Golden Calf
Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible [1]
Calf, Golden . The incident of ‘the golden calf, is related in detail in Exodus 32:1-35 (cf. Deuteronomy 9:7-21 ), a chapter which belongs to the composite Prophetic source of the Pentateuch (JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] ). At the request of the people, who had begun to despair of Moses’ return from the mount, Aaron consented to make a god who should go before them on the journey to Canaan. From the golden ear-rings of their wives and children he fashioned an image of a young bull; this, rather than ‘calf,’ is the rendering of the Heb. word in the present connexion. The view that ‘calf is diminutive and sarcastic for bull’ is precluded by the use of the word elsewhere to denote the young but mature animal. A ‘feast to J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’ was proclaimed for the following day, and an altar erected on which sacrifice was offered. The sequel tells of Moses’ return, of the destruction of the image, and finally of Moses’ call to his tribesmen, the sons of Levi, to prove their zeal for the pure worship of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] by taking summary vengeance on the backsliders, 3000 of whom fell by their swords.
Two to three centuries later, bull images again emerge in the history of Israel. Among the measures taken by Jeroboam I. for the consolidation of his new kingdom was one which was primarily designed to secure its independence of the rival kingdom of the South in the all-important matter of public worship. With this end in view, perhaps also with the subsidiary purpose of reconciling the priesthood of the local sanctuaries to the new order of things, Jeroboam set up two golden ‘calves,’ one at Bethel and the other at Dan, the two most important sanctuaries, geographically and historically, in his realm ( 1 Kings 12:26-33 , 2 Chronicles 11:14 f.). Of the workmanship of Jeroboam’s ‘calves,’ as of that of Aaron, it is impossible to speak with certainty. The former probably, the latter possibly (cf. Exodus 32:20 ), consisted of a wooden core overlaid with gold. The view that the Heb. term necessarily implies that the images were small, has been shown above to be groundless. It is also uncertain whether the other chief sanctuaries of the kingdom were at a later period provided with similar images, the leading passage ( Amos 8:14 ) being capable of another interpretation.
With regard to the religious significance of this action on the part of Jeroboam, it is now admitted on all hands that the bulls are to be recognized as symbols of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] . He, and He alone, was worshipped both in the wilderness (see Exodus 32:5 ‘a feast to J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’) and at Bethel and Dan under the symbol of the golden bull. For the source of this symbolism we must not look to Egypt, as did the scholars of former days, but to the primitive religious conceptions of the Semitic stock to which the Hebrews belonged. Evidence, both literary and monumental, has accumulated in recent years, showing that among their Semitic kin the bull was associated with various deities as the symbol of vital energy and strength. Jeroboam, therefore, may be regarded as having merely given official sanction to a symbolism with which the Hebrews had been familiar, if not from time immemorial, at least since their association with the Canaanites.
A comparison of Exodus 32:8 with 1 Kings 12:28 shows that the two narratives have a literary connexion, of which more than one explanation is possible. In the opinion of most recent scholars, the author or editor of Exodus 32:1-35 has adapted the traditional material on which he worked so as to provide a polemic, in the spirit of Hosea, against the established worship of the Northern Kingdom, which is here represented as condemned in advance by J″ [Note: Jahweh.] Himself ( Exodus 32:7 f.). The attitude of Amos to this feature of the established worship at Bethel is not so evident as might have been expected, but of the attitude of Hosea there can be no doubt. It is one of profound scorn and bitter hostility (see Hosea 8:5 f., Hosea 10:5 , Hosea 13:2 the last passage gives the interesting detail that the bulls were kissed like the black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca). In the same spirit, and in harmony with the true character of the religion of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ), as revealed through the prophets who succeeded Hosea, the Deuteronomic editor of the Books of Kings repeatedly characterizes the introduction of the bull images into the cult of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] as the sin wherewith Jeroboam made Israel to sin ( 1 Kings 14:18; 1 Kings 15:26 etc.).
A. R. S. Kennedy.
Morrish Bible Dictionary [2]
This is described as being fashioned with a graving tool after it had been made a molten image. The ear-rings of the women, of the sons and daughters, and probably of the men, were given up for the object. The Israelites on their leaving had been amply supplied with jewels by the Egyptians and no doubt more trinkets were given to Aaron than those actually being worn. Nothing is said about the size of the calf, but a comparatively small image when on a pedestal would have been seen by the multitude. It is probable that the calf was intended as a representation of God, and would come under the second commandment rather than the first. Aaron said, "This is thy god, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt" (as it should read); and "To-morrow is a feast to Jehovah." Exodus 32:1-6 .
