Commerce

Holman Bible Dictionary

Products The irrigated fields of Mesopotamia and Egypt and the terraced hillsides of Palestine produced a variety of agricultural products. Barley and wheat were crushed, winnowed, sieved, and distributed on the threshingfloor (goren) for local consumption ( Deuteronomy 15:14;  Ruth 3:15 ). Surpluses were transported to regional marketplaces and major cities. Whole grain, meal, flax, nuts, dates, olive oil, fish in the Galilee area, and a variety of animal by-products found their way into every home and paid the taxes imposed by the government. The kings like Uzziah ( 2 Chronicles 26:10 ) also had large holdings of land and vast herds that contributed to the overall economy.

Village craftsmen produced pottery, metal and wooden implements, weapons, and cloth. Evidence of their commercial self-sufficiency is seen in the recovery of loom weights in excavations of private homes throughout Israel. These balls of clay provide evidence of how widespread the local weaving and cloth-making industries were in ancient times. Manufactured products were distributed among the inhabitants of the village. The finer items were traded to traveling merchants or transported overland to Jerusalem or some other commercial center.

Manufactured goods most commonly introduced into national or international commerce included fine pottery, weapons, glassware, jewelry, cosmetics, and dyed cloth. Distinctive styles or fine workmanship created markets for these products and thus made it worth the costs and hazards of sea and overland transport. Evidence of how widespread trade was in the ancient world can be traced by the different styles and decoration of pottery. Seal markings showing place of origin are also found on many jugs and storage jars used to transport wine, oil, grain, and spices.

Another indication of the diversity of trading products that circulated throughout the ancient Near East is found in Ezekiel's “lamentation over Tyre,” one of the principal Phoenician seaports ( Ezekiel 27:12-24 ). Their ships and those of Tarshish carried iron, tin, and lead, exchanging them for slaves, horses, mules, ivory, and ebony at various ports of call. Aram or Edom (NIV with footnote) traded “emeralds, purple, embroidered work, fine linen, coral, and rubies” ( Ezekiel 27:16 NAS), and Judah sent honey, oil, and balm along with wheat as trade goods to Tyre (  Ezekiel 27:17 ). The Phoenicians also supplied their trading partners with wool and cloth dyed purple with a glandular secretion from the murex mollusk.

Merchant quarters were established in many trading centers like that at Ugarit, a seaport in northern Syria (1600-1200 B.C.). The Phoenician seaports of Tyre and Sidon also had their resident alien communities, adding to the cosmopolitan nature of these cities and facilitating the transmission of culture and ideas. The economic and political importance of these trading communities is seen in Solomon's construction of storehouse cities in Hamath ( 2 Chronicles 8:4 and in Ahab's negotiations with Ben-Hadad of Syria for the establishment of “market areas in Damascus” (  1 Kings 20:34 NIV).

Places of Business Metropolitan centers, like Babylon and Thebes, had open areas or market squares where commerce took place. This was also the case in the Hellenistic cities of the Near East which had one or more agoras. The narrow confines of the villages and towns in Palestine, however, restricted commercial activity to shops or booths built into the side of private homes or to the open area around the city gate.

For most Palestinian villages and towns, the gate was a vital place where commercial, judicial, and social activities of all sorts took place. Lot sat in the gate, demonstrating his status as a privileged resident alien ( Genesis 19:1 ). The gate of Samaria served as a market center where the people purchased measures of barley and fine meal ( 2 Kings 7:18 ). In  Proverbs 31:23 , one sign of a prosperous man with a well-ordered house was his ability to sit with the elders in the gate.

Large urban centers, like Jerusalem, had several gates and commercial districts, thus allowing for diversification of commercial activity throughout the city.  Jeremiah 18:2 speaks of the Potsherd Gate (author's translation; known as the Dung Gate in   Nehemiah 2:13 ) where Jeremiah enacted a prophecy of doom by smashing a pot. He also mentions the bakers' street as the principal area of production and supply of bread in Jerusalem ( Jeremiah 37:21 ). In the Roman period, Josephus lists several commercial activities in the city: wool shops, smithies, and the clothes market.

Weights and Measures Inscribed stone, clay, or metal weights were used throughout the Near East and have been found in large quantities by archaeologists. They range from the talent ( 2 Samuel 12:30;  2 Kings 18:14 ) to the mina ( Ezra 2:69 NAS), the shekel (  2 Samuel 14:26;  Ezekiel 4:10 ), and various smaller weights. Until the establishment of the monarchy, commercial transactions were governed in each Israelite town by a local standard of exchange. Evidence has been found (markings on the weights) of the use of both the Egyptian standard of weights as well as Babylonian measures. Even these standards were apparently negotiable, however, and sometimes subject to abuse. Thus, Abraham was forced before witnesses in the gate of Hebron to pay an exorbitant rate (400 shekels of silver) for the cave of Machpelah ( Genesis 23:16 ), and Amos condemned those merchants who were “making the ephah small, and the shekel great, and falsifying the balances by deceit” ( Genesis 8:5 ).

Until coinage was introduced after 600 B.C., foodstuffs and other goods were obtained through barter in the marketplace or purchased with weights of previous metals ( Genesis 33:19;  Job 42:11 ). When minted coinage came into general use during the Hellenistic period (after 200 B.C.), it created a revolution in commerce. See  Mark 12:15-17 ) and wages ( Matthew 20:2 ).

Business Law Hammurabi's law code (about 1750 B.C.) contains a model of business law in the Ancient Near East. Many facets or trade are governed by this code. They are sometimes echoed in the biblical codes as well. For instance, Hammurabi's law protected a man who consigned a portion of his grain to storage from losses due to natural events and the corrupt practices of the owner of the storage room. (Compare  Exodus 22:7-9 ). Lending at interest to fellow Israelites was forbidden in  Exodus 22:25 and   Deuteronomy 23:19 . This injunction, however, does not seem to apply to the practice of investment of surplus capital found in  Matthew 25:14-30 and   Luke 19:12-25 .

The parables of the pounds and the talents suggest the existence of a sophisticated banking and investment community, which lent out sums for commercial enterprises and garnered profits for those who left their money with them. A portion of the vast sums that came into the Temple treasury in Jerusalem as taxes each year ( Matthew 17:24 ) were probably lent out as investment capital. Several of Hammurabi's laws speak of similar practices requiring that those who engage in commercial transactions obtain receipts to show proof of their investments and sales.

