rule had proved impracticable, and that this relaxation was designed to take its place.

Ch. 26, after two fragments, of which  Leviticus 26:1 is parallel to   Leviticus 19:4;   Leviticus 26:2 identical with   Leviticus 19:30 , contains the hortatory conclusion (  Leviticus 26:3-45 ), which the collector of H [Note: Law of Holiness.] appended to his law-book. It closes with the subscription (  Leviticus 26:46 ), which the editor of Leviticus added when he inserted the collection in is present position. The resemblances between   Leviticus 26:3-45 and the Book of Ezekiel are too numerous to be catalogued here, but they deserve special attention.

As H [Note: Law of Holiness.] is evidently incomplete and its character is strongly marked, efforts have been made to detect fragments of its legislation in other parts of the Pentateuch. In particular,  Exodus 31:13-14 a,   Leviticus 11:1-23;   Leviticus 11:41-47 ,   Numbers 15:37-41 have been asigned to it. It is necessary, however, to remember that undue stress should not be laid on the appearance of such characteristic formulæ as ‘I am the Lord,’ ‘I am the Lord which sanctify you,’ since, when once some laws had been countersigned by these formulæ, it was natural to introduce them into others. Even in the case of   Leviticus 11:1-23 , all that can be said is that similar legislation must have been in H [Note: Law of Holiness.]; it is unwise to suppose that this section belonged to H [Note: Law of Holiness.] , for laws of this type must have appeared in several of the codes, and in the nature of the case the language used could not greatly vary.

The law-book which is obtained after the excision of the later elements is a valuable survival of one of the codes which represented and guided the life of early Israel under the monarchy. To estimate it, both in its uniqueness and in its common characteristics, it is useful briefly to compare H [Note: Law of Holiness.] with the other codes which have come down. Thus it agrees with Deut. and the Book of the Covenant ( Exodus 20:1-26;   Exodus 21:1-36;   Exodus 22:1-31;   Exodus 23:1-33 ) in the prominence given to the social as well as to the ceremonial life of the people, and in the recognition that this life is still largely an agricultural life. Its closer affinity to the Book of the Covenant is found in the concise formulæ into which its laws are cast, as though they were meant for direct popular use, and in the fact that these laws are addressed to the people, not to the priest. It resembles Deut. very closely in forbidding certain forms of idolatry and semi-heathen practices which were common in Palestine. The two codes are penetrated throughout by the sense that what gives Israel its distinctive character is its religion, though they express this in different ways H [Note: Law of Holiness.] dogmatically forbidding (‘for I am the Lord’), Deut. developing the reason why some things are forbidden. On the other hand, Dent. betrays the existence of a more complex and developed social life than H [Note: Law of Holiness.] , though the basis for both is still the land. Thus H [Note: Law of Holiness.] leaves the great festivals connected with the agricultural life, while Deut. seeks to add historical motives to them, and thus prepares for the time when the people, even though torn from the land, can find a bond of national and religious life in these festivals. Again, to H [Note: Law of Holiness.] the centralized priesthood and developed ritual of Deut. are unknown: it ignores the central sanctuary and the Levites. The chief distinction between H [Note: Law of Holiness.] and the Book of the Covenant is that H [Note: Law of Holiness.] is more detailed and shows a larger interest in the ceremonial side of Israel’s life. The latter point must not, however, be pressed too far, since H [Note: Law of Holiness.] has not survived in its entirety, and, having passed through the hands of a Priestly editor, may have retained more particularly those sections which interested him, and which therefore may have been made to appear relatively more conspicuous.

Further, when compared with P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , H [Note: Law of Holiness.] does not conceive of Israel as grouped round the sanctuary, but regards the local sanctuaries as forming an element in the popular life. It knows nothing of the centralized and hierarchical priesthood, and the priesthood it knows is one side of a larger life, not its controlling factor. Its sacrifices are the older and simpler burnt-offering and thank-offering, without the development of guilt- and sin-offerings. Though  Leviticus 6:2-7 be taken to represent the early sin-offering required by this code, its place is very secondary compared with P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] . The laws of H [Note: Law of Holiness.] are generally cast into concise formulæ to meet practical needs. They are backed continually by religion, but the religion supplies a sanction and a command rather than a reason and a motive. The book is specially conscious of Israel’s religion as one which requires separation from all heathen pollution. Holiness is separateness, ‘for I Jahweh sanctify you.’ The period at which the laws were compiled is still debated, but the affinity between H [Note: Law of Holiness.] and Ezekiel is so close that a direct connexion must be presumed. This affinity does not consist in common phrases, nor can it be measured by identity of language; it shows itself in the common point of view which justified Ezekiel in borrowing phrases, because no others could be found which were so adequate to embody his meaning. To both holiness is the stamp of Israel’s religion, and this holiness is largely construed as absence of ceremonial pollution a pollution which includes more than ethical elements. The law-book probably arose at some sanctuary other than Jerusalem, and expressed and determined the religious life which centred there. As such, it offers a welcome and pleasant sketch of pre-exilic Israelitish life. It probably owed its survival through the Exile, in spite of the superior influence of Deut., to the fact that it deeply influenced the thought of Ezekiel. The priest-prophet preserved a book to which he owed so much; and it is not impossible that certain features in the conclusion (  Ezekiel 26:4-21 ) which have seemed to several to point to the Exile, may be due to Ezekiel himself or to a member of his school.

Ch. 27 contains rules on the commutation of vows and tithes. It belongs to P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , and owes its present position to the fact that it presupposes the year of Jubilee (ch. 25).

A. C. Welch.

Holman Bible Dictionary

The first section of Leviticus relates to the latter part of the Book of Exodus.  Exodus 26-27 give the Lord's instruction for the building of the tabernacle, the place of worship during ancient Israel's sojourn in the wilderness. These instructions are carried out and the tabernacle accepted as an appropriate place of worship (  Exodus 35-40 ).  Exodus 28-29 recount the Lord's instructions for ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests. This ordination takes place in   Leviticus 8-9 . One of the primary tasks of the priests was to offer sacrifice at the tabernacle. Before beginning this practice, ancient Israel needed instruction on the offering of sacrifice. The Book of Leviticus begins at that point. Before listing the major types of sacrifice, we should consider its basic significance. A sacrifice is in part a gift to God, not as a way to earn God's favor but as a way to give thanks for God's gift of life. Sacrifice is also a means of facilitating communion between God and worshipers. Another important purpose of sacrifice is atonement, restoring the relationship between God and worshiper. In the offering of sacrifice, worshipers give of themselves to God. In the shedding of the blood of the sacrificial victim, the vital power of life is released ( Leviticus 17:11 ). God honors this act and gives life back to the worshiper. Thus sacrifice was important in the relationship between the ancient Israelite and God.

Leviticus lists five main types of sacrifice: (1) The whole burnt offering: a means of atonement that symbolizes the dedication of the whole life to God. The entire animal was burned on the altar ( Leviticus 1:3-17 ). (2) The cereal or grain offering; indication that everyday life is a gift from God, since grain constituted the everyday diet in ancient Israel ( Leviticus 2:1-16 ). (3) The peace, or shared, offering; the sacrifice of part of the animal and a communal meal from the remainder of the meat ( Leviticus 3:1-17 ). (4) The sin, or purification, offering; a sacrifice of repentance for sin which has broken human relations to God and has endangered the welfare of the community ( Leviticus 4:1-5:13 ). This sacrifice is for unwitting sin ( Leviticus 4:2 ,Leviticus 4:2, 4:13 ,Leviticus 4:13, 4:22 ,Leviticus 4:22, 4:27 ). (5) The guilt offering: might also be called a compensation or reparation offering, for it calls for sacrifice and compensation to one who has been wronged. The guilty one repays that which has been taken plus 20 percent ( Leviticus 5:14-6:7 ).

 Leviticus 6-7 provide further instruction on sacrifice for the priests, and   Leviticus 8-10 describe the beginning of sacrifice at the tabernacle.

 Leviticus 11-15 provide instruction on that which is clean and unclean. A person who comes into contact with an unclean object becomes unclean object becomes unclean and is not allowed to participate in worship. Thus it is important to avoid contact with that which is unclean because worship was such a central life-giving event in the life of the community of God's people. These chapters describe various causes of uncleanness, including improper diet, childbirth, and various skin diseases.   Leviticus 11:1 presents the famous dietary regulations, and   Leviticus 12:1 describes uncleanness related to childbirth.   Leviticus 13:1 gives instruction in determining uncleanness related to leprosy, and   Leviticus 14:1 describes the way to cleanse leprosy.   Leviticus 15:1 lists bodily discharges which cause one to be unclean.

 Leviticus 16:1 describes the ritual of the Day of Atonement, a way of removing the impact of sin and uncleanness. First, the priest made sacrifice for himself so that he was prepared to do the same for the community. Then two goats were brought, and one chosen for sacrifice. It was offered as a purification offering, and the blood was used to cleanse the sanctuary of any sin and uncleanness. The priest then took the other goat, the scapegoat, and confessed the sin of the people with his hands over the goat, symbolically passing the sin of the people to the goat. Then the goat was taken into the wilderness, a significant symbol of the removal of the sin of the people. This central ritual assumed that ancient Israel would encounter sin and uncleanness. Since God is perfectly holy, the Lord could not dwell among sin and that which is unclean. This ritual then provided a means of removing sin and uncleanness so that God could continue to dwell among the people and be present in the sanctuary to give them life.