This form of idolatry is more specious than that of disowning God altogether and setting up an idol instead, but it is as really idolatry, and it was signally punished by God. There was the same worship in Egypt with the bull Apis, which was said to represent the god Osiris; this may have suggested the idea to the Israelites of making a calf. The same sin was repeated by Jeroboam who was afraid of his people going up to Jerusalem to worship: he set up two calves, one in Bethel and one in Dan, and proclaimed, "Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt." 1 Kings 12:28-33 . Idolatry did not stop here with Israel, for they went on to worship 'all the host of heaven, and served Baal.' 2 Kings 17:16 . The above specious form of idolatry is perpetuated in Christendom in the images in the churches, and on the road-side in any Roman Catholic country.
The fact that the golden calf was burnt by Moses before it was ground to powder has given rise to a great deal of discussion. It has been suggested that the image was really formed of wood and merely covered with gold; but the account will not allow this, for it says it was 'molten,' and then shaped more perfectly by the graver. It sufficiently meets the case if we suppose that the calf was at least softened by fire, if not melted, then beaten into thin plates, before being pounded into dust and strewn into the brook. Exodus 32:20 .
International Standard Bible Encyclopedia [3]
kaf , gol´d ' n :
I. The Name
1. Narrative of Aaron's Golden Calf
2. Jeroboam's Golden Calves
III. Attitude of Elijah to the Bull Symbols
IV. Attitude of Amos and Hosea to the Bull Symbols
Literature
I. The Name
The term עגל , ‛ēghel , is the ordinary Hebrew name for a male calf and is as flexible as the English name, applying to any animal from one a year old ( Micah 6:6 ) or perhaps younger ( Leviticus 9:3; Leviticus 12:6 ) to one three years old ( Genesis 15:9; compare Jeremiah 34:18 , Jeremiah 34:19 ). It has been thought that the habitual use of this diminutive term for the golden bulls which Aaron and Jeroboam set up - especially as it is twice made feminine ( Hosea 10:5; Hosea 13:2 ) - was intended to indicate their small size and Thus to express contempt for them. This however, though plausible, is by no means certain. It was not their size which made these bulls contemptible in the eyes of the prophets, and besides there were no life-size bulls of molten gold in any surrounding countries so far as known. The reference to female calves that were kissed ( Hosea 13:2 ), presumably at Bethel, may refer not to the worship of the bulls, but to their female counterparts, since in all other countries such female deities invariably accompanied the bull gods. Bethel may be especially mentioned because it was the "king's sanctuary" ( Amos 7:13 ) or because of the multitude of altars and high places found there ( Hosea 10:8; compare Hosea 8:11; Amos 5:26 ). False worship is also mentioned in connection with Jeroboam's apostasy, at Gilgal and Gilead ( Hosea 4:15; Hosea 12:11; Amos 4:4; Amos 5:5 ), Samaria ( Hosea 8:6; Hosea 10:5; Hosea 13:2 , Hosea 13:16 ); and Beersheba ( Amos 5:5; Amos 8:14 ) where no bulls had been set up by Jeroboam so far as stated. That these places receive more condemnation than Dan - which is explicitly mentioned in only one passage ( Amos 8:14 ) though it was a chief center of the bull worship ( 1 Kings 12:30 ) - may be due to the fact that the worship of the female deity was the more popular. This was certainly true in neighboring countries and also in other cities in Palestine, as has recently been proved by the excavations (see below).