Trade and Trade Routes From earliest times caravans of traders carried goods throughout the Near East. Obsidian, brought by Neolithic traders from Anatolia, has been discovered at sites hundreds of miles from its place of origin. Palestine, situated on a land bridge between Mesopotamia and Africa, naturally became a center of commercial travel. Groups of Semitic traders, like the Ishmaelites and Midianites ( Genesis 37:27-28 ), are recorded in Egyptian texts and on the walls of tombs, such as the Beni-hasen tomb paintings (about 1900 B.C.), which depict whole families with their donkeys transporting “ox-hide” ingots of metal. They used hilltop pathways as well as the Via Maris coastal highway and the King's Highway in Transjordan to move between Mesopotamia and Egypt. Eventually, the introduction of the camel and the establishment of caravansaries (inns where caravans can rest at night) as storage and rest centers, made it possible for merchants to take a more direct route across the deserts of northern Syria and Arabia. These lucrative trade routes were controlled in the Roman period by the city of Tadmor, the capital of the Palmyran kingdom, and by the Nabateans.

During the monarchy period, Israel's trade horizon expanded. Solomon imported vast quantities of luxury and exotic goods (ivory, apes, peacocks— 1 Kings 10:22 ) from all over the Near East. He also purchased horses and chariots for his fortress garrisons like those at Gezer, Hazor, and Megiddo ( 1 Kings 10:26 ). The nation had no deep water ports on its coastline, so the Gulf of Aqaba became the prime point of entry for goods coming from Africa (spices, precious stones, gold from Ophir, algum wood). The Aqaba port of Elath (Ezion-geber) served the needs of the court of Solomon and subsequent kings as well. The shipping trade of Israel, as well as many other nations, joined with or was carried by Phoenician merchantmen ( 1 Kings 10:22 ). These more experienced sailors could avoid the storms and other hazards that sank many ships in the Mediterranean ( 2 Chronicles 20:37 NIV).

Even in New Testament times, shipping was restricted to particular routes and seasons ( Acts 27:12 ). Travel seems to have been more common in this period as seen by the movements of Paul, the other apostles, and those associated with the establishment of the early church, such as Aquila and Priscilla ( Romans 16:3 ). Passengers and cargo might be transported on one leg of a journey on one ship and then transferred to a number of others to complete their journey ( Acts 27:1-8 ). Underwater excavations off Cyprus and the Herodian port of Caesarea Maritima demonstrate, however, that many of these ships never made it to port ( Acts 27:39-44 ).

For those who chose to take the overland routes, instead, the Romans constructed paved roads that facilitated the movement of their armies, as well as people and wagons loaded with goods for sale. Mile markers set up along these roads show how often they were repaired and which emperors took a special interest in the outlying districts of his domain. See Agriculture; Banking; Economic Life; Marketplace; Transportation And Travel; Weights And Measures .

Victor H. Matthews

Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary

Merchandise, in its various branches, was carried on in the east at the earliest period of which we have any account; and it was not long before the traffic between nations, both by sea and land, was very considerable. Accordingly, frequent mention is made of public roads, fords, bridges, and beasts of burden; also of ships for the transportation of property, of weights, measures, and coin, both in the oldest books of the Bible, and in the most ancient profane histories. The Phenicians anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation. They were in the habit of purchasing goods of various kinds throughout all the east. They then carried them in ships down the Mediterranean, as far as the shores of Africa and Europe, brought back in return merchandise and silver, and disposed of these again in the more eastern countries. The first metropolis of the Phenicians was Sidon; afterward Tyre became the principal city. Tyre was built two hundred and forty years before the temple of Solomon, or twelve hundred and fifty-one before Christ. The Phenicians had ports of their own in almost every country; the most distinguished of which were Carthage and Tarshish, or Tartessus, in Spain. The ships from the latter place undertook very distant voyages: hence, any vessels that performed distant voyages were called "ships of Tarshish," אנות תרשיש . Something is said of the commerce of the Phenicians in the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth chapters of Ezekiel, and the twenty-third chapter of Isaiah. The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a commerce with India. They carried some of the articles which they brought from India through the straits of Babelmandel into Abyssinia and Egypt; some they transported to Babylon through the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates; and some by the way of the Red Sea to the port of Eziongeber. They thus became rich though it is possible their wealth may have been too much magnified by the ancients. The eminence of the Egyptians, as a commercial nation, commences with the reign of Necho. Their commerce, nevertheless, was not great, till Alexander had destroyed Tyre and built Alexandria.

2. The Phenicians sometimes received the goods of India by way of the Persian Gulf, where they had colonies in the islands of Dedan, Arad, and Tyre. Sometimes they received them from the Arabians, who either brought them by land through Arabia, or up the Red Sea to Eziongeber. In the latter case, having landed them at the port mentioned, they transported them through the country by the way of Gaza to Phenicia. The Phenicians increased the amount of their foreign goods by the addition of those which they themselves fabricated; and were thus enabled to supply all parts of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians at first received their goods from the Phenicians, Arabians, Africans, and Abyssinians; in all of which countries there are still the remains of large trading towns; but in a subsequent age, they imported goods from India in their own vessels; and eventually carried on an export trade with various ports on the Mediterranean. Oriental commerce, however, was chiefly carried on by land: accordingly, vessels are hardly mentioned in the Bible, except in   Psalms 107:23-30 , and in passages where the discourse turns upon the Phenicians, or upon the naval affairs of Solomon and Jehoshaphat. The two principal routes from Palestine into Egypt were, the one along the shores of the Mediterranean from Gaza to Pelusium, and the other from Gaza by the way of Mount Sinai and the Elanitic branch of the Red Sea.

3. The merchants transported their goods upon camels; animals which are patient of thirst, and are easily supported in the deserts. For the common purpose of security against depredations, the oriental merchants travelled in company, as is common in the east at the present day. A large travelling company of this kind is called a

caravan or carvan, a smaller one was called kafile or kafle,   Job 6:18-20;  Genesis 37:25;  Isaiah 21:13;  Jeremiah 9:2;  Judges 5:6;  Luke 2:44 . The furniture carried by the individuals of a caravan consisted of a mattress, a coverlet, a carpet for sitting upon, a round piece of leather, which answered the purpose of a table, a few pots and kettles of copper covered with tin; also a tin-plated cup, which was suspended before the breast under the outer garment, and was used for drinking,  1 Samuel 26:11-12;  1 Samuel 26:16 : leathern bags for holding water, tents, lights, and provisions in quality and abundance as each one could afford. Every caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert, who was acquainted with the direction of its route, and with the cisterns and fountains. These he was able to ascertain, sometimes from heaps of stones, sometimes by the character of the soil, and, when other helps failed him, by the stars,  Numbers 10:29-32;  Jeremiah 31:21;  Isaiah 21:14 . When all things are in readiness, the individuals who compose the caravan assemble at a distance from the city. The commander of the caravan, who is a different person from the conductor or leader, and is chosen from the wealthiest of its members, appoints the day of their departure. A similar arrangement was adopted among the Jews, whenever they travelled in large numbers to the city of Jerusalem. The caravans start very early, sometimes before day. They endeavour to find a stopping place or station to remain at during the night, which shall afford them a supply of water,  Job 6:15-20 . They arrive at their stopping place before the close of the day; and, while it is yet light, prepare every thing that is necessary for the recommencement of their journey. In order to prevent any one from wandering away from the caravan, and getting lost during the night, lamps or torches are elevated upon poles and carried before it. The pillar of fire answered this purpose for the Israelites, when wandering in the wilderness. Sometimes the caravans lodge in cities; but when they do not, they pitch their tents so as to form an encampment; and during the night keep watch alternately for the sake of security. In the cities there are public inns, called Chan and Carvanserai, in which the caravans are lodged without expense. They are large square buildings, in the centre of which is an area, or open court. Carvanserais are denominated in the Greek of the New Testament, πανδοχειον , καταλυσις , and καταλυμα ,  Luke 2:7;  Luke 10:34 . The first mention of one in the Old Testament is in  Jeremiah 41:17 , כמהמ

