Epistle To The Ephesians

Morrish Bible Dictionary

Paul first visited Ephesus on his way from Corinth to Syria: he did not stay then, but left Priscilla and Aquila there, who were afterwards joined by Apollos.  Acts 18:18-24 . Paul soon returned and stayed there two years. There was thus time for the saints to be grounded in the truth. The opposition was so great in the synagogue that Paul separated the disciples, and they met daily in the school of Tyrannus. The word grew mightily and prevailed.  Acts 19:1-20 .

In  1 Corinthians 15:32 Paul speaks of having fought with beasts at Ephesus, doubtless alluding to the strong opposition manifested towards him there by the Jews. In   Acts 20:17 , etc., Paul exhorts the elders of Ephesus, as overseers, to feed the church of God. He warns them that grievous wolves would enter in, and some from among themselves would speak perverse things to draw away disciples after them. As their resource he commends them to God and the word of His grace. Following this was the Epistle he wrote to them during the two years he was a prisoner at Rome.

In  1 Timothy 1:3 Paul says he had besought Timothy to abide at Ephesus, and to exhort them to teach no other doctrine, and not to give heed to fables and endless genealogies. In   2 Timothy 1:15 there is the sad intelligence that 'all they which are in Asia' (which must have included Ephesus) had 'turned away from' Paul, doubtless signifying that they had given up the truth as taught by Paul, and settled down with a lower standard. In   2 Timothy 4:12 Tychicus had been sent to Ephesus. The great care and watchfulness with which Paul laboured for their welfare is very manifest. In   Revelation 2:1-7 we have the address to this church, in which much is said in their favour, though the solemn charge had also to be made that they had left their first love, and the warning is given that if they did not repent their candlestick would be removed.

The Epistle to the Ephesians is remarkable in setting forth the counsels of God with regard to His people as connected with Christ. It is from this standpoint that they are viewed, rather than that of their need as sinners, and how it has been met. This latter is developed in the Epistle to the Romans. The state of the Ephesian believers enabled them to receive a communication of such a nature as this Epistle, in which glorious unfoldings of the mind of God about His own are given in the greatest fulness.

The key note is struck in  Ephesians 1:3 , where God is blessed as "the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" — the God , when our Lord Jesus Christ is looked at as man; the Father, when He is viewed as Son of God. Christians are brought in Christ into these very relationships, as stated by the Lord Himself when risen from the dead, "Go to my brethren, and say unto them, I ascend unto my Father, and your Father; and to my God, and yourGod." It will be seen that the prayer at the close of  Ephesians 1 is founded on the title 'the God of our Lord Jesus Christ,' while that in   Ephesians 3 is on the title 'Father.' The God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ has blessed believers with every spiritual blessing in the heavenlies in Christ. He has marked them out for adoption to Himself, that is, their beingbrought into the full position of sons in Christ Jesus, according to the good pleasure of His will. Brought into favour in the Beloved, they have in Him redemption, the forgiveness of sins. The mystery of God's will is set forth — to head up all things, whether heavenly or earthly, in the Christ for the administration of the fulness of times. Jews and Gentiles are the subjectsof salvation according to the purpose of God, believers from among both beingsealed by the Holy Spirit, who is also the earnest of their inheritance — aninheritance which will be to the praise of God's glory when everything is headed up in Christ.

The prayer at the close of  Ephesians 1 is that the saints might have the spiritof wisdom and revelation in the full knowledge of the God of the Lord Jesus Christ: that they might know the hope of His calling, His inheritance in the saints, and the greatness of the power towards them which He wrought in raising Christ (a Man) from the dead, and setting Him at His right hand in the heavenly places (cf.   Psalm 8 .). He being head over all things to the body, which is the fulness of Him who fills all in all.

 Ephesians 2 . This same power had wrought toward the saints (as shown by the subject being continued without a break from  Ephesians 1 : to  Ephesians 2 .), in that having been dead in sins they had been quickened with Christ, had been raised up together (Jew and Gentile), and made to sit down together in the heavenlies in Christ Jesus. There is a new creation in Christ by God as regards His people. The apostle would have the Gentile Christians contrast their present privileges with their former hopeless state. Jew and Gentile believers had access by one Spirit to the Father, while the latter were now fellow-citizens of the saints, and were of the household of God, being part of the holy temple He was building. They were also built together for a habitation of God in the Spirit.

 Ephesians 3 . This chapter, in a parenthesis, unfolds the administration of the mystery, hid in God, but now revealed by the Spirit, namely, that the Gentiles should be joint heirs and a joint body and joint partakers of His promise in Christ Jesus. A mystery is that which is understood only by the initiated. In the public dealings of God with men this mystery had no place; it is connected (though administered upon earth) with Christ while hid in the heavens, and the saints united to Him there; by its administration would be made known to principalities and powers in heavenly places the all various wisdom of God. A prayer follows that the saints might be strengthened inwardly by the Spirit; that the Christ might dwell through faith In their hearts; that they might apprehend the breadth, and length, and depth, and height and might know the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge, so as to be filled unto all the fulness of God. Christ is here presented as the centre of all the counsels of God, and His love is to be known in all its fulness by the hearts of His people.

 Ephesians 4 . The apostle applies what is given in the earlier part of the epistle, particularly at the close of  Ephesians 2 — the bringing together in one in a new and heavenly manner of those who on earthly ground had been at enmity. The saints were to endeavour to keep the unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace. Gifts are alluded to as given by the Head, for the perfecting of the saints, for the work of the ministry, for the edifying of the body of Christ, till we all arrive at the unity of the faith, and the full knowledge of the Son of God, at the full grown man, and at the measure of the stature of the fulness of the Christ. Everything necessary for the body is derived from the Head. All is to grow up into Christ. Practical exhortations follow in   Ephesians 4:17 . The truth 'in Jesus' is the having put off the old man and having put on the new: consequently all that characterised the old man must be put off, and what is of the new cultivated.