II. Ancient Calf Worship
The origin of animal worship is hidden in obscurity, but reverence for the bull and cow is found widespread among the most ancient historic cults. Even in the prehistoric age the influence of the bull symbol was so powerful that it gave its name to one of the most important signs of the Zodiac, and from early historic times the horns of the bull were the familiar emblem of the rays of the sun, and solar gods were very commonly represented as bull-gods (Jensen, Kosmologie , 62-90; Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen , 1901-5, passim; Jeremias, Das Alter der bah. Astronomie , 1909, passim ). The Egyptians, close neighbors of the Hebrews, in all eras from that of the Exodus onward, worshipped living bulls at Memphis (not Mendes, as EB) and Hellopolls as incarnations of Ptah and Ra, while one of the most elaborate rituals was connected with the life-size image of the Hathor-cow (Naville, Deir el Bahari , Part I (1907), 163-67), while the sun was revered as the "valiant bull" and the reigning Pharaoh as "Bull of Bulls." But far more important in this connection is the fact that "calf" worship was almost if not quite universal among all the ancient Semitic peoples. If the immediate ancestors of Abraham did not revere this deity, they were certainly quite unlike their relatives, the Babylonians, among whom, according to all tradition, they lived before they migrated to Palestine ( Genesis 11:28 , Genesis 11:30; Josephus, Ant, I, vi, 5), for the Babylonians revered the bull as the symbol of their greatest gods, Ann and Sin and Marduk - the ideograph of a young bullock forming a part of the latter's name - while Hadadrimmon, an important Amorite deity, whose attributes remarkably resemble those of Yahweh (see Ward, Ajsl , Xxv , 175-85; Clay, Amurru (1909), 87-89), is pictured standing on the back of a bull. In Phoenicia also the bull was a sacred animal, as well as in northern Syria where it ranked as one of the chief Hittite deities its images receiving devout worship (see further, Sayce, Encyclopedia of Rel. and Ethics, under the word "Bull"). Among all these peoples the cow goddess was given at least equal honor. In Babylonia the goddess Ishtar has the cow for her symbol on very ancient seal cylinders, and when this nude or half-nude goddess appears in Palestine she often stands on a bull or cow (see William Hayes Ward, Cylinders and Other Ancient Oriental Seals), and under slightly different forms this same goddess is revered in Arabia, Moab, Phoenicia, Syria and elsewhere, while among the Semitic Canaanites the bull was the symbol of Baal, and the cow of Astarte (see particularly Barton, Hebraica, IX, 133-63; X, 1-74, and Semitic Origins, chapter vii; Driver, "Astarte" in DB). Recent excavations in Palestine have shown that during all eras no heathen worship was as popular as that of Astarte in her various forms (see S. A. Cook, Rel. of Ancient Palestine, 1909). That she once is found wearing ram's horns (PEFS (1903), 227) only reveals her nature more clearly as the goddess of fertility. Her relation to the sacred fish at Carnion in Gilead and to the doves of Ascalon, as well as to female prostitution and to Nature's "resurrection" and fruitage, had been previously well known, as also her relation to the moon which governs the seasons. Is there any rational motif which can account for this widespread "calf" worship? Is it conceivable that this cult could so powerfully influence such intelligent and rather spiritually-minded nations as the Egyptians and Babylonians if it were wholly irrational and contained no spiritual content? And is there no rational explanation behind this constant fusion of the deity which controls the breeding of cattle with the deity which controls vegetation? How did the bull come to represent the "corn spirit," so that the running of a bull through the corn (the most destructive act) came to presage good crops; and how did the rending of a bull, spilling his life blood on the soil, increase fertility? (See Fraser, Golden Bough , II, 291-293, 344.) The one real controlling motif of all these various representations and functions of the "calf" god may be found in the ancient awe, especially among the Semites, for the Mystery of Life. This seems to offer a sufficient reason why the bull, which is a most conspicuous example of life-giving power, should be so closely connected with the reproductive processes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms and also with the sun, which from earliest historic times was considered as preëminently the "giver of life." Bull worship was not always an exhibition of gross animalism, but, certainly in Bible times, often represented a concept which was the product of reflection upon one of the deepest mysteries of Nature. Few hymns in Egypt or Babylon express higher spiritual knowledge and aspiration than those addressed to the bull gods or to others honored with this title, e.g. this one to the god Sin of Ur, the "heifer of Anu," "Strong young bull; with strong horns,... with beard of lapislazuli color ... self-created, full of developed fruit ... Mother-womb who has taken up his abode, begetter of all things, exalted habitation among living creatures; O merciful gracious father, in whose hand rests the life of the whole world; O L ord, thy divinity is full of awe like the far-off heaven and the broad ocean!" (Rogers, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1908), 164). Many modern scholars believe that the primitive Egyptians and Babylonians really thought of their earthly and heavenly gods as animals (see especially Maspero, Bulletin critique, 1886; Revue de l'histoire des religions, 1888), but it seems certain that at least as early as the date of the Exodus these stars and beasts were not regarded by all as being themselves deities, but rather as symbols or representations of deity (Davis and Cobern, Ancient Egypt, 281-89; Brugsch, Die Aegyptologie, I, 135; Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier u. der Ssabismus, II, 134).