גרות . It was situated near the city of Bethlehem.

4. Moses enacted no laws in favour of commerce, although there is no question that he saw the situation of Palestine to be very favourable for it. The reason of this was, that the Hebrews, who were designedly set apart to preserve the true religion, could not mingle with foreign idolatrous nations without injury. He therefore merely inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and selling,   Leviticus 19:36-37;  Deuteronomy 25:13-16; and left all the other interests of commerce to a future age. By the establishment, however, of the three great festivals, he gave occasion for some mercantile intercourse, At these festivals all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at one place. The consequence was, that those who had any thing to sell brought it; while those who wished to buy articles came with the expectation of having an opportunity. As Moses, though he did not encourage, did not interdict foreign commerce, Solomon, at a later period, not only carried on a traffic in horses, as already stated, but sent ships from the port of Eziongeber through the Red Sea to Ophir, probably the coast of Africa,  1 Kings 9:26;  2 Chronicles 9:21 . This traffic, although a source of emolument, appears to have been neglected after the death of Solomon. The attempt made by Jehoshaphat to restore it was frustrated, by his ships being dashed upon the rocks and destroyed,  1 Kings 22:48-49;  2 Chronicles 20:36 . Joppa, though not a very convenient one, was properly the port of Jerusalem; and some of the large vessels which went to Spain sailed from it,  Jonah 1:3 . In the age of Ezekiel, the commerce of Jerusalem was so great, that it gave an occasion of envy even to the Tyrians themselves,  Ezekiel 26:2 . After the captivity, a great number of Jews became merchants, and travelled for the purpose of traffic into all countries. About the year 150 B.C. prince Simon rendered the port at Joppa more convenient than it had hitherto been. In the time of Pompey the Great, there were so many Jews abroad on the ocean, even in the character of pirates, that King Antigonus was accused before him of having sent them out on purpose. A new port was built by Herod at Cesarea.

Fausset's Bible Dictionary

In Solomon's time first, the foreign trade of the Israelites to any extent began; chiefly consisting in imports, namely, linen yarn, horses, and chariots from Egypt. For these he paid in gold brought by his fleets, in concert with the Phoenicians, from India, East Africa, and Arabia ( 1 Kings 10:22-29). He supplied provisions for the workmen in Lebanon, while the Phoenicians brought the timber by sea to Joppa ( 1 Kings 5:6;  1 Kings 5:9). Palestine supplied Tyre with grain, honey, oil, balm, and wine ( Ezekiel 27:17;  Acts 12:20). Solomon's and the Phoenician united fleets brought on the Indian Ocean, from Ophir to Elath and Ezion Geber on the Elanitic gulf of the Red Sea (ports gained by David from Edom), gold, silver, ivory, Algum (or Almug) trees, and precious stones, peacocks and apes ( 1 Kings 9:26;  1 Kings 10:11-22). (See Algum or Almug

He fortified Baalbek and Palmyra too, as a caravan station for the inland commerce of eastern and south eastern Asia. Oil was exported to Egypt ( Hosea 12:1). Fine linen and girdles were sold to merchants ( Proverbs 31:24). Jerusalem appears in  Ezekiel 26:2 as the rival of Tyre, who exulted at the thought of her fall; "she is broken that was the gates (the mart) of the people, she (i.e. her commerce from Palmyra, Petra, and the East) is turned unto me. I shall be replenished now she is laid waste." Caesarea was made a port by Herod; besides Joppa. The law strictly enjoined fair dealing, and just weights ( Leviticus 19:35-36;  Deuteronomy 25:13-16).

Smith's Bible Dictionary

Commerce. From the time that men began to live in cities, trade, in some shape, must have been carried on to supply the town-dwellers with necessaries from foreign, as well as native sources, for we find that Abraham was rich, not only in cattle, but in silver, gold and gold and silver plates and ornaments.  Genesis 13:2;  Genesis 24:22;  Genesis 24:53.

Among trading nations mentioned in Scripture, Egypt holdsm in very early timesm a prominent position. The internal trade of the Jews, as well as the external, was much promoted by the festivals, which brought large numbers of persons to Jerusalem.  1 Kings 8:63.

The places of public market were chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to which goods were brought for sale by those who came from the outside.  Nehemiah 13:15-16;  Zephaniah 1:10. The traders, in later times, were allowed to intrude into the Temple, in the outer courts of which victims were publicly sold for the sacrifice.  Zechariah 14:21;  Matthew 21:12;  John 2:14.

Webster's Dictionary

(1): (n.) The exchange or buying and selling of commodities; esp. the exchange of merchandise, on a large scale, between different places or communities; extended trade or traffic.

(2): (n.) A round game at cards, in which the cards are subject to exchange, barter, or trade.

(3): (n.) Social intercourse; the dealings of one person or class in society with another; familiarity.

(4): (n.) Sexual intercourse.

(5): (v. i.) To hold intercourse; to commune.

(6): (v. i.) To carry on trade; to traffic.

Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible

Commerce . See Trade and Commerce.

Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament

See Trade.

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

a word that does not occur in the Auth. Vers., which uses the term "trade" or "traffic;" but the idea is designated by two Heb. words:

1. רְכֻלָּה , Rekullah (Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 1289); Sept. in  Ezekiel 26:12, Τὰ Ὑπάρχοντα , Vulg. Negotiationes ; in 27:5, 16, 18, Ἐμπορία , Negotiatio ; from רָכִל , Rakal , to travel (on foot);

2. סְחֹרָה , Sechorah (Gesen. Ib. p. 946), Sept. Ἐμπορία , Vulg. Negotiatio ,  Ezekiel 27:15; from סָחִר , Sachar , to Travel (migrate). (See Trade).