 Leviticus 17-27 is the Holiness Code. This section gets its name from the frequent use of the phrase, “You shall be holy; for I the Lord Your God am holy.” In the Old Testament, holiness means to be set apart; however, it does not indicate being set apart from the world in a separatistic way. The term is used of ancient Israel's being set apart to God. As God is holy—set apart, unique, different, distinct, “There is no other like God”—so ancient Israel as people of God was to be holy, different from other people, because they were people of God. These chapters then give instruction in how ancient Israel was to live a holy life.   Leviticus 18:1 illustrates this. The chapter begins with a plea to live not as the Egyptians, whom ancient Israel had just left, nor as the Canaanites, whom ancient Israel would soon encounter, but as people of the Lord God. Then the chapter gives instruction in sexual conduct, particularly on forbidden sexual relations. Living according to such instruction would distinguish ancient Israel from other people in the land as people of the holy God. The conclusion of   Leviticus 18:1 emphasizes this again in urging the people to be loyal to God. So holiness is not a means of removing the people from the world but of giving them a way to relate to the world as the people of God.

A number of the instructions in the Holiness Code relate to ethics and faithfulness to the Lord. Note the famous verse in  Leviticus 19:18 , “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.” There is also instruction on keeping the sabbath as a day of rest and worship. Each seventh year was to be a sabbath year for the land, to give it renewal and also as a sign that the land is not owned by ancient Israel but a gift from God. Each fiftieth year (7X7+1) was a jubilee year in which all slaves were to be freed and property revert to its original owner. This again shows that people do not own other persons or property; they are rather stewards of such gifts from God. This practice shows that life is to be structured for the good of the community rather than isolated individuals.

These chapters also contain instructions on worship. Regular worship in the tabernacle was to include the constant burning of the lamp. This symbolized both the Lord's presence with the people and light as the first of God's creations. Also of importance in the tabernacle was the bread which symbolized the relationship between God and ancient Israel and reminded the people that God gives the gift of food. The Holiness Code also gives instruction on the special feasts. In the spring came Passover and unleavened bread, reminders of the Exodus from Egypt. The summer feast (Weeks and Pentecost) related to the harvest and celebrated the giving of the law. The fall festival included the Day of Atonement and the beginning of the new year. Also here was the Feast of Tabernacles, a harvest festival remembering the time in the wilderness.

The message of Leviticus begins with the fact that God is present with the people and continues with the notion that God is perfectly holy. This is why the book gives so much instruction on holiness and includes sacrifice as a means of removing the effects of sin and uncleanness so that this perfectly holy God can continue to dwell among and give life to the people. All of this instruction is a gift from God and helps the people understand how to live as God's covenant people. The book thus provides an important part of the story of God with the people, for it gives instruction on how to maintain and, when necessary, restore that relationship. The book seeks to explore further the instruction in  Exodus 19:6 , “Ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and an holy nation.”

The New Testament uses Leviticus to speak of the atoning sacrifice of Christ.

Outline

I. Offer Yourself in Praise and Adoration to God ( Leviticus 1:1-7:38 ).

A. Offer pleasing sacrifices ( Leviticus 1:1-6:7 ).

1. Offer burnt offerings ( Leviticus 1:1-17 ).

2. Offer cereal offerings ( Leviticus 2:1-16 ).

3. Offer peace offerings ( Leviticus 3:1-17 ).

4. Offer sin offerings ( Leviticus 4:1-35 ).

5. Offer guilt offerings ( Leviticus 5:1-6:7 ).

B. Give instructions to the priests who offer pleasing sacrifices ( Leviticus 6:8-7:38 ).

1. Give priestly instructions for burnt offerings ( Leviticus 6:8-13 ).

2. Give priestly instructions for cereal offerings ( Leviticus 6:14-23 ).

3. Give priestly instructions for sin offerings ( Leviticus 6:24-30 ).

4. Give priestly instructions for guilt offerings ( Leviticus 7:1-10 ).

5. Give priestly instructions for peace offerings ( Leviticus 7:11-38 ).

II. Consecrate Priests to Mediate Between God and People. ( Leviticus 8:1-10:20 ).

A. Set apart priests who mediate ( Leviticus 8:1-36 ).

B. Sacrifice for the priests who mediate ( Leviticus 9:1-24 ).

C. Warn the priests who mediate ( Leviticus 10:1-20 ).

III. Purify Yourself Before God ( Leviticus 11:1-16:34 ).

A. Eat clean animals; reject unclean animals ( Leviticus 11:1-47 ).

B. Purify mother and child after childbirth ( Leviticus 12:1-8 ).

1. Purify the mother of a male infant ( Leviticus 12:1-4 ).

2. Purify the mother of a female infant ( Leviticus 12:5 ).

3. Worship the Lord who gives life ( Leviticus 12:6-8 ).

C. Test for an infectious skin disease and remove the infected one from the camp ( Leviticus 13:1-59 ).

1. Examine the inhabitant who appears with an infection ( Leviticus 13:1-8 ).

2. Examine the infected inhabitant for progress toward wholeness ( Leviticus 13:9-17 ).

3. Examine the inhabitant who appears with a boil ( Leviticus 13:18-23 ).

4. Examine the inhabitant who appears with a burn ( Leviticus 13:24-28 ).

5. Examine the inhabitant who appears with an infection on the head or beard ( Leviticus 13:29-37 ).

6. Examine the inhabitant who appears with bright spots on the skin ( Leviticus 13:38-39 ).

7. Examine the inhabitant who appears with hair loss ( Leviticus 13:40-44 ).

8. Remove the infection from the camp ( Leviticus 13:45-59 ).

D. Restore the cleansed inhabitant to the community ( Leviticus 14:1-32 ).

E. Remove the threat of infection from the house ( Leviticus 14:33-57 ).

F. Cleanse unhealthiness within the community ( Leviticus 15:1-33 ).

G. Make atonement for the community ( Leviticus 16:1-34 ).

1. Remove sin from the congregation ( Leviticus 16:1-10 ,  Leviticus 16:20-22 ).

2. Atone for the sins of the mediators ( Leviticus 16:11-14 ).

3. Atone for the sins of the people, and make purification for the tent and its articles. ( Leviticus 16:15-19 ,Leviticus 16:15-19, 16:23-28 ).

4. Deal with the sin problem yearly ( Leviticus 16:29-34 ).

IV. Present Yourself in Holiness Before God ( Leviticus 17:1-26:46 ).

A. Give attention to acceptable slaughter of beasts ( Leviticus 17:1-16 ).

1. Make proper sacrifices before the Lord ( Leviticus 17:1-9 ).

2. Sanctify life by refusing to eat blood ( Leviticus 17:10-16 ).

B. Follow the commandments of the Lord ( Leviticus 18:1-20:27 ).

1. Reject abominable sexual practices ( Leviticus 18:1-23;  Leviticus 20:10-21 ).

2. Warn concerning the danger of abominable practices ( Leviticus 18:24-30 ).

3. Reverence God in worship ( Leviticus 19:1-8 ).

4. Show love for your neighbor by righteous living ( Leviticus 19:9-18 ).

5. Observe proper practices in agriculture, slavery, sacrifices, and the body ( Leviticus 19:19-29 ).

6. Honor God through worship ( Leviticus 19:30-31 ).

7. Honor God through life ( Leviticus 19:32-37 ).

8. Worship God alone; forsake other god ( Leviticus 20:1-8 ).

9. Honor father and mother ( Leviticus 20:9 ).

10. Give diligence to obeying God ( Leviticus 20:22-27 ).

C. Charge mediators to follow regulations which allow presence before God ( Leviticus 21:1-24:23 )

1. Present themselves holy before God ( Leviticus 21:1-24 ).

2. Present holy gifts to God ( Leviticus 22:1-33 ).

3. Lead worship at holy times ( Leviticus 23:1-44 ).

4. Prepare the holy place ( Leviticus 24:1-9 ).

5. Keep the congregation holy before God ( Leviticus 24:10-23 ).

D. Present both land and people holy before God ( Leviticus 25:1-55 ).

1. Observe the sabbath year ( Leviticus 25:1-7 ).

2. Observe the jubilee year ( Leviticus 25:8-22 ).

3. Care for the poor brother and his land ( Leviticus 25:23-55 ).

E. Remember the blessings and curses concerning the covenant people ( Leviticus 26:1-46 ).

1. Remember the blessings associated with holy living ( Leviticus 26:1-13 ).

2. Remember the penalties associated with disobedience ( Leviticus 26:14-39 ).

3. Remember the faithfulness of God ( Leviticus 26:40-46 ).

V. Offer Proper Vows Before God ( Leviticus 27:1-34 ).

A. Offer proper vows related to people ( Leviticus 27:1-13 ).

B. Offer proper vows related to a house ( Leviticus 27:14-15 ).

C. Offer proper vows related to fields ( Leviticus 27:16-25 ).

D. Offer proper vows related to firstborn animals ( Leviticus 27:26-27 ).

E. Keep your vows ( Leviticus 27:28-34 ).

See Atonement; Covenant; Holiness, Holy; Purity, Purification; Sacrifice And Offering .