1. Narrative of Aaron's Golden Calf
The text of Ex 32 is certainly composite (see e.g. Bacon's "Exodus" in the place cited. and DB ), and some words and phrases are a verbal dupli care of the narrative of Jeroboam's calf worship (compare Exodus 32:4 with 1 Kings 12:28 , and see parallel columns in Driver's Deteronomy ). Some Bible critics so analyze the text as to make the entire calf story a later element, without ancient basis, added to some short original statement like Exodus 32:7-11 , for the sake of satirizing Jeroboam's bull worship and its non-Levitical priesthood (see e.g. Kuenen, Hexateuch ). Most recent critics have however accepted the incident as an ancient memory or historic fact attested by the oldest sources, and used Thus by the Deuteronomist (Dt 9), though the verbal form may have been affected by the later editor's scorn of the northern apostasy. It seems clearly unreasonable to suppose that a Hebrew writer at any era would so fiercely abuse his own ancestors, without any traditional basis for his statements, merely for the sake of adding a little more which cast reproach upon his northern neighbors, and it seems equally unlikely that any such baseless charges would have been accepted as true by the slandered nation. The old expositors, accepting the essential historicity of the account, generally followed Philo and the early Fathers in supposing this calf of gold was an image of the Apis or Mnevis bulls of Egypt, and this is occasionally yet advocated by some Egyptologists (e.g. Steindorf, Ancient Egypt (1903), 167; compare also Jeremias, Old Testament in Light of Ancient East (1911), II, 138). The objections made to this view by the skeptics of the 18th century, based on the supposed impossibility of such chemical and mechanical skill being possessed at that era, have mostly been made obsolete by recent discovery. The common modern objection that this could not have been Apis worship because the Apis was a living bull, is by no means conclusive, since images of Apis are not uncommon and were probably worshipped in the temple itself. It may be added that a renaissance of this worship occurred at this very era. So Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Rel . (1907), 23-79. Modern Bible scholars, however, are practically unanimous in the opinion that the Golden Calf, if worshipped at all, must have been a representation of a Semitic, not an Egyptian, deity. In favor of this it may be suggested: (1) It was an era when each deity was considered as the god of a particular country and it would seem impossible that a native Egyptian god should be thought of as joining with Egypt's enemies and assisting them to reach a land over which he had no control. (2) The Israelite religion shows little influence from Egypt, but was immensely influenced from Canaan and Babylon, Apis only being mentioned once ( Jeremiah 46:20 (translated "heifer"); compare Ezekiel 20:7 , Ezekiel 20:8 , and see Brugsch, Steininschrift und Bibelwort , passim , and Robertson, Early Religion of Israel , 217). (3) The bull and cow are now known to have been ordinary symbols for the most popular deities which were worshipped by all the race-relatives of the Hebrews and nowhere more devoutly than in Canaan and in the adjoining districts (see above). (4) Some of the chief gods of the pasture land of Goshen, where the Hebrews had resided for centuries ( Genesis 47:6; Genesis 50:8 ), were Semitic gods which were worshipped not only by the Edomitic Bedouin and other foreigners living there by the "pools of Pithom" (compare Exodus 1:11 ) but by the native Egyptians, Ramses Ii even naming a daughter after one of these. The special god of this district had as its symbol a bull calf, and one inscription actually speaks of the statue of a "golden calf of 600 pounds weight" which it was the custom to dedicate annually to one of these Semitic gods, while another inscription mentions a statue of gold "a cubit in height" (Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt (1905), III, 630-38; Naville, Goshen , Store City of Pithom ; Erman, Handbook ; 173-74; Brugsch, op. cit.). (5) The chief proof, however, is the statement of the text that the feast in connection with this worship was a "feast to Yahweh" ( Exodus 32:5 ). When Moses disappeared for forty days in the Mount, it was not unnatural that the people should turn back to the visible symbols worshipped by their ancestors, and should give to them the new name or new attributes which had been attached to deity by Moses. The worship was condemned for much the same reason as that of Jeroboam's calves (see next section ).