1. Commerce, in its usual acceptation, means the exchange of one thing for another — the exchange of what we have to spare for what we want, in whatever country it is produced. The origin of commerce must have been nearly coeval with the world. As pasturage and agriculture were the only employments of the first inhabitants, so cattle, flocks, and the fruits of the earth were the only objects of the first commerce, or that species of it called barter. It would appear that some progress had been made in manufactures in the ages before the flood. The building of a city or village by Cain, however insignificant the houses may have been, supposes the existence of some mechanical knowledge. The musical instruments, such as harps and organs, the works in brass and in iron exhibited by the succeeding generations, confirm the belief that the arts were considerably advanced. The construction of Noah's ark, a ship of three decks, covered over with pitch, and much larger than any modern effort of architecture, proves that many separate trades were at that period carried on. There must have been parties who supplied Noah and his three sons with the great quantity and variety of materials which they required, and this they would do in exchange for other commodities, and perhaps money. That enormous pile of building, the tower of Babel, was constructed of bricks, the process of making which appears to have been well understood. Some learned astronomers are of opinion that the celestial observations of the Chinese reach back to 2249 years before the Christian era; and the celestial observations made at Babylon, contained in a calendar of above nineteen centuries, transmitted to Greece by Alexander, reach back to within fifteen years of those ascribed to the Chinese. The Indians appear to have had observations quite as early as the Babylonians. (See Antediluvians).

Such of the descendants of Noah as lived near the water may be presumed to have made use of vessels built in imitation of the ark — if, as some think, that was the first floating vessel ever seen in the world — but on a smaller scale, for the purpose of crossing rivers. In the course of time the descendants of his son Japheth settled in "the isles of the Gentiles," by which are understood the islands at the east end of the Mediterranean Sea, and those between Asia Minor and Greece, whence their colonies spread into Greece, Italy, and other Western lands. (See Ethnology).

In short, from the time that men began to live in cities, trade, in some shape, must have been carried on to supply the town-dwellers with necessaries (see Heeren, Afr. Nat. 1:469); but it is also clear that international trade must have existed and affected to some extent even the pastoral nomade races, for we find that Abraham was rich, not only in cattle, but in silver, gold, and gold and silver plate and ornaments ( Genesis 13:2;  Genesis 24:22;  Genesis 24:53); and further, that gold and silver in a manufactured state, and silver, not improbably in coin, were in use both among the settled inhabitants of Palestine, and the pastoral tribes of Syria at that date ( Genesis 20:16;  Genesis 23:16;  Genesis 38:18;  Job 42:11), to whom those metals must in all probability have been imported from other countries (Hussey, Anc. Weights, c. 12:3, p. 193; Kitto, Phys. Hist. of Pal. p. 109, 110; see Herod. 1:215). (See City).

2. Among trading nations mentioned in Scripture, Egypt holds in very early times a prominent position (see Hubbard, Commerce Of Ancient Egypt , in the Biblical Repository , April, 1836), though her external trade was carried on, not by her own citizens, but by foreigners, chiefly of the nomade races (Heeren, Afr. Nat. 1:468; 2:371, 372). It was an Ishmaelite caravan, laden with spices, which carried Joseph into Egypt, and the account shows that slaves formed sometimes a part of the merchandise imported ( Genesis 37:25;  Genesis 39:1;  Job 6:19). From Egypt it is likely that at all times, but especially in times of general scarcity, corn would be exported, which was paid for by the non-exporting nations in silver, which was always weighed ( Genesis 41:57;  Genesis 42:3;  Genesis 42:25;  Genesis 42:35;  Genesis 43:11-12;  Genesis 43:21). These caravans also brought the precious stones as well as the spices of India into Egypt ( Exodus 25:3;  Exodus 25:7; Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 2:235, 237). Intercourse with Tyre does not appear to have taken place till a later period, and thus, though it cannot be determined whether the purple in which the Egyptian woolen and linen cloths were dyed was brought by land from Phoenicia, it is evident that colored cloths had long been made and dyed in Egypt, and the use, at least, of them adopted by the Hebrews for the tabernacle as early as the time of Moses ( Exodus 25:4-5; comp. Heeren, Asiat. Nat. 1:352; see Herod. 1:1). The pasture-ground of Shechem appears from the story of Joseph to have lain in the way of these caravan journeys ( Genesis 37:14;  Genesis 37:25), probably a thoroughfare from Damascus. (See Caravan).

At the same period it is clear that trade was carried on between Babylon and the Syrian cities (see Hubbard, Commerce of Anc. Bab. in the Biblical Repos. July, 1837), and also that gold and silver ornaments were common among the Syrian and Arabian races; a trade which was obviously carried on by land-carriage ( Numbers 31:50;  Joshua 7:21;  Judges 5:30;  Judges 8:24;  Job 6:19). (See Babylon).

Sidon, which afterwards became so celebrated for the wonderful mercantile exertions of its inhabitants, was founded about 2200 years before the Christian aera. The neighboring mountains, being covered with excellent cedar-trees, furnished the best and most durable timber for ship-building. The inhabitants of Sidon accordingly built numerous ships, and exported the produce of the adjoining country, and the various articles of their own manufacture, such as fine linen, embroidery, tapestry, metals, glass, both colored and figured, cut, or carved, and even mirrors. They were unrivaled by the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coasts in works of taste, elegance, and luxury. Their great and universally acknowledged pre-eminence in the arts procured for the Phoenicians, whose principal seaport was Sidon, the honor of being esteemed, among the Greeks and other nations, as the inventors of commerce, ship-building, navigation, the application of astronomy to nautical purposes, and particularly as the discoverers of several stars nearer to the north pole than any that were known to other nations; of naval war, writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, measures and weights-to which, it is probable, they might have added money. (See Sidon).

The earliest accounts of bargain and sale reach no higher than the time of Abraham, and his transaction with Ephron. He is said to have weighed unto him "400 shekels of silver, current money with the merchant" ( Genesis 23:16). The word merchant implies that the standard of money was fixed by usage among merchants, who comprised a numerous and respectable class of the community. Manufactures were by this time so far advanced that not only those more immediately connected with agriculture, such as flour ground from corn, wine, oil, butter, and also the most necessary articles of clothing and furniture, but even those of luxury and magnificence, were much in use, as appears by the ear-rings, bracelets of gold and of silver, and other precious things presented by Abraham's steward to Rebecca ( Genesis 24:22;  Genesis 24:53.) (See Bargain).