 Ephesians 5 and   Ephesians 6 . Believers are to be imitators of God as dear children. They are light in the Lord, and are to walk as children of light. They are to be filled with the Spirit. Earthly relationships are now referred to: wives, husbands, children, fathers, bondmen, masters. Each relationship is to be taken up as in the Lord. Blessed instruction as to the mystery of Christ and the church is given in connection with the word to wives and husbands.

In view of the nature of the spiritual conflict waged in heavenly places, Christians are exhorted to put on the panoply of God. Without this they cannot stand. The apostle asks the prayers of the saints that he might make known the mystery of the glad tidings with boldness; and closes this remarkable epistle with a benediction.

The 'heavenlies' characterise the epistle: cf.  Ephesians 1:3,20;  Ephesians 2:6;  Ephesians 3:10;  Ephesians 6:12 . In the Epistle to the Romans man is taken up as alive in his sins, and grace meets his need: in Ephesians it is God's quickening power on behalf of those dead in sins, as displayed in raising Christ up from among the dead. In Colossians the saints are looked at as risen with Christ, but on earth with their hope in heaven: in the Ephesians the saints are seated in Christ in the heavenlies.

American Tract Society Bible Dictionary

This epistle was written by Paul, at Rome, probably A. D. 62. The ablest modern critics are not agreed as to the church to whom it was addressed, whether to that in Ephesus, that in Laodicea, or to both of these in connection with the other churches in that region. It does not appear, however, that any important point of doctrine or instruction depends on the decision of this question. The epistle is now addressed to and is intelligible be every one who studies it. The first part of it is a grateful discourse upon the vast scheme of divine grace, and blessings flowing from it. The latter part inculcates Christian consistency and steadfastness, and a faithful discharge of all relative duties. It is one of the richest and most valuable of the epistles, having a singular fullness of matter, depth of doctrine, sublimity of style, and warmth of emotion, which render it precious to the Christian of every land.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

I. Authenticity

1. External Evidence

2. Internal Evidence

II. Place and Date of Writing

III. Destination

1. Title

2. The Inscription

3. The Evidence of the Letter Itself

4. Conclusion

IV. Relation to Other New Testament Writings

1. Peter

2. Johannine Writings

3. Colossians

V. The Purpose

VI. Argument

VII. Teaching

Literature

I. Authenticity

1. External Evidence

None of the epistles which are ascribed to Paul have a stronger chain of evidence to their early and continued use than that which we know as the Epistle to the Ephesians. Leaving for the moment the question of the relation of Eph to other New Testament writings, we find that it not only colors the phraseology of the Apostolic Fathers, but is actually quoted. In Clement of Rome (circa 95 ad) the connection with Ephesians might be due to some common liturgical form in xlvi.6 (compare  Ephesians 4:6 ); though the resemblance is so close that we must feel that our epistle was known to Clement both here and in lxiv (compare  Ephesians 1:3-4 ); xxxviii (compare  Ephesians 5:21 ); xxxvi (compare  Ephesians 4:18 ); lix (compare  Ephesians 1:18;  Ephesians 4:18 ). Ignatius (died 115) shows numerous points of contact with Ephesians, especially in his Epistle to the Ephesians. In chap. xii we read: "Ye are associates and fellow students of the mysteries with Paul, who in every letter makes mention of you in Christ Jesus." It is difficult to decide the exact meaning of the phrase "every letter," but in spite of the opinion of many scholars that it must be rendered "in all his epistle," i.e. in every part of his epistle, it is safer to take it as an exaggeration, "in all his epistles," justified to some extent in the fact that besides Ephesians, Paul does mention the Ephesian Christians in Rom ( Romans 16:5 ); 1 Cor ( 1 Corinthians 15:32;  1 Corinthians 16:8 ,  1 Corinthians 16:19 ); 2 Cor ( 2 Corinthians 1:8 f); 1 Tim (  1 Timothy 1:3 ) and 2 Tim ( 2 Timothy 1:18 ). In the opening address the connection with  Ephesians 1:3-6 is too close to be accidental. There are echoes of our epistle in chap. i (  Ephesians 6:1 ); ix ( Ephesians 2:20-22 ); xviii ( oikonomı́a ,  Ephesians 1:10 ); xx ( Ephesians 2:18;  Ephesians 4:24 ); and in Ignat. ad Polyc . v we have close identity with  Ephesians 5:25 and less certain connection with   Ephesians 4:2 , and in vi with  Ephesians 6:13-17 . The Epistle of Polycarp in two passages shows verbal agreement with Eph: in chap. i with  Ephesians 1:8 , and in xii with  Ephesians 4:26 , where we have (the Greek is missing here) ut his scripturis dictum est . Hermas speaks of the grief of the Holy Spirit in such a way as to suggest Ephesians ( Mand . X, ii; compare  Ephesians 4:30 ). Sim. IX, xiii, shows a knowledge of  Ephesians 4:3-6 , and possibly of  Ephesians 5:26 and   Ephesians 1:13 . In the Didache (4) we find a parallel to   Ephesians 6:5 : "Servants submit yourselves to your masters." In Barnabas there are two or three turns of phrase that are possibly due to Ephesians. There is a slightly stronger connection between Ii C lement and Ephesians, especially in chap. xiv, where we have the Ephesian figure of the church as the body of Christ, and the relation between them referred to in terms of husband and wife.