2. Jeroboam's Golden Calves
Though this passage ( 1 Kings 12:26-33; compare 2 Chronicles 10:14 , 2 Chronicles 10:15 ) may have been reëdited later, "there is no reason to infer that any detail of fact is underived from the olden time" (Burney, Hebrew Text of Kings (1902), and DB ). These calves which Jeroboam set up were doubtless bulls ( 1 Kings 12:28 , Hebrew ) but at least as early as Hosea's time it seems probable (see above) that the more licentious worship of the feminine principle had been added to the official worship ( Hosea 10:5; Hosea 13:2 , Hebrew). This which else here naturally and universally accompanied the bull worship could most truly be called "the sin of Samaria" ( Amos 8:14 ) and be classed as the "sin of Jeroboam" ( 1 Kings 14:9 , 1 Kings 14:16; 1 Kings 16:26; 2 Kings 10:29 ). There is no sufficient reason for explaining the term "molten" in any other an its most natural and usual sense ( Exodus 32:8 , Exodus 32:24; 2 Kings 17:16; Deuteronomy 9:16 ), for molded metal idols were common in all eras in Palestine and the surrounding countries, though the core of the image might be molten or graven of some inferior metal overlaid with gold ( Isaiah 30:22; Isaiah 40:19 , Hebrew; Deuteronomy 7:25; Exodus 32:4 ). These bull images were undoubtedly intended to represent Yahweh (yet compare Robertson, op. cit., and Orr, Problem of Old Testament (1906), 145). The text explicitly identifies these images with Aaron's calf ( 1 Kings 12:28 ), so that nearly all the reasons given above to prove that Aaron's image represented not an Egyptian but an ancient Semitic deity are equally valid here. To these various other arguments may be added: (1) The text itself states that it is Yahweh who brought them from Egypt ( Hosea 2:15; Hosea 12:13; Hosea 13:4 ), whom they call "My lord," and to whom they swear ( Hosea 2:16 , King James Version margin; Hosea 4:15 ); and to whom they present their wine offerings, sacrifices and feasts ( Hosea 8:13; Hosea 9:4 , Hosea 9:5 , Hebrew; compare Amos 5:8 ). (2) Jehu, though he destroyed all Baal idols, never touched these bulls ( 2 Kings 10:28 , 2 Kings 10:29 ). (3) The ritual, though freer, was essentially that of the Jerusalem temple ( 1 Kings 12:32; Hosea 5:6; Amos 4:5; Amos 5:22 , Amos 5:23; see, Oettli, Greifswalder Studien (1895), quoted in DB , I, 342). (4) Even the southern prophets recognized that it was Yahweh who had given Jeroboam the kingdom ( 1 Kings 11:31; 1 Kings 12:15 , 1 Kings 12:24 ) and only Yahweh worship could have realized Jeroboam's purpose of attaching to the throne by this cult such devout citizens as would otherwise be drawn to Jerusalem to worship. It was to guard against this appeal which the national sanctuary made to devout souls that this counter worship had been established. As Budde says, "A foreign cult would only have driven the devout Ephraimites the more surely over to Jerusalem" ( Rel. of Israel (1899), 113). Jeroboam was not attempting to shock the conscience of his religious adherents by making heathenism the state religion, but rather to win these pious worshippers of Yahweh to his cause. (5) The places selected for the bull worship were places already sacred to Yahweh. This was preëminently true of Bethel which, centuries before Jerusalem had been captured from the Jebusites, had been identified with special revelations of Yahweh's presence ( Genesis 13:3 , Genesis 13:4; Genesis 28:19; Genesis 31:13; Genesis 35:15; 1 Samuel 7:16; Hosea 12:4 ). (6) The story shows that the allegiance of his most pious subjects was retained ( 1 Kings 12:20 ) and that not even Elijah fled to the Southern, supposing that the Northern Kingdom had accepted the worship of heathen gods as its state religion. Instead of this, Elijah, though the boldest opponent of the worship of Baal, is never reported as uttering one word against the bull worship at Dan and Bethel.
III. Attitude of Elijah to the Bull Symbols
This surprising silence is variously explained. A few scholars, though without any historic or textual evidence for the charge, are sure that the Bible narratives (though written by southern men) are fundamentally defective at this point, otherwise they would report Elijah's antagonism to this cult. Other few, equally without evidence, are comfortably sure that he fully approved the ancient ancestral calf cult. Others, with more probability, explain his position on the ground that, though he may not have favored the bull symbol - which was never used by the Patriarchs so far as known, and certainly was not used as a symbol of Yahweh in the Southern Kingdom, or Hosea the northern prophet would have spoken of it - yet being himself a northern man of old ideals and simple habits, Elijah may have believed that, even with this handicap, the freer and more democratic worship carried on al the ancient holy places in the North was less dangerous than the elaborate and luxurious ritual of the aristocratic and exclusive priesthood of the South, which insisted upon political and religious centralization, and was dependent upon such enormous revenues for its support (compare 1 Kings 12:10 , 1 Kings 12:14 ). At any rate it is self-evident that if Elijah had turned against Jeroboam and the state religion, it would have divided seriously the forces which needed to unite, in order to oppose with all energy the much fouler worship of Baal which just at this crisis, as never before or afterward, threatened completely to overwhelm the worship of Yahweh.