In the book of Job, whose author, in the opinion of the most learned commentators, resided in Arabia, and was nearly contemporary with Abraham, much light is thrown upon the commerce, manufactures, and science of the age and country in which he lived. There is mention of gold, iron, brass, lead, crystal, jewels, the art of weaving, merchants, gold brought from Ophir, which implies commerce with a remote country, and topazes from Ethiopia; ship-building, so far improved that some ships were distinguished for the velocity of their motion; writing in a book, and engraving letters or writing on plates of lead and on stone with iron pens, and also seal-engraving; fishing with hooks, and nets, and spears; musical instruments, the harp and organ; astronomy, and names given to particular stars. These notices tend to prove that, although the patriarchal system of making pasturage the chief object of attention was still maintained by many of the greatest inhabitants where the author of the book of Job resided, the sciences were actively cultivated, the useful and ornamental arts in an advanced state, and commerce prosecuted with diligence and success; and this at a period when, if the chronology of Job is correctly settled, the arts and sciences were scarcely so far advanced in Egypt, from whence, and from the other countries bordering upon the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, they afterwards gradually found their way into Greece. (See Job).

The inhabitants of Arabia appear to have availed themselves at a very early period of their advantageous situation between the two fertile and opulent countries of India and Egypt, and to have obtained the exclusive monopoly of a very profitable carrying trade between those countries. They were a class of people who gave their whole attention to merchandise as a regular and established profession, and traveled with caravans between Arabia and Egypt, carrying upon the backs of camels the spiceries of India, the balm of Canaan, and the myrrh produced in their own country, or of a superior quality from the opposite coast of Abyssinia-all of which were in great demand among the Egyptians for embalming the dead, in their religious ceremonies, and for ministering to the pleasures of that superstitious and luxurious people. The merchants of one of these caravans bought Joseph from his brothers for twenty pieces of silver, and carried him into Egypt. The southern Arabs were eminent traders, and enjoyed a large proportion, and in general the entire monopoly, of the trade between India and the western world from the earliest ages, until the system of that important commerce was totally overturned when the inhabitants of Europe discovered a direct route to India by the Cape of Good Hope. (See Arabia).

At the period when Joseph's brethren visited Egypt, inns were established for the accommodation of travelers in that country and in the northern parts of Arabia. The more civilized southern parts of the peninsula would no doubt be furnished with caravanserais still more commodious. (See Caravanserai).

During the residence of the Israelites in Egypt manufactures of almost every description were carried to great perfection. Flax, fine linen, garments of cotton, rings and jewels of gold and silver, works in all kinds of materials, chariots for pleasure, and chariots for war, are all mentioned by Moses. They had extensive manufactories of brick. Literature was in a flourishing state; and, in order to give an enlarged idea of the accomplishments of Moses, it is said he was "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians" ( Acts 12:22). (See Egypt).

The expulsion of the Canaanites from a great part of their territories by the Israelites under Joshua led to the gradual establishment of colonies in Cyprus, Rhodes, and several islands in the AEgean Sea; they penetrated into the Euxine or Black Sea, and, spreading along the shores of Sicily, Sardinia, Gaul, Spain, and Africa, established numerous trading places, which gradually rose into more or less importance. At this period mention is first made of Tyre as a strong or fortified city, whilst Sidon is dignified with the title of Great. (See Canaanite).

The rising prosperity of Tyre soon eclipsed the ancient and long-flourishing commercial city of Sidon. About 600 years before Christ her commercial splendor appears to have been at its height, and is graphically described by Ezekiel . The imports into Tyre were fine linen from Egypt; blue and purple from the isles of Elishah; silver, iron, tin, and lead from Tarshish-the south part of Spain; slaves and brazen vessels from Javan or Greece, Tubal, and Meshech; horses, slaves bred to horsemanship, and mules from Togarmah; emeralds, purple, embroidery, fine linen, corals, and agates from Syria; corn, balm, honey, oil, and gum from the Israelites; wine and wool from Damascus; polished ironware, precious oils, and cinnamon from Dan, Javan, and Uzal; magnificent carpets from Dedan; sheep and goats from the pastoral tribes of Arabia; costly spices, some the produce of India, precious stones, and gold from the' merchants of Sheba or Sabaea, and Ramah or Regma, countries in the south part of Arabia; blue cloths, embroidered works, rich apparel in corded cedar-chests, supposed to be original India packages, and other goods from Sheba, Ashur, and Chilmad, and from Haran, Canneh, and Eden, trading ports on the south coast of Arabia. The vast wealth that thus flowed into Tyre from all quarters brought with it its too general concomitants-extravagance, dissipation, and relaxation of morals. (See Tyre).

The subjection of Tyre, "the renowned city which was strong in the sea, whose merchants were princes, whose traffickers were the honorable of the earth," by Cyrus, and its subsequent overthrow by Alexander, after a determined and most formidable resistance, terminated alike the grandeur of that city and the history of ancient commerce, as far as they are alluded to in Scripture. (See Anderson's History of Commerce, Lond. 1764, and latest 1801; Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Indian Ocean, Lond. 1807; Heeren's Researches; Barnes on the Ancient Commerce of Western Asia, in the Biblical Repository, Oct. 1840, Jan. 1841; Gilbert, Lects. on Anc. Commerce, Lond. 1847.) (See Alexander).

3. Until the time of Solomon the Hebrew nation may be said to have had no foreign trade (see Tychsen, De Comm. Et Nav. Hebreorum , in the Con. Soc. Gott . 1808, p. 150-79). Foreign trade was indeed contemplated by the Law, and strict rules for morality in commercial dealings were laid down by it ( Deuteronomy 28:12;  Deuteronomy 25:13-16;  Leviticus 19:35-36), and the tribes near the sea and the Phoenician territory appear to have engaged to some extent in maritime affairs ( Genesis 49:13;  Deuteronomy 33:18;  Judges 5:17); but the spirit of the Law was more in favor of agriculture and against foreign trade ( Deuteronomy 17:16-17; Leviticus 25; see Josephus, Apion, 1:12). (See Alliance).

During the reign of David, king of Israel, that powerful monarch disposed of a part of the wealth obtained by his conquests in purchasing cedar- timber from Hiram, king of Tyre, with whom he kept up a friendly correspondence while he lived. He also hired Tyrian masons and carpenters for carrying on his works. (See David). Solomon, however, organized an extensive trade with foreign countries, but chiefly, at least so far as the more distant nations were concerned, of an import character. He imported linen yarn, horses, and chariots from Egypt. Of the horses, some appear to have been resold to Syrian and Canaanitish princes. For all these he paid gold, which was imported by sea from India and Arabia by his fleets in conjunction with the Phoenicians ( 1 Kings 10:22-29; see Gesenius, Thes. Heb. p. 1202; comp. Heeren, As. Nat. 1:334). It was by Phoenicians also that the cedar and other timber for his great architectural works was brought by sea to Joppa, whilst Solomon found the provisions necessary for the workmen in Mount Lebanon ( 1 Kings 5:6;  1 Kings 5:9;  2 Chronicles 2:16). The united fleets used to sail into the Indian Ocean every three years from Elath and Eziongebler, ports on the AElanitic gulf of the Red Sea, which David had probably gained from Edom; and they brought back gold, silver, ivory, sandal-wood, ebony, precious stones, apes, and peacocks. Some of these may have come from India and Ceylon, and some from the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the east coast of Africa ( 2 Samuel 8:14;  1 Kings 9:26;  1 Kings 10:11;  1 Kings 10:22;  2 Chronicles 8:17; see Herod. 3:114; comp. Livingstone, Travels, p. 637, 662). (See Ophir).