This early evidence, slight though it is, is strengthened by the part Ephesians played in the 2nd century where, as we learn from Hippolytus, it was used by the Ophites and Basilides and Valentinus. The latter (according to Hip., Phil ., VI, 29) quoted  Ephesians 3:16-18 , saying, "This is what has been written in Scripture," while his disciple Ptolemais is said by Irenaeus ( Adv. Haer ., i.8, 5) to have attributed  Ephesians 5:13 to Paul by name. According to the addenda to the eighth book of the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria, Theodotus, a contemporary of Valentinus, quoted   Ephesians 4:10 and   Ephesians 4:30 with the words: "The apostle says," and attributes   Ephesians 4:24 to Paul. Marcion knew Ephesians as Tertullian tells us, identifying it with the epistle referred to in   Colossians 4:16 as ad Laodicenos . We find it in the Muratorian Fragment (10b, l. 20) as the second of the epistles which "Paul wrote following the example of his predecessor John." It is used in the letter from the church of Lyons and Vienne and by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen and later writers. We can well accept the dictum of Dr. Hort that it "is all but certain on this evidence that the Epistle was in existence by 95 ad; quite certain that it was in existence by about fifteen years later or conceivably a little more" (Hort, Judaistic Christianity , 118).

2. Internal Evidence

To this very strong chain of external evidence, reaching back to the very beginning of the 2nd century, if not into the end of the 1st, showing Ephesians as part of the original Pauline collection which no doubt Ignatius and Polycarp used, we must add the evidence of the epistle itself, testing it to see if there be any reason why the letter thus early attested should not be accredited to the apostle.

(1) That it claims to be written by Paul is seen not only in the greeting, "Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus through the will of God, to the saints that are at Ephesus," but also in  Ephesians 3:1 , where we read: "For this cause I P aul, the prisoner of Christ Jesus in behalf of you Gentiles," a phrase which is continued in  Ephesians 4:1 : "I therefore, the prisoner in the Lord." This claim is substantiated by the general character of the epistle which is written after the Pauline norm, with greeting and thanksgiving, leading on to and serving as the introduction of the special doctrinal teaching of the epistle. This is the first great division of the Pauline epistles and is regularly followed by an application of the teaching to practical matters, which in turn yields to personal greetings, or salutations, and the final benediction, commonly written by the apostle's own hand. In only one particular does Ephesians fail to answer completely to this outline. The absence of the personal greetings has always been marked as a striking peculiarity of our letter. The explanation of this peculiarity will meet us when we consider the destination of the epistle (see Iii below).

(2) Further evidence for the Pauline authorship is found in the general style and language of the letter. We may agree with von Soden ( Early Christ. Lit ., 294) that "every sentence contains verbal echoes of Pauline epistles, indeed except when ideas peculiar to the Epistle come to expression it is simply a mosaic of Pauline phraseology," without accepting his conclusion that Paul did not write it. We feel, as we read, that we have in our hands the work of one with whom the other epistles have made us familiar. Yet we are conscious none the less of certain subtle differences which give occasion for the various arguments that critics have brought against the claim that Paul is the actual author. This is not questioned until the beginning of the last century, but has been since Schleiermacher and his disciple Usteri, though the latter published his doubts before his master did his. The Tübingen scholars attacked the epistle mainly on the ground of supposed traces of Gnostic or Montanist influences, akin to those ascribed to the Colossians. Later writers have given over this claim to put forward others based on differences of style (De Wette, followed by Holtzmann, von Soden and others); dependence on Colossians (Hitzig, Holtzmann); the attitude to the Apostles (von Soden); doctrinal differences, especially those that concern Christology and the Parousia, the conception of the church (Klöpper, Wrede and others). The tendency, however, seems to be backward toward a saner view of the questions involved; and most of those who do not accept the Pauline authorship would probably agree with Jülicher ( Encyclopedia Biblica ), who ascribes it to a "Pauline Christian intimately familiar with the Pauline epistles, especially with Colossians, writing about 90," who sought in Ephesians "to put in a plea for the true catholicism in the meaning of Paul and in his name."

(3) Certain of these positions require that we should examine the doctrinal objections. ( a ) First of these is the claim that Ephesians has a different conception of the person and work of Christ from the acknowledged epistles of Paul. Not only have we the exaltation of Christ which we find in  Colossians 1:16 , but the still further statement that it was God's purpose from the beginning to "sum up all things in Christ, the things in the heavens, and the things upon the earth" ( Ephesians 1:10 ). This is no more than the natural expansion of the term, "all things," which are attributed to Christ in  1 Corinthians 8:6 , and is an idea which has at least its foreshadowing in  Romans 8:19 ,  Romans 8:20 and   2 Corinthians 5:18 ,  2 Corinthians 5:19 . The relation between Christ and the church as given in  Ephesians 1:22 and   Ephesians 5:23 is in entire agreement with Paul's teaching in Rom 12, and 1 Cor 12. It is still the Pauline figure of the church as the body of Christ, in spite of the fact that Christ is not thought of as the head of that body. The argument in the epistle does not deal with the doctrine of the cross from the standpoint of the earlier epistles, but the teaching is exactly the same. There is redemption (  Ephesians 1:7 ,  Ephesians 1:14;  Ephesians 4:30 ); reconciliation ( Ephesians 2:14-16 ); forgiveness ( Ephesians 1:7;  Ephesians 4:32 ). The blood of Christ shed on the cross redeems us from our sin and restores us to God. In like manner it is said that the Parousia is treated ( Ephesians 2:7 ) as something far off. But Paul has long since given up the idea that it is immediately; even in 2 Thess 2 he shows that an indeterminate interval must intervene, and in  Romans 11:25 he sees a period of time yet unfulfilled before the end. ( b ) The doctrine of the church is the most striking contrast to the earlier epistles. We have already dealt with the relation of Christ to the church. The conception of the church universal is in advance of the earlier epistles, but it is the natural climax of the development of the apostle's conception of the church as shown in the earlier epistles. Writing from Rome with the idea of the empire set before him, it was natural that Paul should see the church as a great whole, and should use the word ekklesia absolutely as signifying the oneness of the Christian brotherhood. As a matter of fact the word is used in this absolute sense in  1 Corinthians 12:28 before the Captivity Epistles (compare   1 Corinthians 1:2;  1 Corinthians 10:32 ). The emphasis here on the unity of Jew and Gentile in the church finds its counterpart in the argument of the Epistle to the Romans, though in Ephesians this is "urged on the basis of God's purpose and Christian faith, rather than on the Law and the Promises." Neither is it true that in Ephesians the Law is spoken of slightingly, as some say, by the reference to circumcision ( Ephesians 2:11 ). In no case is the doctrinal portion of the epistle counter to that of the acknowledged Pauline epistles, though in the matter of the church, and of Christ's relationship to it and to the universe, there is evidence of progress in the apostle's conception of the underlying truths, which none the less find echoes in the earlier writings. "New doctrinal ideas, or a new proportion of these ideas, is no evidence of different authorship." ( c ) In the matter of organization the position of Ephesians is not in any essential different from what we have in 1 Cor.