W. H. Bellinger, Jr.

Fausset's Bible Dictionary

Wayyiqra' is the Hebrew name, from the initial word; the middle book of the Pentateuch. The laws "which the Lord commanded Moses in Mount Sinai, in the day that he commanded the children of Israel to offer their oblations unto the Lord in the wilderness of Sinai" ( Leviticus 7:38). Given between the setting up of the tabernacle and its departure from Sinai, i.e. between the first day of the first month and the 20th day of the second month of the second year of the Exodus ( Exodus 40:2;  Exodus 40:17;  Numbers 10:11). Two chief subjects are handled:

(1) Leviticus 1-16, the fundamental ordinances of Israel's fellowship with Jehovah;

(2) Leviticus 17-27, the laws for hallowing Israel in this covenant fellowship. Privilege and duty, grace conferred and grace inwrought, go hand in hand.

First ;

(1) The law of offerings, Leviticus 1-7.

(2) Investiture of Aaron and consecration of priests, Leviticus 8-10.

(3) Rules as to clean and unclean, Leviticus 11-15.

(4) The day of atonement, the summing up of all means of grace for the nation and the church, annually.

Second ;

(1) Israel's life as holy and separate from heathendom, in food, marriage, and toward fellow men, Leviticus 17-20; the mutual connection of Leviticus 18; Leviticus 19; Leviticus 20, is marked by recurring phrases, "I are the Lord," "ye shall be holy, for I ... am holy."

(2) Holiness of priests and of offerings, Leviticus 21-22.

(3) Holiness shown in the holy convocations, sabbaths, perpetual light in the tabernacle, shewbread, Leviticus 23-24.

(4) Perpetuation of the theocracy by the sabbatical and Jubilee years, the perpetual tenure of land, the redemption of it and bond servants (Leviticus 25); and by fatherly chastisement of the people and restoration on repentance, Leviticus 26.

(5) Appendix on vows, which are not encouraged especially, yet permitted with some restrictions (Leviticus 27).

The only history in Leviticus is that of Aaron's consecration, Nadab and Abihu's death, and the doom of the blasphemer (Leviticus 8-10;  Leviticus 24:10-23), a solemn exhibition of Jehovah's laws in their execution. Aaron's "holding his peace" under the stroke is a marvelous exhibition of grace; yet his not eating the sin offering in the holy place shows his keen paternal anguish which excused his violation of the letter of the law in Moses' judgment. As Jehovah drew nigh Israel in the tabernacle, so Israel drew nigh Jehovah in the offering. The sacrificial ordinances fall into three divisions, each division consisting of a Decalogue of directions, a method frequent in the Mosaic law. Many of the divisions are marked by the opening, "and the Lord spoke unto Moses" or such like, or by closing formulas as "this is the law," etc. ( Leviticus 7:37-38;  Leviticus 11:46-47;  Leviticus 13:59;  Leviticus 14:54-57;  Leviticus 15:32-33).

The direction as to the people's offerings is distinguished from that as to the priests' by a repetition of the same formula ( Leviticus 1:2;  Leviticus 6:9;  Leviticus 6:19-20;  Leviticus 6:24-25;  Leviticus 6:21;  Leviticus 6:22). In  Leviticus 5:6 translated not "trespass offering" which is the term for one kind of sin offering ( Leviticus 5:14), namely, for an injury done to some one, "a fine offering" ( Numbers 5:5-8), but "he shall bring as his forfeit," etc., Asham . Also in  Leviticus 23:2 for "feasts" translated "the appointed times." The Epistle to the Hebrew is the New Testament commentary on Leviticus, showing the correspondence yet superiority of the Antitype to the typical sacrifices. Peter ( 1 Peter 1:16) quotes  Leviticus 11:44, "be ye holy, for I am holy;" but New Testament holiness rises above the restrictions as to meats, seasons, and places ( John 4:20-24; Acts 10,15).

 Psalms 89:15; "blessed is the people that know the joyful sound, they shall walk, O Lord, in the light of Thy countenance," alludes to the Jubilee year enjoined in Leviticus;  Isaiah 61:1-3, and our Lord's application of the prophecy to Himself, show that the gospel dispensation is the antitype. The exhaustive consummation and final realization of the type shall be in the "times of restitution of all things," "the regeneration" of the heaven and earth," "the creature's deliverance from the bondage of corruption into the glorious liberty of the children of God," "the adoption, to wit the redemption of the body" ( Acts 3:19-21;  Romans 8:19-23;  Matthew 19:28-29). Leviticus 16 is the grand center of the book. Previously it was shown that God can only be approached by sacrifice, next that man is full of "uncleanness" which needs cleansing.

The annual atonement now teaches that not by several cleansings for several sins and uncleannesses can guilt be removed. One great covering of all transgressions must take place to meet God's just wrath, and then Israel stands accepted and justified typically ( Leviticus 16:16;  Leviticus 16:20). Hebrew 9 and Hebrew 10, explains antitypically how Christ by one offering once for all and forever perfected them that are being sanctified. In  Leviticus 18:18 the prohibition against marriage with a wife's sister is during the wife's lifetime. In  Leviticus 17:11 translated "the soul ( Nephesh ) of the flesh is in the blood, and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls; for it is the blood which makes atonement by means of the soul." The two reasons of prohibiting blood as food are:

1. It is the vital fluid.

2. It was the appointed typical mean of atonement.

It is not blood as blood, but as containing in it the principle of life, that God accepted. The division into Decalogues is frequent throughout the Mosaic code, based no doubt upon the model of the Ten Commandments, each subject being set forth in ten ordinances, as Bertheau has observed (for details see his Commentary). Leviticus 1-3, contain the first Decalogue, namely, the burnt offering in three sections, the meat offering in four, and the peace offering in three. The second decalogue is in Leviticus 4-5, the sin offering in four cases; three kinds of transgression needing atonement; the trespass offering in three cases. Then, Leviticus 6-7, five Decalogues. Thus, there are seven Decalogues in all as to putting away guilt. The next seven chapters are about putting away impurity, Leviticus 11-16. Then, Leviticus 17-20 contain seven decalogues as to Israel's holiness. Lastly, Leviticus 21 - 26:2, contain the concluding seven decalogues.

This arrangement leaves unnoticed  Leviticus 23:39-44 and Leviticus 24; because  Leviticus 23:37-38, "these are the feasts," etc., evidently close chapter 23;  Leviticus 23:39-44 are appended as a fuller description of the feast already noticed in  Leviticus 23:34. And Leviticus 24 sets forth the duty of the people in maintaining public worship, and narrates the stoning of the blasphemer. The decalogues are closed with promises of rich blessing upon obedience, awful threats upon disobedience; the latter predominate, for already Israel had shown its tendency to disobey. The first division of the law, the covenant ( Exodus 23:20-33), ended with blessings only; for there Israel had not yet betrayed its unfaithfulness: But now (Exodus 32-33) when Israel had shown its backsliding tendency, the second division of the law ends here with threats as well as promises. Leviticus 27, is an appendix, Leviticus 26 having already closed the subject of the book with the words "these are the statutes," etc. The appendix however is an integral part of the whole, as is marked by its ending with the same formula, "these are the commandments," etc.

Bridgeway Bible Dictionary

Israel’s priesthood was commonly known as the Levitical priesthood ( Hebrews 7:11), and the book that deals more than any other with that priesthood is known as the Levitical book, or Leviticus. The priests, however, were only one family in the tribe of Levi. Matters relating to the non-priestly Levites are dealt with in the next book, Numbers. There is no break between these books, because what we call the five books of Moses (or the Pentateuch) were originally one book (see Pentateuch ).

Features of the book

God had brought the people of Israel out of Egypt and set them on their way to Canaan, all according to the covenant promises he had given to Abraham. After three months they arrived at Mt Sinai, and there God established his covenant with them. He declared Israel to be his people, and they responded by promising to do whatever he required of them ( Genesis 12:2;  Genesis 15:18-21;  Genesis 17:6-8;  Exodus 2:24;  Exodus 6:6-8;  Exodus 19:4-6;  Exodus 24:7-8). The regulations that God laid down under the covenant begin in Exodus and carry on through Leviticus into Numbers.

First of all God announced the covenant’s basic principles and some of its practical requirements (Exodus 20-23). He then gave his plans for a central (but portable) place of worship, the tabernacle, and for a priesthood to oversee religious affairs (Exodus 25- 40). He gave the people a sacrificial system by which they could express their relationship with him (Leviticus 1-10); he set out laws to regulate cleanliness and holiness (Leviticus 11-22); he gave details concerning festivals and other special occasions (Leviticus 23-27); and he outlined certain duties, particularly in relation to the Levites (Numbers 1-10).