But the trade which Solomon took so much pains to encourage was not a maritime trade only. He built; or more probably fortified, Baalbek and Palmyra; the latter at least expressly as a caravan station for the land- commerce with eastern and south-eastern Asia ( 1 Kings 9:18). (See Solomon).

After his death the maritime trade declined, and an attempt made by Jehoshaphat to revive it proved unsuccessful ( 1 Kings 22:48-49). (See Tarshish). We know, however, that Phoenicia was supplied from Judaea with wheat, honey, oil, and balm ( 1 Kings 5:11;  Ezekiel 27:17;  Acts 12:20; see Josephus, War, 2:21, 2; Life, 13), whilst Tyrian dealers brought fish and other merchandise to Jerusalem at the time of the return from captivity ( Nehemiah 13:16), as well as timber for the rebuilding of the Temple, which then, as in Solomon's time, was brought by sea to Joppa ( Ezra 3:7). Oil was exported to Egypt ( Hosea 12:1), and fine linen and ornamental girdles of domestic manufacture were sold to the merchants ( Proverbs 31:24). The successive invasions to which Palestine was subjected, involving both large abstraction of treasure by invaders, — and heavy imposts on the inhabitants to purchase immunity or to satisfy demands for tribute must have impoverished the country from time to time (under Rehoboam,  1 Kings 14:26; Asa 15; 18; Joash,  2 Kings 12:18; Amaziah,  2 Kings 14:13; Ahaz,  2 Kings 16:8; Hezekiah,  2 Kings 18:15-16; Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim,  2 Kings 23:33;  2 Kings 23:35; Jehoiachin,  2 Kings 24:13); but it is also clear, as the denunciations of the prophets bear witness, that much wealth must somewhere have existed in the country, and much foreign merchandise have been imported; so much so that, in the language of Ezekiel, Jerusalem appears as the rival of Tyre, and through its port, Joppa, to have carried on trade with foreign countries ( Isaiah 2:6;  Isaiah 2:16;  Isaiah 3:11;  Isaiah 3:23;  Hosea 12:7;  Ezekiel 26:2;  Jonah 1:3; comp. Heeren, As. Nat . i, p. 328). (See Phoenicia).

Under the Maccabees Joppa was fortified ( 1 Maccabees 14:34), and later still Caesarea was built and made a port by Herod (Joseph. Ant. 15:9, 6;  Acts 27:2). Joppa became afterwards a haunt for pirates, and was taken by Cestius; afterwards by Vespasian, and destroyed by him (Strab. 16, p. 759; Josephus, War, 2:18,10; 3:9, 1). (See Palestine).

4. The internal trade of the Jews, as well as the external, was much promoted, as was the case also in Egypt, by the festivals, which brought large numbers of persons to Jerusalem, and caused great outlay in victims for sacrifices and in incense ( 1 Kings 8:63; comp. Heeren, As. Nat . 2:363). (See Festival).

The places of public market were, then as now, chiefly the open spaces near the gates, to which goods were brought for sale by those who came from the outside ( Nehemiah 13:15-16;  Zephaniah 1:10). (See Gate).

The traders in later times were allowed to intrude into the Temple, in the outer courts of which victims were publicly sold for the sacrifices ( Zechariah 14:21;  Matthew 21:12;  John 2:14). (See Temple).

In the matter of buying and selling great stress is laid by the Law on fairness in dealing. Just weights and balances are stringently ordered ( Leviticus 19:35-36;  Deuteronomy 25:13-16). Kidnapping slaves is forbidden under the severest penalty ( Exodus 21:16;  Deuteronomy 24:7). Trade in swine was forbidden by the Jewish doctors (see Surenhusius, Mischna, de danme. c. 7, vol. 4:60; Lightfoot, Flor. Heb. on  Matthew 8:33; Saalschutz, Arch. Hehr. c. 15, 16). (See Merchant).

Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature

The idea conveyed by this word is represented in the Sacred Writings by the word trade.

Commerce, in its usual acceptation, means the exchange of one thing for another—the exchange of what we have to spare for what we want, in whatever country it is produced. The origin of commerce must have been nearly coeval with the world. As pasturage and agriculture were the only employments of the first inhabitants, so cattle, flocks, and the fruits of the earth were the only objects of the first commerce, or that species of it called barter. It would appear that some progress had been made in manufactures in the ages before the flood. The building of a city or village by Cain, however insignificant the houses may have been, supposes the existence of some mechanical knowledge. The musical instruments, such as harps and organs, the works in brass and in iron exhibited by the succeeding generations, confirm the belief that the arts were considerably advanced. The construction of Noah's ark, a ship of three decks, covered over with pitch, and much larger than any modern effort of architecture, proves that many separate trades were at that period carried on. There must have been parties who supplied Noah and his three sons with the great quantity and variety of materials which they required, and this they would do in exchange for other commodities, and perhaps money. That enormous pile of building, the tower of Babel, was constructed of bricks, the process of making which, appears to have been well understood.

Such of the descendants of Noah as lived near the water may be presumed to have made use of vessels built in imitation of the ark—if, as some think, that was the first floating vessel ever seen in the world—but on a smaller scale, for the purpose of crossing rivers. In the course of time the descendants of his son Japhet settled in 'the isles of the Gentiles,' by which are understood the islands at the east end of the Mediterranean sea, and those between Asia Minor and Greece, whence their colonies spread into Greece, Italy, and other western lands.

Sidon, which afterwards became so celebrated for the wonderful mercantile exertions of its inhabitants, was founded about 2200 years before the Christian era. The neighboring mountains, being covered with excellent cedar-trees, furnished the best and most durable timber for ship-building. The inhabitants of Sidon accordingly built numerous ships, and exported the produce of the adjoining country, and the various articles of their own manufacture, such as fine linen, embroidery, tapestry, metals, glass, both colored and figured, cut, or carved, and even mirrors. They were unrivalled by the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coasts in works of taste, elegance, and luxury. Their great and universally acknowledged pre-eminence in the arts procured for the Phoenicians, whose principal seaport was Sidon, the honor of being esteemed, among the Greeks and other nations, as the inventors of commerce, ship-building, navigation, the application of astronomy to nautical purposes, and particularly as the discoverers of several stars nearer to the north pole than an that were known to other nations; of naval war, writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, measures and weights; to which it is probable they might have added money.