(4) The linguistic argument is a technical matter of the use of Greek words that cannot well be discussed here. The general differences of style, the longer "turgid" sentences, the repetitions on the one hand; the lack of argument, the full, swelling periods on the other, find their counterpart in portions of Romans. The minute differences which show themselves in new or strange words will be much reduced in number when we take from the list those that are due to subjects which the author does not discuss elsewhere (e.g. those in the list of armor in  Ephesians 6:13 ). Holtzmann ( Einl , 25) gives us a list of these hápax legómena (76 in all). But there are none of these which, as Lock says, Paul could not have used, though there are certain which he does not use elsewhere and others which are only found in his accepted writings and here. The following stand out as affording special ground for objection. The phrase "heavenly places" ( tá epouránia ,  Ephesians 1:3 ,  Ephesians 1:10;  Ephesians 2:6;  Ephesians 3:10;  Ephesians 6:12 ) is peculiar to this epistle. The phrase finds a partial parallel it in  1 Corinthians 15:49 and the thought is found in   Philippians 3:20 . The devil ( ho diábolos ,  Ephesians 4:27;  Ephesians 6:11 ) is used in place of the more usual Satan ( satanás ). But in Acts Paul is quoted as using diabolos in  Acts 13:10 and satanas in  Acts 26:18 . It is at least natural that he would have used the Greek term when writing from Rome to a Greek-speaking community. The objection to the expression "holy" ( hagı́ois ) apostles ( Ephesians 3:5 ) falls to the ground when we remember that the expression "holy" ( hágios ) is Paul's common word for Christian and that he uses it of himself in this very epistle ( Ephesians 3:8 ). In like manner "mystery" ( musterion ), "dispensation" ( oikonomia ) are found in other epistles in the same sense that we find them in here.

The attack on the epistle fails, whether it is made from the point of teaching or language; and there is no ground whatever for questioning the truth of Christian tradition that Paul wrote the letter which we know as the Epistle to the Ephesians.

II. Place and Date of Writing

The time and place of his writing Ephesians turn on the larger question of the chronology of Paul's life (see Paul ) and the relation of the Captivity Epistles to each other; and the second question whether they were written from Caesarea or Rome (for this see Philemon , Epistle To ). Suffice it here to say that the place was undoubtedly Rome, and that they were written during the latter part of the two years' captivity which we find recorded in  Acts 28:30 . The date will then be, following the later chronology, 63 or 64 ad; following the earlier, which is, in many ways, to be preferred, about 58 ad.

III. Destination

To whom was this letter written?

1. Title

The title says to the Ephesians. With this the witness of the early church almost universally agrees. It is distinctly stated in the Muratorian Fragment (10b, 1. 20); and the epistle is quoted as to the Ephesians by Irenaeus ( Adv. Haer ., v.14, 3; 24, 3); Tertullian ( Adv. Marc ., v.11, 17; De Praesc ., 36; De Monag ., v); Clement of Alexandria ( Strom ., iv.65; Paed ., i.18) and Origen ( Contra Celsum , iii.20). To these must be added the evidence of the extant manuscripts and Vss , which unite in ascribing the epistle to the Ephesians. The only exception to the universal evidence is Tertullian's account of Marcion (circa 150 ad) who reads Ad Laodicenos ( Adv. Marc ., v.11: "I say nothing here about another epistle which we have with the heading 'to the Ephesians,' but the heretics 'to the Laodiceans'...(v.17): According to the true belief of the church we hold this epistle to have been dispatched to the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans; but Marcion had to falsify its title, wishing to make himself out a very diligent investigator").