A central theme of Leviticus is that priests and common people alike were to be pure in their relations with God and with one another. Because God was holy, they were to be holy ( Leviticus 11:44-45;  Leviticus 20:26). This holiness extended to every part of the people’s lives, including personal cleanliness and public health. The laws of cleanliness, besides having practical usefulness, were an object lesson in a more basic problem, the problem of sin.

In his grace God helped his people deal with sin by giving them the sacrificial system. It taught them the seriousness of sin and gave them a way of approach to him to seek his forgiveness. People did not have to try to squeeze forgiveness from an unwilling God; God himself took the initiative by giving them the blood of animals to make atonement for their sin ( Leviticus 17:11; see Blood ; Sacrifice ). Whether repentant sinners knew it or not, their sacrifices could not in themselves take away sin. The basis on which God accepted the blood sacrifices of the ancient Israelites was the perfect blood sacrifice yet to be offered, the sacrifice of Jesus Christ ( Hebrews 9:22;  Hebrews 10:1-4;  Hebrews 10:11-14).

Contents of the book

With the tabernacle now completed, God gave the Israelite people his regulations for the sacrifices. There were five basic sacrifices – the burnt offering, the cereal offering, the fellowship offering, the sin offering and the guilt offering (1:1-6:7). God gave additional details of these offerings for the priests who officiated (6:8-7:38). Moses ordained Aaron and his four sons as priests, after which they began their duties (8:1-9:24). Two of the sons were struck dead when they tried to act independently of God (10:1-20).

God then set out his requirements in relation to cleanliness. He laid down laws concerning food, disease and bodily health (11:1-15:33), and followed with regulations concerning the Day of Atonement and the sacredness of blood (16:1-17:16). Further instructions on practical holiness concerned sexual relationships and a range of miscellaneous matters (18:1-20:27). There were additional rules specifically concerned with priests (21:1-22:33).

Israel was to have a regulated timetable of festivals to acknowledge the overruling care of God throughout the year (23:1-24:23). Sabbatical and jubilee years were designed to prevent the rich from gaining control over the poor (25:1-55). God promised blessing for obedience, but warned of judgment for disobedience (26:1-46). Honesty was essential at all times, and people had to treat their vows seriously (27:1-34).

American Tract Society Bible Dictionary

The third book in the Pentateuch; called Leviticus, because it contains principally the laws and regulations relating to the Levites, priests, and sacrifices. The Hebrews call it "the priests' law." In the first section, the various bloody and unbloody sacrifices are minutely described: the burnt offering, the meat, sin, peace, ignorance, and trespass offerings; the sins for which and the mode in which they were to be offered. The fullness of these details not only signified the importance of God's worship, but forbade all human additions and changes, that might lead to idolatry. The whole scheme was "a shadow of good things to come," typical of the Lamb "who through the eternal Spirit offered himself without spot unto God." Its best commentary is the epistle to the Hebrews.

A full account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons as priests, is followed by the instructive narrative of Nadab and Abihu. Then are given the laws respecting personal and ceremonial purifications, a perpetual memento of the defilement of sin, and of the holiness of God. Next follows a description of the great day of Expiation; after which the Jews are warned against the superstitions, idolatry, etc., of the Canaanites; and laws are given guarding their morals, health, and civil order. The observance of their distinguishing festivals is enjoined upon them; and laws are given respecting the Sabbath and the jubilee, vows and tithes. The warnings and promises in the latter part of the book point their attention to the future, and aim to unite the whole nation in serving their covenant God. The book is generally held to be the work of Moses, though he was probably assisted by Aaron. Its date is B. C. 1490. It contains the history of the first month of their second year after leaving Egypt.

Easton's Bible Dictionary

Then follow promises and warnings to the people regarding obedience to these commandments, closing with a section on vows.

The various ordinances contained in this book were all delivered in the space of a month (Compare  Exodus 40:17;  Numbers 1:1 ), the first month of the second year after the Exodus. It is the third book of Moses.

No book contains more of the very words of God. He is almost throughout the whole of it the direct speaker. This book is a prophecy of things to come, a shadow whereof the substance is Christ and his kingdom. The principles on which it is to be interpreted are laid down in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It contains in its complicated ceremonial the gospel of the grace of God.

Copyright Statement These dictionary topics are from M.G. Easton M.A., DD Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897. Public Domain.

Bibliography Information Easton, Matthew George. Entry for 'Leviticus'. Easton's Bible Dictionary. https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/ebd/l/leviticus.html. 1897.

People's Dictionary of the Bible

Leviticus ( Le-Vĭt'I-Kŭs ), Relating To The Levites. The name of the third book of the Pentateuch. Only the chapters 8-10 are history; the rest treats of the Levitical services—namely, chaps. 1-7, the laws of offerings; 8-10, the consecration of Aaron and his family; 11-15, the laws concerning that which is clean and that which is unclean; 16, the atonement as the sum-total of all means of grace; 17-20, the separation of Israel from heathendom in food, marriage, etc.; 21, 22, the holiness of priests and offerings; 23, 24, the holiness of convocations, Sabbaths; 25, on redemption; 26, on repentance; 27, on vows.

Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary

a canonical book of Scripture, being the third book of the Pentateuch of Moses; thus called because it contains principally the laws and regulations relating to the Levites, priests, and sacrifices; for which reason the Hebrews call it the law of the priests, because it includes many ordinances concerning their services. See Pentateuch .

Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary

The third book of Moses bears this name; and it appears to derive its name from the Septuagint, who called it the book of Leviticus, from containing the laws of the Levitical priesthood.

Webster's Dictionary

(n.) The third canonical book of the Old Testament, containing the laws and regulations relating to the priests and Levites among the Hebrews, or the body of the ceremonial law.

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

so called in the Vulgate from treating chiefly of the Levitical service; in the Heb. וִיַּקְרָא , And He Called, being the word with which it begins; in the Sept. Λευ Þ Τικόν ; the third book of the Pentateuch, called also by the later Jews תּוֹרִת כֹּהֲנַים , "law of the priests," and תּוֹרִת קָרְבָּנוֹת , "law of offerings." In our treatment of it we have especial regard to the various sacrifices enumerated.

I. Contents. — Leviticus contains the further statement and development of the Sinaitic legislation, the beginnings of which are described in Exodus. It exhibits the historical progress of this legislation; consequently, we must not expect to find the laws detailed in it in a systematic form. There is, nevertheless, a certain order observed, which arose from the nature of the subject, and of which the plan may easily be perceived. The whole is intimately connected with the contents of Exodus, at the conclusion of which book that sanctuary is described with which all external worship was connected (Exodus 35-40).

Leviticus begins by describing the worship itself (chapters 1-17), and concludes with personal distinctions and exhortations as to the worshippers (chapters 18-27). More specifically the book may be divided into seven leading sections.

(I.) The Laws Directly Relating To Sacrifices (chapters 1-7). — At first God spoke to the people out of the thunder and lightning of Sinai, and gave them his holy commandments by the hand of a mediator; but henceforth his presence is to dwell not on the secret top of Sinai, but in the midst of his people, both in their wanderings through the wilderness and afterwards in the Land of Promise. Hence the first directions which Moses receives after the work is finished have reference to the offerings which were to be brought to the door of the tabernacle. As Jehovah draws near to the people in the tabernacle, so the people draw near to Jehovah in the offering. Without offerings none may approach him. The regulations respecting the sacrifices fall into three groups, and each of these groups again consists of a decalogue of instructions. Bertheau has observed that this principle runs through all the laws of Moses. They are all modeled after the pattern of the ten commandments, so that each distinct subject of legislation is always treated of under ten several enactments or provisions. 1. The first group of regulations (chapters 1-3) deals with three kinds of offerings: the burnt-offering ( עוֹלָה ), the meat-offering ( מַנְחָה ), and the thank-offering ( שְׁלָמַים זֶבִח )

a. The burnt-offering (chap. 1) in three sections. It might be either

(1) a male without blemish from the Herds ( מַן הִבָּקָר ) ( Leviticus 1:3-9), or

(2) a male without blemish from The Flocks, or lesser cattle ( הִצּאֹן ) ( Leviticus 1:10-13), or

(3) it might be fowls, an offering of turtle-doves or young pigeons ( Leviticus 1:14-17). The subdivisions are here marked clearly enough, not only by the three Kinds of sacrifice, but also by The Form in which the enactment is put. Each begins with, "If his offering," etc., and each ends with, "An offering made by fire, of a sweet savor unto Jehovah."

b. The next group (chapter 2) presents many more difficulties. Its parts are not so clearly marked, either by prominent features in the subject-matter, or by the more technical boundaries of certain initial and final phrases. We have here the meat-offering, or bloodless offering, in four sections:

(1) in its uncooked form, consisting of fine flour with oil and frankincense ( Leviticus 2:1-3);

(2) in its cooked form, of which three different kinds are specified- baked in the oven, fricel, or boiled ( Leviticus 2:4-10);

(3) the prohibition of leaven, and the direction to use salt in all the meat-offerinrgs ( Leviticus 2:11-13);

(4) the oblation of first-fruits ( Leviticus 2:14-16).

c. The Sheltamins, "peace-offering" (A.V.), or "thankoffering" (Ewald) (chapter 3), in three sections. Strictly speaking, this falls under two heads: first, when it is of the Herd; and, secondly, when it is of the Flock. But this last has again its subdivision; for the offering, when of the flock, may be either a lamb or a goat. Accordingly, the three sections are,  Leviticus 3:1-5;  Leviticus 3:7-11;  Leviticus 3:12-16.  Leviticus 3:6 is merely introductory to the second class of sacrifices, and  Leviticus 3:17 a general conclusion, as in the case of other laws. This concludes the first decalogue of the book.