Egypt appears to have excelled all the neighboring countries in agriculture, and particularly in its abundant crops of corn. The fame of its fertility induced Abraham to remove thither with his numerous family .

The earliest accounts of bargain and sale reach no higher than the time of Abraham, and his transaction with Ephron. He is said to have weighed unto him '400 shekels of silver, current money with the merchant' . The word merchant implies that the standard of money was fixed by usage among merchants, who comprised a numerous and respectable class of the community. Manufactures were by this time so far advanced, that not only those more immediately connected with agriculture, such as flour ground from corn, wine, oil, butter, and also the most necessary articles of clothing and furniture, but even those of luxury and magnificence, were much in use, as appears by the earrings, bracelets of gold and of silver, and other precious things presented by Abraham's steward to Rebekah .

In the book of Job, whose author, in the opinion of the most learned commentators, resided in Arabia, and was contemporary with the earlier portion of Biblical history, much light is thrown upon the commerce, manufactures, and science of the age and country in which he lived. There is mention of gold, iron, brass, lead, crystal, jewels, the art of weaving, merchants, gold brought from Ophir, which implies commerce with a remote country, and topazes from Ethiopia; ship-building, so far improved that some ships were distinguished for the velocity of their motion; writing in a book, and engraving letters or writing on plates of lead and on stone with iron pens, and also seal-engraving; fishing with hooks, and nets, and spears; musical instruments, the harp, and organ; astronomy, and names given to particular stars. These notices tend to prove that, although the patriarchal system of making pasturage the chief object of attention was still maintained by many of the greatest inhabitants where the author of the book of Job resided, the sciences were actively cultivated, the useful and ornamental arts in an advanced state, and commerce prosecuted with diligence and success.

The inhabitants of Arabia appear to have availed themselves, at a very early period, of their advantageous situation between the two fertile and opulent countries of India and Egypt, and to have obtained the exclusive monopoly of a very profitable carrying trade between those countries. They were a class of people who gave their whole attention to merchandise as a regular and established profession, and traveled with caravans between Arabia and Egypt, carrying upon the backs of camels the spiceries of India, the balm of Canaan, and the myrrh produced in their own country, or of a superior quality from the opposite coast of Abyssinia—all of which were in great demand among the Egyptians for embalming the dead, in their religious ceremonies, and for ministering to the pleasures of that superstitious and luxurious people. The merchants of one of these caravans bought Joseph from his brothers for twenty pieces of silver, and carried him into Egypt. The southern Arabs were eminent traders, and enjoyed a large proportion, and in general the entire monopoly, of the trade between India and the western world, from the earliest ages, until the system of that important commerce was totally overturned when the inhabitants of Europe discovered a direct route to India by the Cape of Good Hope.

At the period when Joseph's brethren visited Egypt, 'inns' or caravanserais were established for the accommodation of travelers in that country and in the northern parts of Arabia. The more civilized southern parts of the peninsula would no doubt be furnished with caravanserais still more commodious.

During the residence of the Israelites in Egypt manufactures of almost every description were carried to great perfection. Flax, fine linen, garments of cotton, rings and jewels of gold an silver, works in all kinds of materials, chariots for pleasure and chariots for war, are all mentioned by Moses. They had extensive manufactories of bricks. Literature was in a flourishing state; and, in order to give an enlarged idea of the accomplishments of Moses, it is said he was 'learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians' .

The expulsion of the Canaanites from a great part of their territories by the Israelites under Joshua, led to the gradual establishment of colonies in Cyprus, Rhodes, and several islands in the Ægean Sea; they penetrated into the Euxine or Black Sea, and spreading along the shores of Sicily, Sardinia, Gaul, Spain, and Africa, established numerous trading places, which gradually rose into more or less importance. At this period mention is first made of Tyre as a strong or fortified city, whilst Sidon is dignified with the title of Great.

During the reign of David, king of Israel, that powerful monarch disposed of a part of the wealth obtained by his conquests in purchasing cedar-timber from Hiram, king of Tyre, with whom he kept up a friendly correspondence while he lived. He also hired Tyrian masons and carpenters for carrying on his works. Solomon, the son of David, cultivated the arts of peace, and indulged his taste for magnificence and luxury to a great extent. He employed the wealth collected by his father in works of architecture, and in strengthening and improving his kingdom. He built the famous Temple and fortifications of Jerusalem, and many cities, among which was the celebrated Tadmor or Palmyra. From the king of Tyre he obtained cedar and fir, or cypress-timbers, and large stones cut and prepared for building, which the Tyrians conveyed by water to the most convenient landing-place in Solomon's dominions. Hiram also sent a vast number of workmen to assist and instruct Solomon's people, none of whom had skill 'to hew timber like the Sidonians.' Solomon, in exchange, furnished the Tyrians with corn, wine, and oil, and received a balance in gold. Solomon and Hiram appear to have subsequently entered into a trading speculation or adventure upon a large scale. Tyrian shipwrights were accordingly sent to build vessels for both kings at Eziongeber, Solomon's port on the Red Sea, whither he himself went to animate them with his presence . These ships, conducted by Tyrian navigators, sailed in company to some rich countries called Ophir and Tarshish. The voyage occupied three years, yet the returns in this new found trade were very great and profitable. This fleet, took in apes, ebony, and parrots on the coasts of Ethiopia, gold at Ophir, or the place of traffic whither the people of Ophir resorted; it traded on both sides of the Red Sea, on the coasts of Arabia and Ethiopia, in all parts of Ethiopia beyond the straits when it had entered the ocean: thence it passed up the Persian Gulf, and might visit the places of trade upon both its shores, and run up the Tigris or the Euphrates as far as these rivers were navigable.

After the reign of Solomon the commerce of the Israelites seems to have very materially declined. An attempt was made by Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and Ahaziah, king of Israel, to effect its revival; but the ships which they built at Eziongeber having been wrecked in the harbor, the undertaking was abandoned. It does not appear that they had any assistance from the Phoenicians in fitting out this fleet. Great efforts were made by the Egyptians to extend the commerce of their country, among which not the least considerable was the unsuccessful attempt to construct a canal from the Nile to the Arabian Gulf.