2. The Inscription

This almost universal evidence for Ephesus as the destination of our epistle is shattered when we turn to the reading of the first verse. Here according to Textus Receptus of the New Testament we read "Paul unto the saints which are at Ephesus ( en Ephésō ) and to the faithful in Christ Jesus." When we look at the evidence for this reading we find that the two words en Ephésō are lacking in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus, and that the corrector of the cursive known as 67 has struck them out of his copy. Besides these a recently described MS, Cod. Laura 184, giving us a text which is so closely akin to that used by Origen that the scribe suggests that it was compiled from Origen's writings, omits these words (Robinson, Ephesians , 293). To this strong manuscript evidence against the inclusion of these two words in the inscription we must add the evidence of Origen and Basil. Origen, as quoted in Cramer's Catena at the place, writes: "In the Ephesians alone we found the expression 'to the saints which are,' and we ask, unless the phrase 'which are' is redundant, what it can mean. May it not be that as in Exodus He who speaks to Moses declares His name to be the Absolute One, so also those who are partakers of the Absolute become existent when they are called, as it were, from non-being into being?" Origen evidently knows nothing here of any reading en Ephesō , but takes the words "which are" in an absolute, metaphysical sense. Basil, a century and a half later, probably refers to this comment of Origen ( Contra Eun ., ii.19) saying: "But moreover, when writing to the Ephesians, as to men who are truly united with the Absolute One through clear knowledge, he names them as existent ones in a peculiar phrase, saying 'to the saints which are and faithful in Christ Jesus.' For so those who were before us have handed it down, and we also have found (this reading) in old copies." In Jerome's note on this verse there is perhaps a reference to this comment on Origen, but the passage is too indefinitely expressed for us to be sure what its bearing on the reading really is. The later writers quoted by Lightfoot ( Biblical Essays , 384 f) cannot, as Robinson shows (Eph, 293), be used as witnesses against the Textus Receptus. We may therefore conclude that the reading en Ephesō was wanting in many early manuscripts, and that there is good ground for questioning its place in the original autograph.

But the explanations suggested for the passage, as it stands without the words, offend Pauline usage so completely that we cannot accept them. To take "which are" in the phrase "the saints which are" ( toı́s oúsin ) as absolute, as Origen did; or as meaning "truly," is impossible. It is possible to take the words with what follows, "and faithful" ( kaı́ pistoı́s ), and interpret this latter expression ( pistois ) either in the New Testament sense of "believers" or in the classical sense of "steadfast." The clause would then read either "to the saints who are also believers," or "to the saints who are also faithful," i.e. steadfast. Neither of these is wholly in accord with Paul's normal usage, but they are at least possible.

3. The Evidence of the Letter Itself

The determining factor in the question of the destination of the epistle lies in the epistle itself. We must not forget that, save perhaps Corinth, there was no church with which Paul was so closely associated as that in Ephesus. His long residence there, of which we read in Acts (chapters 19; 20), finds no echo in our epistle. There is no greeting to anyone of the Christian community, many of whom were probably intimate friends. The close personal ties, that the scene of Acts 20:17-38 shows us existed between him and his converts in Ephesus, are not even hinted at. The epistle is a calm discussion, untouched with the warmth of personal allusion beyond the bare statement that the writer is a prisoner ( Ephesians 3:1;  Ephesians 4:1 ), and his commendation of Tychicus ( Ephesians 6:21 ,  Ephesians 6:22 ), who was to tell them about Paul's condition in Rome. This lack of personal touch is intensified by the assumption underlying Eph 3 and 4 that the readers do not know his knowledge of the mysteries of Christ. In  Ephesians 3:2 and   Ephesians 4:21 ,  Ephesians 4:22 there is a particle ( eı́ge , "if indeed") which suggests at least some question as to how far Paul himself was the missionary through whom they believed. All through the epistle there is a lack of those elements which are so constant in the other epistles, which mark the close personal fellowship and acquaintance between the apostle and those to whom he is writing.

4. Conclusion

This element in the epistle, coupled with the strange fact of Marcion's attributing it to the Laodiceans, and the expression in  Colossians 4:16 that points to a letter coming from Laodicea to Colosse, has led most writers of the present day to accept Ussher's suggestion that the epistle is really a circular letter to the churches either in Asia, or, perhaps better, in that part of Phrygia which lies near Colosse. The readers were evidently Gentiles (  Ephesians 2:1;  Ephesians 3:1 ,  Ephesians 3:2 ) and from the mission of Tychicus doubtless of a definite locality, though for the reasons given above this could not well be Ephesus alone. It is barely possible that the cities to whom John was bidden to write the Revelation (Rev 1 through 3) are the same as those to whom Paul wrote this epistle, or it may be that they were the churches of the Lycus valley and its immediate neighborhood. The exact location cannot be determined. But from the fact that Marcion attributed the epistle to Laodicea, possibly because it was so written in the first verse, and from the connection with Colossians, it is at least probable that two of these churches were at Colosse and Laodicea. On this theory the letter would seem to have been written from Rome to churches in the neighborhood of, or accessible to, Colosse, dealing with the problem of Christian unity and fellowship and the relations between Christ and the church and sent to them by the hands of Tychicus. The inscription was to be filled in by the bearer, or copies were to be made with the name of the local church written in, and then sent to or left with the different churches. It was from Ephesus, as the chief city of Asia in all probability, that copies of this circular letter reached the church in the world, and from this fact the letter came to be known in the church at large as that from Ephesus, and the title was written "to the Ephesians," and the first verse was made to read to the "saints which are in Ephesus."

IV. Relation to Other New Testament Writings

Ephesians raises a still further question by the close resemblances that can be traced between it and various other New Testament writings.

1. Peter

The connection between Ephesians and 1 Peter is not beyond question. In spite of the disclaimer of as careful a writer as Dr. Bigg ( ICC ) it is impossible to follow up the references given by Holtzmann and others and not feel that Peter either knew Ephesians or at the very least had discussed these subjects with its author. For, as Dr. Hort tells us, the similarity is one of thought and structure rather than of phrase. The following are the more striking passages with their parallels in 1 Peter:  Ephesians 1:3 (  1 Peter 1:3 );  Ephesians 1:18-20 (  1 Peter 1:3-5 );  Ephesians 2:18-22 (  1 Peter 2:4-6 );  Ephesians 1:20-22 (  1 Peter 3:22 );  Ephesians 3:9 (  1 Peter 1:20 );  Ephesians 3:20 (  1 Peter 1:12 );  Ephesians 4:19 (  1 Peter 1:14 ). The explanations that 1 Peter and Ephesians are both from the pen of the same writer, or that Ephesians is based on 1 Pet, are overthrown, among other reasons, by the close relation between Ephesians and Colossians.