2. The laws concerning the sin-offering and the trespass- (or guilt-) offering (chapter 4, 5). The sin-offering (chap. 4) is treated of under four specified cases, after a short introduction to the whole in  Leviticus 4:1-2 :

(1) the sin-offering for the priest,  Leviticus 4:3-12;

(2) for the whole congregation,  Leviticus 4:13-21;

(3) for a ruler,  Leviticus 4:22-26;

(4) for one of the common people,  Leviticus 4:27-35.

After these four cases, in which the offering is to be made for four different classes, there follow provisions respecting three several kinds of transgression for which atonement must be made. It is not quite clear whether these should be ranked under the head of the sin-offering or of the trespass-offering. (See Offering). We may, however, follow Bertheau, Baumgarten, and Knobel in regarding them as special instances in which a sin-offering was to be brought. The three cases are: first, when any one hears a curse, and conceals what he hears ( Leviticus 4:1); secondly, when any one touches, without knowing or intending it, any unclean thing ( Leviticus 4:2-3); lastly, when any one takes an oath inconsiderately ( Leviticus 4:4). For each of these cases the same trespass-offering, "a female from the flock, a lamb or kid of the goats," is appointed; but, with that mercifulness which characterizes the Mosaic law, express provision is made for a less costly offering where the offerer is poor.

This decalogue is then completed by the three regulations respecting the guilt-offering (or trespass-offering): first, when any one sins " through ignorance in the holy things of Jehovah" ( Leviticus 4:14;  Leviticus 4:16); next, when a person, without knowing it, "commits any of these things which are forbidden to be done by the commandments of Jehovah" ( Leviticus 4:17-19); lastly, when a man lies and swears falsely concerning that which was entrusted to him, etc. ( Leviticus 4:20-26). This decalogue, like the preceding one, has its characteristic words and expressions. The prominent word which introduces so many of the enactments is נֶפֶשׁ , "soul" (see  Leviticus 4:2;  Leviticus 4:27;  Leviticus 5:1-2;  Leviticus 5:4;  Leviticus 5:15;  Leviticus 5:17;  Leviticus 6:2), and the phrase, "If a soul shall sin" ( Leviticus 4:2), is, with occasional variations having an equivalent meaning, the distinctive phrase of the section. As in the former decalogue the nature of the offerings, so in this the person and the nature of the offense are the chief features in the several statutes.

3. Naturally upon the law of sacrifices follows the law of the priests' duties when they offer the sacrifices (chapter 6, 7). Hence we find Moses directed to address himself immediately to Aaron and his sons ( Leviticus 6:2;  Leviticus 6:18 to  Leviticus 6:9;  Leviticus 6:25, A.V.). In this group the different kinds of offerings are named in nearly the same order as in the two preceding decalogues, except that the offering at the consecration of a priest follows, instead of the thankoffering, immediately after the meat-offering, which it resembles, and the thank-offering now appears after the trespass-offering. There are, therefore, in all, six kinds of offering, and in the case of each of these the priest has his distinct duties. Bertheau has very ingeniously so distributed the enactments in which these duties are prescribed as to arrange them all in five decalogues. We will briefly indicate his arrangement.

(1.) The first decalogue.

(a.) "This is the law of the burnt-offering" ( Leviticus 6:9, A.V.), in five enactments, each verse ( Leviticus 6:9-13) containing a separate enactment.

(b.) "'And this is the law of the meat-offering" ( Leviticus 6:14), again in five enactments, each of which is, as before contained in a single verse ( Leviticus 6:14-18).

(2.) The next decalogue is contained in  Leviticus 6:19-30.

(a.)  Leviticus 6:19 is merely introductory; then follow, in five verses, five distinct directions with regard to the offering at the time of the consecration of the priests, the first in  Leviticus 6:20 the next two in  Leviticus 6:21, the fourth in the former part of  Leviticus 6:22, and the last in the latter part of  Leviticus 6:22 and  Leviticus 6:23.

(b.) "This is the law of the sin-offering" ( Leviticus 6:25). Then the five enactments, each in one verse, except that two verses ( Leviticus 6:27-28) are given to the third.

(3.) The third decalogue is contained in  Leviticus 7:1-10, the laws of the trespass-offering. But it is impossible to avoid a misgiving as to the soundness of Bertheau's system when we find him making the words "It is most holy," in  Leviticus 7:1, the first of the ten enactments. This he is obliged to do, as  Leviticus 7:3-4 evidently form but one.

(4.) The fourth decalogue, after an introductory verse ( Leviticus 7:11), is contained in ten verses ( Leviticus 7:12-21).

(5.) The last decalogue consists of certain general laws about the fat, the blood, the wave-breast, etc., and is comprised again in ten verses ( Leviticus 7:23-33), the verses, as before, marking the divisions.

The chapter closes with a brief historical notice of the fact that these several commands were given to Moses on Mount Sinai ( Leviticus 7:35-38).

(II.) An Entirely Historical Section (chapters 8-10), in three parts. —

1. In chapter 8 we have the account of the consecration of Aaron and his sons by Moses before the whole congregation. They are washed; he is arrayed in the priestly vestments and anointed with the holy oil; his sons also are arrayed in their garments, and the various offerings appointed are offered.

2. In chapter 9 Aaron offers, eight days after his consecration, his first offering for himself and the people: this comprises for himself a sin- and burnt- offering, and a peace- (or thank-) offering. He blesses the people, and fire comes down from heaven and consumes the burnt-offering.

3. Chapter 10 tells how Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, eager to enjoy the privileges of their new office, and perhaps too much elated by its dignity, forgot or despised the restrictions by which it was fenced round ( Exodus 30:7, etc.), and, daring to "offer strange fire before Jehovah," perished because of their presumption.

With the house of Aaron began this wickedness in the sanctuary; with them, therefore, began also the divine punishment. Very touching is the story which follows. Aaron, though forbidden to mourn his loss ( Leviticus 10:6-7), will not eat the sin-offering in the holy place; and when rebuked by Moses, pleads in his defense, "Such things have befallen me: and if I had eaten the sin-offering today, should it have been accepted in the sight of Jehovah?" Moses, the lawgiver and the judge, admits the plea, and honors the natural feelings of the father's heart, even when it leads to a violation of the letter of the divine commandment.

(II.) The Laws Concerning Purity And Impurity, and the appropriate sacrifices and ordinances for putting away impurity (chapters 11-16). The first seven decalogues had reference to the putting away of Guilt. By the appointed sacrifices the separation between man and God was healed. The next seven concern themselves with the putting away of Impurity. That chapters 11-15 hang together so as to form one series of laws there can be no doubt. Besides that they treat of kindred subjects, they have their characteristic words, טמאה טמא , " unclean," "uncleanness," טהר טהור , "clean," which occur in almost every verse. The only question is about chapter 16, which by its opening is connected immediately with the occurrence related in chapter 10. Historically it would seem, therefore, that chapter 16 ought to have followed chapter 10. As this order is neglected, it would lead us to suspect that some other principle of arrangement than that of historical sequence has been adopted. This we find in the solemn significance of the great day of atonement. The high-priest on that day made atonement "because of the uncleanness of the children of Israel, and because of their transgressions in all their sins" ( Leviticus 16:16), and he "reconciled the holy place and the tabernacle of the congregation, and the altar" ( Leviticus 16:20). Delivered from their guilt and cleansed from their pollutions, from that day forward the children of Israel entered upon a new and holy life. This was typified both by the ordinance that the bullock and the goat for the sin-offering were burnt without the camp ( Leviticus 16:27), and also by the sending away of the goat laden with the iniquities of the people into the wilderness. Hence chapter 16 seems to stand most fitly at the end of this second group of seven decalogues. It has reference, we believe, not only (as Bertheau supposes) to the putting away, as by one solemn act, of all those uncleannesses mentioned in chapters 11-15, and for which the various expiations and cleansings there appointed were temporary and insufficient, but also to the making of atonement, in the sense of hiding sin or putting away its guilt. For not only do we find the idea of cleansing as from defilement, but far more prominently the idea of reconciliation. The often-repeated word כפר ), "to cover, to atone," is the great word of the section.

1. The first decalogue in this group refers to clean and unclean flesh (chapter 6). Five classes of animals are pronounced unclean. The first four enactments declare what animals may or may not be eaten, whether

(1) beasts of the earth ( Leviticus 11:2-8), or

(2) fishes ( Leviticus 11:9-12), or

(3) birds ( Leviticus 11:13-20), or

(4) creeping things with wings.