The rising prosperity of Tyre soon eclipsed the ancient and long-flourishing commercial city of Sidon. About 600 years before Christ her commercial splendor appears to have been at its height, and is graphically described by (Ezekiel 27). The imports into Tyre were fine linen from Egypt; blue and purple from the isles of Elisha; silver, iron, tin, and lead from Tarshish—the south part of Spain; slaves and brazen vessels from Javan or Greece, Tubal and Meshech; horses, slaves bred to horsemanship, and mules from Togarmah; emeralds, purple, embroidery, fine linen, corals, and agates from Syria; corn, balm, honey, oil, and gums from the Israelites; wine and wool from Damascus, polished ironware, precious oils, and cinnamon from Dan, Javan, and Mezo; magnificent carpets from Dedan; sheep and goats from the pastoral tribes of Arabia; costly spices, some the produce of India, precious stones, and gold from the merchants of Sheba or Sabrea, and Ramah or Regma, countries in the south part of Arabia; blue cloths, embroidered works, rich apparel in corded cedar-chests, supposed to be original India packages, and other goods from Sheba, Ashur, and Chilmad, and from Haran, Canneh, and Eden, trading ports on the south coast of Arabia. The vast wealth that thus flowed into Tyre from all quarters brought with it its too general concomitants—extravagance, dissipation, and relaxation of morals.

The subjection of Tyre, 'the renowned city which was strong in the sea, whose merchants were princes, whose traffickers were the honorable of the earth,' by Cyrus, and its subsequent overthrow by Alexander, after a determined and most formidable resistance, terminated alike the grandeur of that city and the history of ancient commerce, as far as they are alluded to in Scripture.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

kom´ẽrs ( ἐμπορία , emporı́a ):

I. Old Testament Times

1. Early Overland Commerce

There were forces in early Hebrew life not favorable to the development of commerce. Intercourse with foreigners was not encouraged by Israel's social and religious customs. From the days of the appearance of the Hebrews in Canaan, however, some commercial contact with the peoples around was inevitable. There were ancient trade routes between the East and the West, as well as between Egypt and the Mesopotamian valley. Palestine lay as a bridge between these objective points. There were doubtless traveling merchants from very remote times, interchanging commodities of other lands for those of Palestine Some of the Hebrew words for "trading" and "merchant" indicate this (compare סחר , ṣāḥar , "to travel," רכל , rākhal , "to go about"). In the nomadic period, the people were necessarily dependent upon overland commerce for at least a part of their food supply, such as grain, and doubtless for articles of clothing, too. Frequent local famines would stimulate such trade. Companies or caravans carrying on this overland commerce are seen in  Genesis 37:25 ,  Genesis 37:28 , "Ishmaelites" and "Midianites, merchantmen," on their way to Egypt, with spices, balm and myrrh. Jacob caused his sons to take certain products to Egypt as a present with money to Joseph in return for grain: balsam, spices, honey, myrrh, nuts, almonds ( Genesis 43:11 f). The presence of a "Bab mantle" among the spoils of Ai (  Joshua 7:21 ) indicates commerce between Canaan and the East.

2. Sea Traffic

While there are slight indications of a possible sea trade as early as the days of the Judges ( Judges 5:17; compare  Genesis 49:13 ), we must wait till the days of the monarchy of David and especially Solomon for the commerce of ships. Land traffic was of course continued and expanded ( 1 Kings 10:15 ,  1 Kings 10:28 ,  1 Kings 10:29;  2 Chronicles 1:16 ). Sea trade at this time made large strides forward. The Philistines were earlier in possession of the coast. Friendship with Hiram king of Tyre gave Solomon additional advantages seaward (1 Ki 5;  1 Kings 9:26;  1 Kings 10:19-29;  2 Chronicles 8:17;  2 Chronicles 9:14 ), since the Phonicians were pre-eminently the Miditerranean traders among all the people of Palestine Later, commerce declined, but Jehoshaphat attempted to revive it ( 1 Kings 22:48;  2 Chronicles 20:36 ), but without success. Tyre and Sidon as great commercial centers, however, long impressed the life of Israel (Isa 23; Ezek 26 through 27). Later, in the Maccabean period, Simon acquired Joppa as a Jewish port (1 Macc 14:5), and so extended Mediterranean commerce.

3. Land Traffic in the Time of the Kings

During the peaceful reign of Solomon, there came, with internal improvements and foreign friendships, a stimulus to traffic with Egypt and the Far East over the ancient trade routes as well as with Phoenicia on the northwest. He greatly added to his wealth through tariffs levied upon merchantmen ( 1 Kings 10:15 ). Trade with Syria in the days of Omri and Ahab is indicated by the permission Benhadad gave to Israelites to open streets, or trading quarters, in Damascus, as Syrians had in Samaria ( 1 Kings 20:34 ). The prophets disclose repeatedly the results of foreign commerce upon the people in the days of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, and of Jeroboam II, under whom great material prosperity was attained, followed by simple luxury ( Isaiah 2:6 ,  Isaiah 2:7 ,  Isaiah 2:16;  Hosea 12:1 ,  Hosea 12:7 ,  Hosea 12:8;  Amos 6:3-6 ). The people in their greed of gain could not observe Sabbaths and feast days ( Amos 8:5 ); compare Sabbath trading and its punishment in the days of the restoration ( Nehemiah 13:15-22 ). "Canaanite" became the nickname for traffickers ( Zechariah 14:21; compare  Isaiah 23:8 ).

II. New Testament Times

After the conquests of Alexander 333 bc, trade between East and West was greatly stimulated. Colonies of Jews for trade purposes had been established in Egypt and elsewhere. The dispersion of the Jews throughout the Greek and Roman world added to their interest in commerce. The Mediterranean Sea, as a great Roman lake, under Roman protection, became alive with commercial fleets. The Sea of Galilee with its enormous fish industry became the center of a large trading interest to all parts. The toll collected in Galilee must have been considerable. Matthew was called from his collectorship to discipleship ( Matthew 9:9 ); Zaccheus and other publicans became rich collecting taxes from large commercial interests like that of balsam. Jesus frequently used the commerce of the day as illustration ( Matthew 13:45; 25:14-30). Along the Palestinian coast there were several ports where ships touched: Lydda, Joppa, Caesarea; and further north Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon and Antioch (port Seleucia).

The apostle Paul made use of ships touching at points on the coast of Asia Minor, and the islands along the coast, and also doing coast trade with Greece, Italy and Spain, to carry on his missionary emterprises ( Acts 13:4-13;  Acts 16:11 f;   Acts 18:18;  Acts 20:13-16;  Acts 21:1-8; 27:1-44;  Acts 28:1-14 ). The rapidity with which the gospel spread throughout the Roman world in the 1st century was due no little to the use of the great Roman highways, built partly as trade routes; as well as to the constant going to and fro of tradesmen of all sorts; some of whom like Aquila and Priscilla ( Acts 18:2 ,  Acts 18:18 ,  Acts 18:26 ), Lydia, ( Matthew 16:14 , 40) and Paul himself (who was a traveling tent-maker) were active in disseminating the new faith among the Gentiles. In  James 4:13 we have a good representation of the life of a large number of Jews of this period, who would "go into such a city, and continue there a year, and buy and sell, and get gain" (the King James Version). See also Trade .