IV. Attitude of Amos and Hosea to the Bull Symbols
It is easy to see why Hosea might fiercely condemn a ritual which Elijah might rightly tolerate. (1) This calf worship may have deteriorated. Elijah lived closer to the time when the new state ritual was inaugurated and would naturally be at its best. Hosea lived at an era when he could trace the history of this experiment for nearly two cents, and could see clearly that these images had not helped but greatly hindered the development of the ethical and spiritual religion of Yahweh. Even if at first recognized as symbols, these images had become common idols ( Hosea 12:11; Hosea 13:2 , and passim ). "This thing became a sin" ( 1 Kings 12:30; 1 Kings 13:34 ). The history of religion shows many such instances wher the visible or verbal symbol which in one era had been a real aid to devotion at a later time became positively antagonistic to it (see Images ). As Baal was also worshipped under the form of a calf and as Yahweh himself was at times called "Baal" ( Isaiah 54:5; Jeremiah 31:32; Hosea 2:16 Hebrew) this unethical tendency would be accelerated, as also by the political antagonism between Judah and Ephraim and the bitter hatred between the two rival priesthoods (compare 2 Chronicles 11:15; 2 Chronicles 13:9 ). Certain it is that by the middle of the 8th century the worship at Dan and Bethel had extended itself to many other points and had become so closely affiliated with the heathen worship as to be practically indistinguishable - at least when viewed from the later prophetic standpoint. But (2) it cannot be doubted that the prophetic standpoint had changed in 200 years. As the influence of the northern worship had tended toward heathenism, so the influence of the southern worship of an imageless god had tended toward higher spiritual ideals. Elijah could not have recognized the epoch-making importance of an imageless temple. The constant pressure of this idea - G od is Spirit - had developed a new spiritual conscience, which by the 8th century was so keen that the worship of Yahweh under the form of an image was not improperly considered as almost if not quite as bad as out-and-out heathenism, just as the Reformers of the 16th century regarded the Roman Catholic images as little better than idols ( Hosea 8:5 , Hosea 8:6; Hosea 11:2; Hosea 13:2; compare 2 Kings 17:16 , 2 Kings 17:17 ). The ifluence of this new conscience is also seen in the fact that it is not simply or perhaps chiefly the "calves" which are condemned, but the spirit of ungodliness and unkindness which also made the orthodox worship in Jerusalem little if any better than that at Bethel ( Hosea 6:4; Hosea 5:12 , Hosea 5:14 ). The influence of this theology - G od is Spirit - had so filled the souls of these prophets that even the sacrifices had lost their importance when unaccompanied by kindness and spiritual knowledge ( Hosea 6:6; Hosea 7:1 ), and it is the absence of this essential spirit, rather than the form of worship, which Amos and Hosea condemn in the Northern Kingdom ( Amos 2:6-8; Amos 3:10; Amos 4:1; Amos 5:7 , Amos 5:12-15 , Amos 5:21-24; Amos 6:12; Amos 8:4-6; Hosea 4:2 , Hosea 4:3; Hosea 9:1; Hosea 10:12-14 ). These later prophets could also see, as Elijah could not possibly have seen, that unity of worship was imperatively needed, and that sacrifices in the old sacred "high places" must be discontinued. Only Thus could superstitious fanaticism and religious disintegration be avoided. A miscellaneous and unregulated Yahweh cult might become almost as bad as heathenism. Indeed it might be worse if it gave the Baal spirit and interpretation to Yahweh worship. See also Astrology , II, 2.
Literature
Besides references above, see especially commentaries of Dillmann and Driver on Exodus; Kuenen, Religion of Israel ; W. R. Smith, Religion of Semites , 93-113 and index; König, Hauptprobleme der altisraelitischen Religionsgeschichte ; Baeth gen, Beitr. zur semit. Religionsgeschichte ; Kittel, History of Hebrews ; "Baal" and "Ashtoreth" in Encyclopedia of Rel. and Ethics (full lit.); "Golden Calf" in Jewish Encyclopedia for Rabbinical and Mohammedan lit.