The next four are intended to guard against pollution by contact with the carcass of any of these animals:

(5)  Leviticus 11:24-26;

(6)  Leviticus 11:27-28;

(7)  Leviticus 11:29-30;

(8)  Leviticus 11:39-40. The ninth and tenth specify the last class of animals which are unclean for food,

(9)  Leviticus 11:41-42, and forbid any other kind of pollution by means of them,

(10)  Leviticus 11:43-45.  Leviticus 11:46-47 are merely a concluding summary.

2. (a.) Women's purification in childbed (chap. 12). The whole of this chapter, according to Bertheau, constitutes

(1) the first law of this decalogue.

(b.) The remaining nine are to be found in the next chapter (13), which treats of the signs of leprosy in man and in garments:

(2)  Leviticus 13:1-8;

(3)  Leviticus 13:9-17;

(4)  Leviticus 13:18-23;

(5)  Leviticus 13:24-28;

(6)  Leviticus 13:29-37;

(7)  Leviticus 13:38-39;

(8)  Leviticus 13:40-41;

(9)  Leviticus 13:42-46;

(10)  Leviticus 13:47-59.

This arrangement of the several sections is not altogether free from objection, but it is certainly supported by the characteristic mode in which each section opens. Thus, for instance,  Leviticus 12:2 begins with אַשָּׁה כַּי תִזְרַיע ;  Leviticus 13:2 with אָדָם כַּי יַהְיֶה ,  Leviticus 13:9 with נֶגִע צָרִעִת כַּי תַהְיֶה and so on, the same order being always observed, the substantive being placed first, then כַּי , and then the verb, except only in  Leviticus 13:42, where the substantive is placed after the verb.

3. "The law of the leper in the day of his cleansing," i.e., the law which the Priest is to observe in purifying the leper ( Leviticus 14:1-32). The priest is mentioned in ten verses, each of which begins one of the ten sections of this law:  Leviticus 14:3-5;  Leviticus 14:11-12;  Leviticus 14:14-16;  Leviticus 14:19-20. In each instance the word הִכֹּהֵן is preceded by ו consecut. with the perf. It is true that in  Leviticus 14:8, and also in  Leviticus 14:14, the word הִכֹּהֵן occurs twice; but in both verses there is MS. authority, as well as that of the Vulg. and Arab. versions, for the absence of the second.  Leviticus 14:21-32 may be regarded as a supplemental provision in cases where the leper is too poor to bring the required offering.

4. The leprosy in a house ( Leviticus 14:33-57). It is not so easy here to trace the arrangement noticed in so many other laws. There are no characteristic words or phrases to guide us. Bertheau's division is as follows:

(1)  Leviticus 14:34-35;

(2)  Leviticus 14:36-37;

(3)  Leviticus 14:38;

(4)  Leviticus 14:39;

(5)  Leviticus 14:40;

(6)  Leviticus 14:41-42;

(7)  Leviticus 14:43-45.

Then, as usual, follows a short summary which closes the statute concerning leprosy,  Leviticus 14:54-57.

5, 6. The law of uncleanness by issue, etc., in two decalogues ( Leviticus 15:1-31). The division is clearly marked, as Bertheau observes, by the form of cleansing, which is so exactly similar in the two principal cases, and which closes each series:

(1)  Leviticus 15:13-15;

(2)  Leviticus 15:28-30. We again give his arrangement, though we do not profess to regard it as in all respects satisfactory.

(a.)

(1)  Leviticus 15:2-3;

(2)  Leviticus 15:4;

(3)  Leviticus 15:5;

(4)  Leviticus 15:6;

(5)  Leviticus 15:7;

(6)  Leviticus 15:8;

(7)  Leviticus 15:9;

(8)  Leviticus 15:10;

(9)  Leviticus 15:11-12 [these Bertheau considers as one enactment, because it is another way of saying that either the Man or Thing which the unclean person touches is unclean; but, on the same principle,  Leviticus 15:4-5 might just as well form one enactment];

(10)  Leviticus 15:13-15.

(b.)

(1)  Leviticus 15:16;

(2)  Leviticus 15:17;

(3)  Leviticus 15:18;

(4)  Leviticus 15:19;

(5)  Leviticus 15:20;

(6)  Leviticus 15:21;

(7)  Leviticus 15:22;

( 8)  Leviticus 15:23;

(9)  Leviticus 15:24;

(10)  Leviticus 15:28-30.

In order to complete this arrangement, he considers  Leviticus 15:25-27 as a kind of supplementary enactment provided for an irregular uncleanness, leaving it as quite uncertain, however, whether this was a later addition or not.  Leviticus 15:32-33 form merely the same general conclusion which we have had before in  Leviticus 14:54-57.

7. The last decalogue of the second group of seven decalogues is to be found in chapter 16, which treats of the great day of atonement. The law itself is contained in  Leviticus 16:1-28. The remaining verses, 29-34, consist of an exhortation to its careful observance. In the act of atonement three persons are concerned: the high-priest, in this instance Aaron; the man who leads away the goat for Azazel into the wilderness; and he who burns the skin, flesh, and dung of the bullock and goat of the sin-offering without the camp. The last two have special purifications assigned them-the second because he has touched the goat laden with the guilt of Israel, the third because he has come in contact with the sin-offering. The ninth and tenth enactments prescribe what these purifications are, each of them concluding with the same formula, וְאִחֲרֵי כֵן יָבוֹא אֶל הִמִּחֲנֶה , and hence distinguished from each other. The duties of Aaron, consequently, ought, if the division into decades is correct, to be comprised in eight enactments. Now-the name of Aaron is repeated eight times, and in six of these it is preceded by the perf. with 1 consecut., as we observed was the case before when "the priest" was the prominent figure. According to this, then, the decalogue will stand thus:

(1)  Leviticus 16:2, Aaron not to enter the holy place at all times;

(2)  Leviticus 16:3-5, with what sacrifices and in what dress Aaron is to enter the holy place;

(3)  Leviticus 16:6-7, Aaron to offer the bullock for himself, and to set the two goats before Jehovah;

(4) Aaron to cast lots on the two goats;

(5)  Leviticus 16:9-10, Aaron to offer the goat on which the lot falls for Jehovah, and to send away the goat for Azazel into the wilderness; of the goat to make atonement for himself. for his house, and for the whole congregation, as also to purify the altar of incense with the blood;

(7)  Leviticus 16:20-22, Aaron to lay his hands on the living goat, and confess over it all the sins of the children of Israel;

(8)  Leviticus 16:23-25, Aaron after this to take off his linen garments, bathe himself, and put on his priestly garments, and then offer his burnt- offering and that of the congregation;

(9)  Leviticus 16:26, the man by whom the goat is sent into the wilderness to purify himself;

(10)  Leviticus 16:27-28, what is to be done by him who burns the sin-offering without the camp.

(IV.) Laws Chiefly Intended To Mark The Separation Between Israel And The Heathen Nations (chapters 17-20). — We here reach the great central point, of the book. All going before was but a preparation for this. Two great truths have been established: first, that God call only be approached by means of appointed sacrifices; next, that man in nature and life is full of pollution, which must be cleansed. Now a third is taught, viz., that not by several cleansings for several sins and pollutions can guilt be put away. The several acts of sin are but so many manifestations of the sinful nature. For this, therefore, also must atonement be made by one solemn act, which shall cover all transgressions, and turn away God's righteous displeasure from Israel. Israel is now reminded that it is the holy nation. The great atonement offered, it is to enter upon a new life. It is a separate nation, sanctified and set apart for the service of God. It may not, therefore, do after the abominations of the heathen by whom it is surrounded. Here, consequently, we find those laws and ordinances which especially distinguish the nation of Israel from all other nations of the earth.

Here again we may trace, as before, a group of seven decalogues; but the several decalogues are not so clearly marked, nor are the characteristic phrases and the introductions and conclusions so common. In ch. 18 there are twenty enactments, and in chapter 19, thirty. In chapter 17 on the other hand, there are only six, and in chapter 20 there are fourteen. As it is quite manifest that the enactments in chapter 18 are entirely separated by a fresh usual arrangement of the laws in decalogues, would transpose this chapter, and place it after chapter 19. He observes that the laws in chapter 17, and those in  Leviticus 20:1-9, are akin to one another, and may very well constitute a single decalogue, and, what is of more importance, that the words in  Leviticus 18:1-5 form the natural introduction to this whole group of laws: "And Jehovah spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, I am Jehovah your God. After the doings of the land of Egypt, wherein ye dwelt, shall ye not do; and after the doings of the land of Canaan, whither I bring you, shall ye not do; neither shall ye walk in their ordinances," etc. There is, however, a point of connection between chapters 17 and 18 which must not be overlooked, and which seems to indicate that their position in our present text is the right one. All the six enactments in chapter 17 ( Leviticus 17:3-5,  Leviticus 17:6-7,  Leviticus 17:8-9,  Leviticus 17:10-12,  Leviticus 17:13-14,  Leviticus 17:15) bear upon the nature and meaning of the sacrifice to Jehovah as compared with the sacrifices offered to false gods. It would seem, too, that it was necessary to guard against any license to idolatrous practices which might possibly be drawn from the sending of the goat for Azazel into the wilderness, (See Day Of Atonement), especially, perhaps, against the Egyptian custom of appeasing the evil spirit of the wilderness and averting his malice (Hengstenberg, Mose U. Egypten, page 179; Movers, Phonicier, 1:369). To this there may be an allusion in  Leviticus 17:7. Perhaps, however, it is better and more simple to regard the enactments in these two chapters (with Bunsen, Bibelwerk, II, 1:245) as directed against two prevalent heathen practices, the eating of blood and fornication. It is remarkable, as showing how intimately moral and ritual observances were blended together in the Jewish mind, that abstinence "from blood and things strangled, and fornication," was laid down by the apostles as the only condition of communion to be required of Gentile converts to Christianity. Before we quit this chapter one observation may be made. The rendering of the A.V. in  Leviticus 17:11, "for it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul," should be, "for it is the blood that maketh an atonement by means of the life." This is important. It is not blood merely as such, but blood as having in it the principle of life that God accepts in sacrifice; for, by thus giving vicariously the life of the dumb animal, the sinner confesses that his own life is forfeit.