2. Johannine Writings

The connection with the Apocalypse is based on  Ephesians 2:20 as compared with   Revelation 21:14;  Ephesians 3:5 and   Revelation 10:7;  Ephesians 5:11 and   Revelation 18:4 , and the figure of the bride of the Lamb ( Revelation 19:7; compare  Ephesians 5:25 ). Holtzmann adds various minor similarities, but none of these are sufficient to prove any real knowledge of, let alone dependence on Ephesians. The contact with the Fourth Gospel is more positive. Love ( agápē ) and knowledge ( gnō̇sis ) are used in the same sense in both Ephesians and the Gospel. The application of the Messianic title, the Beloved ( Ephesians 1:6 ), to Christ does not appear in the Gospel (it is found in  Matthew 3:17 ), but the statement of the Father's love for Him constantly recurs. The reference to the going up and coming down of Christ ( Ephesians 4:9 ) is closely akin to  John 3:13 ("No man hath ascended into heaven, but he," etc.). So, too,   Ephesians 5:11 ,  Ephesians 5:13 finds echo in   John 3:19 ,  John 3:20;  Ephesians 4:4 ,  Ephesians 4:7 in   John 3:34;  Ephesians 5:6 in   John 3:36 .  Ephesians 5:8 f is akin to   1 John 1:6 and   Ephesians 2:3 to   1 John 3:10 .

3. Colossians

When we turn to Colossians we find a situation that is without parallel in the New Testament. Out of 155 verses in Ephesians, 78 are found in Colossians in varying degrees of identity. Among them are these:  Ephesians 1:6 parallel   Colossians 1:13;  Ephesians 1:16 parallel   Colossians 1:9;  Ephesians 1:21 parallel   Colossians 1:16;  Ephesians 2:16 parallel   Colossians 2:20;  Ephesians 4:2 parallel   Colossians 3:12;  Ephesians 4:15 parallel   Colossians 2:19;  Ephesians 4:22 parallel   Colossians 3:9;  Ephesians 4:32 parallel   Colossians 3:12;  Ephesians 5:5 parallel   Colossians 3:5;  Ephesians 5:19 parallel   Colossians 3:16;  Ephesians 6:4 parallel   Colossians 3:21;  Ephesians 6:5-9 parallel Col 3:22 through 4:1. For a fuller list see Abbott ( ICC , xxiii). Not only is this so, but there is an identity of treatment, a similarity in argument so great that Bishop Barry ( NT Commentary for English Readers , Ellicott) can make a parallel analysis showing the divergence and similarity by the simple device of different type. To this we must add that there are at least a dozen Greek words common to these two epistles not found elsewhere. Over against this similarity is to be set the dissimilarity. The general subject of the epistles is not approached from the same standpoint. In one it is Christ as the head of all creation, and our duty in consequence. In the other it is the church as the fullness of Christ and our duty - put constantly in the same words - in consequence thereof. In Ephesians we have a number of Old Testament references, in Colossians only one. In Ephesians we have unique phrases, of which "the heavenly spheres" ( ta epourania ) is most striking, and the whole treatment of the relation of Jew and Gentile in the church, and the marriage tie as exemplified in the relation between Christ and the church. In Colossians we have in like manner distinct passages which have no parallel in Ephesians, especially the controversial section in chapter 2, and the salutations. In truth, as Davies ( Epistles of St. Paul to the Ephesians , Colossians , and Philippians .) well says: "It is difficult indeed to say, concerning the patent coincidences of expression in the two epistles, whether the points of likeness or of unlikeness between them are the more remarkable." This situation has given rise to various theories. The most complicated is that of H. Holtzmann, who holds that some passages point to a priority of Colossians, others to that of Ephesians; and as a result he believes that Colossians, as we have it, is a composite, based on an original epistle of Paul which was expanded by the author of Ephesians - who was not Paul - after he had written this epistle. So Holtzmann would give us the original Colossians (Pauline), Ephesians (based on it), and the present Colossians (not Pauline) expanded from the former through the latter. The theory falls to the ground on its fundamental hypothesis, that Colossians as it stands is interpolated. The most reasonable explanation is that both Colossians and Ephesians are the work of Paul, written at practically the same time, and that in writing on the same subjects, to different people, there would be just the differences and similarity which we have in these epistles. The objection that Paul could not repeat himself and yet differ as these two letters do is purely imaginary. Zahn shows us that men do just this very thing, giving an account of Bismarck's speaking on a certain subject to a group of officers and later to a large body of men, and yet using quite different language. Moreover, Paul is not averse to repeating himself (compare Romans and Galatians and 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy) when to do so will serve his purpose. "Simultaneous authorship by one writer," and that writer Paul, is the only explanation that will satisfy all the facts in the case and give them due proportion.