In chapter 18, after the introduction to which we have already alluded,  Leviticus 18:1-5 — and in which God claims obedience on the double ground that he is Israel's God, and that to keep his commandments is life ( Leviticus 18:5) — there follow twenty enactments concerning unlawful marriages and unnatural lusts. The first ten are contained one in each verse ( Leviticus 18:6-15). The next ten range themselves in like manner with the verses, except that  Leviticus 18:17;  Leviticus 18:23 contain each two. Of the twenty the first fourteen are alike in form, as well as in the repeated עֶרוָה לאֹ תְגִלֶּה .

In chapter 19 are three decalogues, introduced by the words, "Ye shall be holy, for I Jehovah your God am holy," and ending with, "Ye shall observe all my statutes, and all my judgments, and do them. I am Jehovah." The laws here are of a very mixed character, and many of them a repetition merely of previous laws. Of the three decalogues, the first is comprised in  Leviticus 18:3-13, and may be thus distributed:

(1)  Leviticus 19:3, to honor father and mother;

(2)  Leviticus 19:3, to keep the Sabbath;

(3)  Leviticus 19:4, not to turn to idols;

(4)  Leviticus 19:4, not to make molten gods (these two enactments being separated on the same principle as the first and second commandments in the Great Decalogue or Two Tables);

(5)  Leviticus 19:5-8, of thank-offerings;

(6)  Leviticus 19:9-10, of gleaning;

(7)  Leviticus 19:11, not to steal or lie;

(8)  Leviticus 19:12, not to swear falsely;

(9)  Leviticus 19:13, not to defraud one's neighbor;

(10)  Leviticus 19:13, the wages of him that is hired, etc.

The next decalogue,  Leviticus 19:14-25, Bertheau arranges thus:  Leviticus 19:14,  Leviticus 19:15,  Leviticus 19:16 a,  Leviticus 19:16 b,  Leviticus 19:17,  Leviticus 19:18,  Leviticus 19:19 a,  Leviticus 19:19 b,  Leviticus 19:20-22,  Leviticus 19:23-25. We object, however, to making the words in 19a, "Ye shall keep my statutes," a separate enactment. There is no reason for this. A much better plan would be to consider  Leviticus 19:17 as consisting of two enactments, which is manifestly the case.

The third decalogue may be thus distributed:  Leviticus 19:26 a,  Leviticus 19:26 b,  Leviticus 19:27,  Leviticus 19:28,  Leviticus 19:29,  Leviticus 19:30,  Leviticus 19:31,  Leviticus 19:32,  Leviticus 19:33-34,  Leviticus 19:35-36.

We have thus found five decalogues in this group. Bertheau completes the number seven by transposing, as we have seen, chapter 17, and placing it immediately before chapter 20. He also transfers  Leviticus 20:27 to what he considers its proper place, viz., after  Leviticus 20:6. It must be confessed that the enactment in  Leviticus 20:27 stands very awkwardly at the end of the chapter, completely isolated as it is from all other enactments; for  Leviticus 20:22-26 are the natural conclusion to this whole section. But, admitting this, another difficulty remains, that, according to him, the seventh decalogue begins at  Leviticus 20:10, and another transposition is necessary, so that  Leviticus 20:7-8 may stand after  Leviticus 20:9, and so conclude the preceding series of ten enactments. It is better, perhaps, to abandon the search for complete symmetry than to adopt a method so violent in order to obtain it.

It should be observed that chapter  Leviticus 18:6-23, and chapter  Leviticus 20:10-21, stand in such a relation to one another that the latter declares the penalties attached to the transgression of many of the commandments given in the former. But, though we may not be able to trace in chapters 17 -20 seven decalogues, in accordance with the theory of which we have been speaking, there can be no doubt that they form a distinct section of themselves, of which  Leviticus 20:22-26 is the proper conclusion.

Like the other sections, it has some characteristic expressions:

(a) "Ye shall keep my judgments and my statutes" ( מַשְׁפָּטִי חַקּתִי ) occurs  Leviticus 18:4-5;  Leviticus 18:26;  Leviticus 19:37;  Leviticus 20:8;  Leviticus 20:22, but is not met with either in the preceding or the following chapters.

(b) The constantly recurring phrases, "I am Jehovah," "I am Jehovah your God," "Be ye holy, for I am holy," "I am Jehovah which hallow you." In the earlier sections this phraseology is only found in  Leviticus 11:44-45, and  Exodus 31:13. In the section which follows (chapter 21-25) it is much more common, this section being in a great measure a continuation of the preceding.

(V.) We come now to the last group of decalogues — that contained in chapters  Leviticus 21:1 to  Leviticus 26:2. The subjects comprised in these enactments are —

1. The personal purity of the priests. They may not defile themselves for the dead; their wives and daughters must be pure, and they themselves must be free from all personal blemish (chapter 21).

2. The eating of the holy things is permitted only to priests who are free from all uncleanness: they and their household only may eat them (chapter 22:16).

3. The offerings of Israel are to be pure and without blemish (chapter  Leviticus 22:17-33).

4. The last series provides for the due celebration of the great festivals when priests and people were to be gathered together before Jehovah in holy convocation (chapter 23, 25), with an episode (chapter 24).

Up to this point we trace system and purpose in the order of the legislation. Thus, for instance, chapter 11-16 treats of external purity; chapter 17-20 of moral purity; chapter 21-23 of the holiness of the priests, and their duties with regard to holy things; the whole concluding with provisions for the solemn feasts on which all Israel appeared before Jehovah. We will again briefly indicate Bertheau's groups, and then append some general observations on this whole section.

a. Leviticus 21, ten laws, as follows:

(1)  Leviticus 21:1-3; (2)  Leviticus 21:4; (3)  Leviticus 21:5-6; (4)  Leviticus 21:7-8; (5)  Leviticus 21:9; (6)  Leviticus 21:10-11; (7)  Leviticus 21:12; (8)  Leviticus 21:13-14; (9)  Leviticus 21:17-21; (10)  Leviticus 21:22-23.

The first five laws concern all the priests; the sixth to the eighth, the high- priest; the ninth and tenth, the effects of bodily blemish in particular cases.

b.  Leviticus 22:1-16.

(1)  Leviticus 22:2; (2)  Leviticus 22:3; (3)  Leviticus 22:4; (4)  Leviticus 22:4-7; (5)  Leviticus 22:8-9; (6)  Leviticus 22:10; (7)  Leviticus 22:11; (8)  Leviticus 22:12; (10)  Leviticus 22:14-16.

c.  Leviticus 22:17-33.

(1)  Leviticus 22:18-20; (2)  Leviticus 22:21; (3)  Leviticus 22:22; (4)  Leviticus 22:23; (5)  Leviticus 22:24; (6)  Leviticus 22:25; (7)  Leviticus 22:27; (8)  Leviticus 22:28; (9)  Leviticus 22:29; (10)  Leviticus 22:30; and a general conclusion in  Leviticus 22:31-33.

d. Leviticus 23.

(1)  Leviticus 23:3; (2)  Leviticus 23:5-7; (3)  Leviticus 23:8; (4)  Leviticus 23:9-14; (5)  Leviticus 23:15-21; (6)  Leviticus 23:22; (7)  Leviticus 23:24-25; (8)  Leviticus 23:27-32; (9)  Leviticus 23:34-35; (10)  Leviticus 23:36;  Leviticus 23:37-38 contain the conclusion, or general summing up of the Decalogue.

On the remainder of the chapter, as well as chapter 24, see below.

e.  Leviticus 25:1-22.

(1)  Leviticus 25:2; (2)  Leviticus 25:3-4; (3)  Leviticus 25:5; (4)  Leviticus 25:6; (5)  Leviticus 25:8-10; (6)  Leviticus 25:11-12; (7)  Leviticus 25:13; (9)  Leviticus 25:15; (10)  Leviticus 25:16; with a concluding formula in  Leviticus 25:18-22.

f.  Leviticus 25:23-38.

(1)  Leviticus 25:23-24; (2)  Leviticus 25:25; (3)  Leviticus 25:26-27; (4)  Leviticus 25:28; (5)  Leviticus 25:29; (6)  Leviticus 25:30; (7)  Leviticus 25:31; (8)  Leviticus 25:32-33; (9)  Leviticus 25:34; (10)  Leviticus 25:35-37; the conclusion to the whole in  Leviticus 25:38.

g.  Leviticus 25:39 to  Leviticus 26:2.