V. The Purpose

If our interpretation of the circumstances, composition and destination of Ephesians be right, we are now in a position to look beneath the surface and ask why the apostle wrote it. To understand its central theme we must remember that Paul, the prisoner of the Lord, is writing in the calm of his imprisonment, far from the noise and turmoil, the conflict and strife, that marked his earlier life. He is now able to look out on the church and get a view of it in its wholeness, to see the part it is to play in God's scheme for the restoration of the human race, to see God's purpose in it and for it and its relation to Him. With this stand-point he can write to the churches about Ephesus on the occasion of Tychicus' return to Colosse, not to correct false views on some special point, but to emphasize the great central truth which he had put in the very forefront of his letter. God's eternal purpose is to gather into one the whole created universe, to restore harmony among His creatures and between them and Himself. The apostle's whole prayer is for this end, his whole effort and desire is toward this goal: that they may have full, clear knowledge of this purpose of God which He is working out through Christ Jesus, who is the head of the church, the very fullness of Him who is being fulfilled all over the world. Everything, for the apostle, as he looks forth upon the empire, centers in the purpose of God. The discord between the elements in the church, the distinction between Jew and Gentile , all these must yield to that greater purpose. The vision is of a great oneness in Christ and through Him in God, a oneness of birth and faith and life and love, as men, touched with the fire of that Divine purpose, seek to fulfil, each in himself, the part that God has given him to play in the world, and, fighting against the foes of God, to overcome at last.

It is a noble purpose to set before men this great mystery of the church as God's means by which, in Christ, He may restore all men to union with Himself. It is an impossible vision except to one who, as Paul was at the time, is in a situation where the strife and turmoil of outside life can enter but little, but a situation where he can look out with a calm vision and, in the midst of the world's discord, discern what God is accomplishing among men.

VI. Argument

The Argument of Ephesians is as follows:

 Ephesians 1:1 ,  Ephesians 1:2

Greeting.

 Ephesians 1:3-10

Hymn of praise to God for the manifestation of His purpose for men in Christ Jesus, chosen from the beginning to a holy life in love, predestined to adoption as sons through Jesus Christ, in whom as the Beloved He has given us grace ( Ephesians 1:3-6 ). Redeemed by the blood of Christ by whom we have forgiveness of sins through His grace abounding in us and making us know the mystery of His purpose, namely, to unite all in one, even the entire universe ( Ephesians 1:7-10 ).

 Ephesians 1:11-14

For this Israel has served as a preparation, and to this the Gentiles are come, sealed unto salvation by the Holy Spirit of power.

 Ephesians 1:15 ,  Ephesians 1:16

Thanksgiving for their faith.

 Ephesians 1:16-21

Prayer that they may, by the spirit of wisdom and revelation, know their destiny and the power of God to fulfill it.

Ephesians 1:22 Through 2:10

Summary of what God has done in Christ. Christ's sovereignty ( Ephesians 1:22 ,  Ephesians 1:23 ), and headship in the church ( Ephesians 1:22 ,  Ephesians 1:23 ); His work for men, quickening us from a death of sin into which man has sunk, and exalting us to fellowship with Christ by His grace, who has created us for good works as part of His eternal purpose ( Ephesians 2:1-10 ).

 Ephesians 2:11-13

The contrast between the former estate of the Gentiles, as strangers and aliens, and their present one, "near" by the blood of Christ.

 Ephesians 2:14-18

Christ, who is our peace, uniting Jew and Gentile and reconciling man to God through the cross; by whom we all have access to the Father.

 Ephesians 2:19-22

This is theirs who as fellow-citizens of the saints, built up on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, become a sanctuary of God in the Spirit.

Ephesians 3:1-21

A digression on the "mystery," i.e. the revelation to Paul, together with a prayer that men may grasp it. The "mystery" is that all men, Jews and Gentiles, are partakers of the promise. Of this Paul is a minister, to whom has been given the stewardship of that mystery, unfolding to all creatures God's wisdom, in accord with His eternal purpose ( Ephesians 3:1-13 ). Prayer that they may live up to their opportunities ( Ephesians 3:14-19 ). Doxology ( Ephesians 3:20 ,  Ephesians 3:21 ).

 Ephesians 4:1-6

The outcome of this privilege, the fulfillment of the Divine purpose, must show itself in unity of life in the Christian fellowship.

 Ephesians 4:7-16

The different gifts which the Christians have are for the upbuilding of the church into that perfect unity which is found in Christ.

 Ephesians 4:17-24

The spiritual darkness and corruption of the old Gentile life set over against the enlightenment and purity and holiness of the new life in Christ.

Ephesians 4:25 Through 6:9

Special features of the Christian life, arising out of the union of Christians with Christ and making for the fellowship in the church. On the side of the individual: sins in word ( Ephesians 4:25-30 ); of temper ( Ephesians 4:31 ,  Ephesians 4:32 ); self-sacrifice as opposed to self-indulgence ( Ephesians 5:1-8 ); the contrast of the present and the past repeated ( Ephesians 5:9-14 ); general behavior ( Ephesians 5:15-20 ); on the side of social relations: husband and wife exemplified in the relation of Christ and the church ( Ephesians 5:23-33 ); children and parents ( Ephesians 6:1-4 ); servants and masters ( Ephesians 6:5-9 ).

 Ephesians 6:19-20

The Christian warfare, its foes and armor and weapons.

 Ephesians 6:21-24

Conclusion.

VII. Teaching

The keynote to the doctrinal basis of the epistle is struck at the very outset. The hymn of praise centers in the thought of God, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ. It is to Him that the blessing is due, to Him, who had chosen us from the beginning, in whom there is redemption in Eph ( Ephesians 1:3-7 ). God as the very heart and soul of everything, "is over all, and through all, and in all" ( Ephesians 4:6 ). He is the Father from whom all revelation comes ( Ephesians 1:17 ), and from whom every human family derives its distinctive characteristics ( Ephesians 3:15 ). But He is not only Father in relation to the universe: He is in a peculiar sense the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ ( Ephesians 1:3 ). The eternity of our Lord is distinctly asserted ( Ephesians 1:4 ,  Ephesians 1:5 ) as of one existing before the foundation of the world, in whom everything heavenly as well as earthly is united, summed up ( Ephesians 1:10; compare  Ephesians 2:12;  Ephesians 4:18 ). He is the Messiah (the Beloved ( Ephesians 1:6 ) is clearly a Messianic term, as the voice from heaven at Christ's baptism, "This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased," shows ( Matthew 3:17 )). In Him we are quickened ( Ephesians 2:5 ). He is made flesh ( Ephesians 2:15 ). He died on the cross ( Ephesians 2:16 ), and by His blood ( Ephesians 1:7 ) we have redemption ( Ephesians 4:30 ), and reconciliation with God ( Ephesians 2:16 ). He whom God raised from the dead ( Ephesians 1:20 ), now is in heaven ( Ephesians 1:20;  Ephesians 4:8 ) from which place He comes ( Ephesians 4:8 ), bringing gifts to men. (This interpretation makes the descent follow the ascent, and the passage teaches the return of Christ through His gifts of the Spirit which He gave to the church.) He who is in heaven fills all things ( Ephesians 4:10 ); and, from a wealth which is unsearchable ( Ephesians 3:8 ), as the Head of the church ( Ephesians 1:22 ), pours out His grace to free us from the power of sin ( Ephesians 2:1 ). To this end He endues us with His Spirit ( Ephesians 3:16 ). This teaching about God, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, is no abstract theorizing. It is all intensely practical, having at its heart the purpose of God from the ages, which, as we saw above, is to restore again the unity of all things in Him ( Ephesians 1:9 ,  Ephesians 1:10 ); to heal the breach between man and God ( Ephesians 2:16 ,  Ephesians 2:17 ); to break down the separation between Jew and Gentile , and to abolish the enmity not only between them, but between them and God. This purpose of God is to be accomplished in a visible society, the one church, built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets ( Ephesians 2:20 ), of which Jesus Christ is the head of the corner, into which men are to be admitted by holy baptism, where they own one Lord, hold to one faith, in one God and Father of all who is above all and through all ( Ephesians 4:4-7 ).

The teaching as to the church is one of the most striking elements of the epistle. In the first place we have the absolute use of the term, which has been already discussed. The apostle sees the whole Christian community throughout the world bound together into a unity, one fellowship, one body. He has risen to a higher vision than man had ever had before. But there is a further teaching in the epistle. Not only is the church throughout the world one body, but it is the body of Christ who is its Head ( Ephesians 1:21 f). He has, as Lightfoot suggests, the same relation to the church which in   Ephesians 1:10 He has to the universe. He is its Head, "the inspiring, ruling, guiding, combining, sustaining power, the mainspring of its activity, the center of its unity, and the seat of its life." But the relation is still closer. If, as the evidence adduced would necessitate, one accepts J. Armitage Robinson's explanation of plḗrōma , as that without which a thing is incomplete (Eph, 255 f), then the church, in some wonderful mystery, is the complement of Christ, apart from which He Himself, as the Christ, lacks fullness. We are needed by Him, that so He may become all in all. He, the Head of restored humanity, the Second Adam, needs His church, to fulfill the unity which He came upon earth to accomplish (compare Stone, Christian Church , 85, 86). Still further, we find in this epistle the two figures of the church as the Temple of;the Spirit ( Ephesians 2:21 , and the Bride of Christ ( Ephesians 5:23 ). Under the latter figure we find the marriage relation of the Lord to Israel, which runs through the Old Testament ( Hosea 3:1-5 :16, et al.), applied to the union between Christ and the church. The significance is the close tie that binds them, the self-sacrificing love of Christ and the self-surrender of obedience on the part of the church; and the object of this is that so the church may be free from any blemish, holy and spotless. In the figure of the Temple, which is an expansion of the earlier figure in   1 Corinthians 3:16;  2 Corinthians 6:16 , we see the thought of a spiritual building, a sanctuary, into which all the diverse elements of the churches grow into a compact unity. These figures sum up the apostle's thought of that in which the Divine purpose finds its fulfillment. The progress forward to that fulfillment is due to the combined effort of God and man. "The church, the society of Christian men ... is built and yet it grows. Human endeavor and Divine energy cooperate in its development" (Westcott). Out of this doctrinal development the apostle works out the practical life by which this Divine purpose can find its fulfillment. Admitted into the fellowship of the church by baptism, we become members one of another Eph ( Ephesians 4:25 ). It is on this basis that he urges honesty and patience and truth in our intercourse with each other, and pleads for gentleness and a forgiving spirit ( Ephesians 4:25-32 ). As followers of God we are to keep free from the sins that spring from pride and self-indulgence and any fellowship with the spirit of evil ( Ephesians 5:1-14 ). Our life is to be lived as seeking the fulfillment of God's purpose in all the relationships of life ( Ephesians 5:15 through   Ephesians 6:9 ). All is to be done with the full armor of the Christian soldier, as is fitting for those who fight spiritual enemies ( Ephesians 6:10 ). The epistle is preëminently practical, bringing the significance of the great revelation of God's will to the everyday duties of life, and lifting all things up to a higher level which finds its ideal in the indwelling of Christ in our hearts, out of which we may be filled with all the fullness of God ( Ephesians 3:17-19 ).

Literature

J. Armitage Robinson, St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians  ; Westcott, Epistle to the Ephesains  ; Abbott, "Ephesians and Colossians," International Critical Commentary  ; Moule, "Ephesians," Cambridge Bible  ; Salmond, "Ephesians," Expositor's Greek Testament  ; Macpherson, Commentary on Ephesians  ; Findlay, "Epistle to the Ephesians," Expositor's Bible  ; Alexander, "Colossians and Ephesians," Bible for Home and School  ; Haupt, Meyer's Exeget. und krit. Kommentar  ; von Soden, Handcommentar  ; Hort, Prolegomena to the Epistles to the Romans and Ephesians  ; Dale, Lectures on the Ephesians .