(1)  Leviticus 25:39; (2)  Leviticus 25:40-42; (3)  Leviticus 25:43; (4)  Leviticus 25:44-45; (5)  Leviticus 25:46; (6)  Leviticus 25:47-49; (7)  Leviticus 25:50; (8)  Leviticus 25:51-52; (9)  Leviticus 25:53; (10)  Leviticus 25:54.

It will be observed that the above arrangement is only completed by omitting the latter part of chapter 23 and the whole of chapter 24. But it is clear that  Leviticus 23:39-44 is an addition, containing further instructions respecting the Feast of Tabernacles.  Leviticus 23:39, as compared with  Leviticus 23:34, shows that the same feast is referred to; while  Leviticus 23:37-38 are no less manifestly the original conclusion of the laws respecting the feasts — which are enumerated in the previous part of the chapter. Chapter 24, again, has a peculiar character of its own. First, we have a command concerning the oil to be used in the lamps belonging to the tabernacle, but this is only a repetition of an enactment already given in  Exodus 27:20-21, which seems to be its natural place. Then follow directions about the shewbread. These do not occur previously. In Exodus the shewbread is spoken of always as a matter of course. concerning which no regulations are necessary (comp.  Exodus 25:30;  Exodus 35:13;  Exodus 39:36). Lastly come certain enactments arising out of a historical occurrence. The son of an Egyptian father by an Israelitish woman blasphemes the name of Jehovah, and Moses is commanded to stone him in consequence; and this circumstance is the occasion of the following laws being given:

(1) That a blasphemer, whether Israelite or stranger, is to be stoned (comp.  Exodus 22:28);

(2) That he that kills any man shall surely be put to death (comp.  Exodus 21:12-27);

(3) That he that kills a beast shall make it good (not found where we might have expected it, in the series of laws  Exodus 21:28 to  Exodus 22:16);

(4) That if a man cause a blemish in his neighbor he shall be requited in like manner (comp.  Exodus 21:22-25).

(5) We have then a repetition in an inverse order of  Exodus 21:17-18; and

(6) the injunction that there shall be one law for the stranger and the Israelite;

(7) finally, a brief notice of the infliction of the punishment in the case of the son of Shelomith, who blasphemed.

Not another instance is to be found in the whole collection in which any historical circumstance is made the occasion of enacting a law. Then, again, the laws (2), (3), (4), (5), are mostly repetitions of existing laws, and seem here to have no connection with the event to which they are referred. Either, therefore, some other circumstances took place at the same time with which we are not acquainted, or these isolated laws, detached from their proper connection, were grouped together here, in obedience perhaps to some traditional association.

(VI.) These decalogues are now fitly closed by words Of Promise And Threat-Promise of largest, richest blessing to those that hearken unto and do these commandments; threats of utter destruction to those that break the covenant of their God. Thus the second great division of the law closes like the first, except that the first part, or Book of the Covenant, ends ( Exodus 23:20-33) with promises of blessing only. There nothing is said of the judgments which are to follow transgression, because as yet the covenant had not been made. But when once the nation had freely entered into that covenant, they bound themselves to accept its sanctions its penalties, as well as its rewards. Nor call we wonder if in these sanctions the punishment of transgression holds a l

Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature

Leviticus, the third book of Moses.

Contents.—Leviticus contains the further statement and development of the Sinaitic legislation, the beginnings of which are described in Exodus. It exhibits the historical progress of this legislation; consequently we must not expect to find the laws detailed in it in a systematic form. There is, nevertheless, a certain order observed, which arose from the nature of the subject, and of which the plan may easily be perceived. The whole is intimately connected with the contents of Exodus, at the conclusion of which book that sanctuary is described with which all external worship was connected (Exodus 35-40).

Some critics have strenuously endeavored to prove that the laws contained in Leviticus originated in a period much later than is usually supposed. But the following observations sufficiently support their Mosaical origin, and show that the whole of Leviticus is historically genuine. The laws in Leviticus 1-7 contain manifest vestiges of the Mosaical period. Here, as well as in Exodus, when the priests are mentioned, Aaron and his sons are named; as, for instance, in;; , etc. The tabernacle is the sanctuary, and no other place of worship is mentioned anywhere. Expressions like the following constantly occur, before the tabernacle of the congregation, or the door of the tabernacle of the congregation (;; , etc.). The Israelites are always described as a congregation (, sq.), under the command of the elders of the congregation , or of a ruler . Everything has a reference to life in a camp, and that camp commanded by Moses (;;;;; ). A later writer could scarcely have placed himself so entirely in the times, and so completely adopted the modes of thinking of the age, of Moses: especially if, as has been asserted, these laws gradually sprung from the usages of the people, and were written down at a later period with the object of sanctioning them by the authority of Moses. They so entirely befit the Mosaical age, that, in order to adapt them to the requirements of any later period, they must have undergone some modification, accommodation, and a peculiar mode of interpretation. This inconvenience would have been avoided by a person who intended to forge laws in favor of the later modes of Levitical worship. A forger would have endeavored to identify the past as much as possible with the present.

In Leviticus 17 occurs the law which forbids the slaughter of any beast except at the sanctuary. This law could not be strictly kept in Palestine, and had therefore to undergo some modification (Deuteronomy 12). Our opponents cannot show any rational inducement for contriving such a fiction. The law is adapted to the nation only while emigrating from Egypt. It was the object of this law to guard the Israelites from falling into the temptation to imitate the Egyptian rites and sacrifices offered to he-goats; which word signifies also demons represented under the form of he goats, and which were supposed to inhabit the desert.

The laws concerning food and purifications appear especially important if we remember that the people emigrated from Egypt. The fundamental principle of these laws is undoubtedly Mosaical, but in the individual application of them there is much which strongly reminds us of Egypt. This is also the case in Leviticus 18, sq., where the lawgiver has manifestly in view the two opposites, Canaan and Egypt. That the lawgiver was intimately acquainted with Egypt, is proved by such remarks as those about the Egyptian marriages with sisters a custom which stands as an exception among the prevailing habits of antiquity.

The book of Leviticus has a prophetical character. The lawgiver represents to himself the future history of his people. This prophetical character is especially manifest in Leviticus 25, 26, where the law appears in a truly sublime and divine attitude, and when its predictions refer to the whole futurity of the nation. It is impossible to say that these were prophecies delivered after the event, unless we would assert that this book was written at the close of Israelitish history. We must rather grant that passages like this are the real basis on which the authority of later prophets is chiefly built. Such passages prove also, in a striking manner, that the lawgiver had not merely an external aim, but that his law had a deeper purpose, which was clearly understood by Moses himself. That purpose was to regulate the national life in all its bearings, and to consecrate the whole nation to God. See especially , sq.

But this ideal tendency of the law does not preclude its applicability to matters of fact. The law had not merely an ideal, but also a real character, evidenced by its relation to the faithlessness and disobedience of the nation. The whole future history of the covenant people was regulated by the law, which has manifested its eternal power and truth in the history of the people of Israel. Although this section has a general bearing, it is nevertheless manifest that it originated in the times of Moses. At a later period, for instance, it would have been impracticable to promulgate the law concerning the Sabbath and the year of Jubilee: for it was soon sufficiently proved how far the nation in reality remained behind the ideal Israel of the law. The sabbatical law bears the impress of a time when the whole legislation, in its fullness and glory, was directly communicated to the people, in such a manner as to attract, penetrate, and command.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

And, as far as the order in other respects is concerned, it is throughout to be regarded as founded in the subject-matter itself that  Leviticus 1 through 17 must precede   Leviticus 18 through 26. First that which separates the people from God must be removed, and then only is a God-pleasing conduct possible. Just as easily, and in agreement with the context, it is possible that the consecration of the priests in   Leviticus 8 through 10 presupposes the sacrificial tōrāh (  Leviticus 1 through 7; compare under 1 above) and follows the latter, and is immediately introduced by the mention made of the installation sacrifices for which otherwise there are no reasons assigned in the concluding formula in   Leviticus 7:37 (compare   Leviticus 8:22-32 ). The Day of Atonement (Lev 16), which in  Leviticus 16:16 f and   Leviticus 16:33 is spoken of in connection with the purification of the sanctuary, is in turn introduced by Lev 11 through 15, or more particularly by the remark in   Copyright StatementThese files are public domain and were generously provided by the folks at WordSearch Software. Bibliography InformationOrr, James, M.A., DD General Editor. Entry for 'Leviticus'. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/isb/l/leviticus.html. 1915.

The Nuttall Encyclopedia

The third book of the Pentateuch, so called as containing the laws and ordinances appointed to regulate the services of the sanctuary as conducted by a priesthood of the tribe of Levi, the narrative portion of it recording the consecration of Aaron and his sons, the death of Nadab and Abihu, and the stoning of the blasphemer, embracing a period of only one year, and the legislation of it no longer issuing from Mount Sinai, but from the door of the Tabernacle.