Difference between revisions of "Quotations"

From BiblePortal Wikipedia
 
Line 1: Line 1:
== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_57069" /> ==
<p> A wide variety has been found to exist in the literary allusions of the four Gospels. The same freedom pervades the rest of the NT. Characteristic differences are, no doubt, to be met with in different groups of apostolic writings; but the field of quotation, direct and indirect, extends throughout from exact reproduction of the original texts to the merest suggestion or reminiscence, often hardly to be traced. The present article seeks to cover the more obvious reminiscences, as well as explicit citations, in the NT books under review. </p> <p> 1. Acts of the Apostles.-The direct quotations in Acts are confined to speeches of the apostles and the story of the [[Ethiopian]] eunuch (&nbsp;Acts 8:26 ff.). They are invariably drawn from the LXX_, even when that Version departs considerably from the [[Hebrew]] (as in &nbsp;Acts 7:42 f., &nbsp;Acts 15:16 f.), and normally introduced by formulae like ‘It is written (in the book of Psalms),’ ‘This is that which hath been spoken by the prophets,’ ‘For David saith concerning him,’ etc. A number of the citations are exact, viz. &nbsp;Acts 2:25-28 = &nbsp;Psalms 16:8-11, omitting the last clause (identity being secured by reading ἡ καρδία μου with àAD, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 2:34 f. = &nbsp;Psalms 110:1; Ps 4:25f. = &nbsp;Psalms 2:1 f.; &nbsp;Acts 8:32 f. = &nbsp;Isaiah 53:7 f. (with addition of αὐτόν, as in àA, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 23:5 = &nbsp;Exodus 22:28 (in Lucian’s recension); &nbsp;Acts 28:26 f. = &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9 f. (apart from a slight difference in the opening formula). Under the same category is virtually to be placed the long citation from &nbsp;Joel 2:28-32 woven into Peter’s speech at [[Pentecost]] (&nbsp;Acts 2:17-21), the only changes from the LXX_ (àA) being a substitution of the eschatological phrase ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἡμέραις (from &nbsp;Isaiah 2:2, &nbsp;Micah 4:1) for the simple μετὰ ταῦτα of the original, the insertion of the solemn formula of [[Divine]] utterance λέγει ὁ θεός, and the transposition of the clauses relating to the young men and the old. In close dependence on the historical narratives from [[Genesis]] to Kings stands Stephen’s long survey of the Divine leading and mission of [[Israel]] (&nbsp;Acts 7:1 ff.), many of the verses being abbreviated, but sufficiently exact, citations of biblical texts (cf. esp. vv. &nbsp;Acts 7:3; &nbsp;Acts 7:6 f., &nbsp;Acts 7:26-28; &nbsp;Acts 7:30-34; &nbsp;Acts 7:40 with &nbsp;Genesis 12:1; &nbsp;Genesis 15:13 f., &nbsp;Exodus 2:13 f., &nbsp;Exodus 3:2 ff., &nbsp;Exodus 32:1). More deliberate alterations are evident in &nbsp;Exodus 1:20, where the general denunciation of wicked men in &nbsp;Psalms 69:25 (amplified by a further reference to &nbsp;Psalms 109:8) is directly pointed against Judas; &nbsp;Acts 2:30, an indirect citation of Ps 132:11; 3:22f. (abbreviated in &nbsp;Acts 7:37), a conflate of &nbsp;Deuteronomy 18:15-19 and &nbsp;Leviticus 23:29; Lv 3:25, a free blending of the promises addressed to the fathers in &nbsp;Genesis 12:3; &nbsp;Genesis 18:18, etc.; &nbsp;Genesis 4:11, a loose citation of the verses (&nbsp;Psalms 118:22 f.) which are fully reproduced and applied to Christ in &nbsp;Matthew 21:42 and parallel texts; &nbsp;Acts 7:42 f., where the famous words of &nbsp;Amos 5:25-27 are quoted with considerable changes, the most remarkable being the substitution of ‘Babylon’ for ‘Damascus’ (due either to accident, or, more probably, to a desire to bring the prophecy into line with later events); &nbsp;Acts 7:49 f., where the prophet’s great contrast between the heavens of the Most High God and even the noblest temple built by man (&nbsp;Isaiah 66:1 f.) is reproduced with considerable freedom; &nbsp;Isaiah 13:22, a noteworthy conflate of &nbsp;Psalms 89:20; Psalms 89 :&nbsp;2 Samuel 23:1 (or &nbsp;Psalms 72:20), &nbsp;1 Samuel 13:14, and &nbsp;Isaiah 44:28; other verses from St. Paul’s speech at Antioch, esp. &nbsp;Acts 13:33-35; &nbsp;Acts 13:41; &nbsp;Acts 13:47, which are abbreviated citations of &nbsp;Psalms 2:7, &nbsp;Isaiah 55:3, &nbsp;Psalms 16:10, &nbsp;Habakkuk 1:5, and &nbsp;Isaiah 49:6 respectively; &nbsp;Acts 15:16 f., a free rendering of &nbsp;Amos 9:11, introduced by a phrase from &nbsp;Jeremiah 12:15; &nbsp;Jeremiah 26:17 f., an application to St. Paul himself of the prophetic passage &nbsp;Isaiah 42:7-16. </p> <p> In addition to direct citations, however, there are many reminiscences of Scriptural phraseology scattered through Acts. The following may be presented as most suggestive of the original texts: &nbsp;Acts 2:24 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 18:4 f., &nbsp;Psalms 116:3, &nbsp;Job 39:2 f.); &nbsp;Acts 2:39 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 57:19, &nbsp;Joel 2:32, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 2:40 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:5); &nbsp;Acts 4:24, &nbsp;Acts 14:15, &nbsp;Acts 17:24 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 1:1, &nbsp;Exodus 20:11, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 4:34 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:4); &nbsp;Acts 5:4 (cf. &nbsp;Joshua 24:27, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 8:2 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 50:10); &nbsp;Acts 8:21 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:12, &nbsp;Psalms 78:37); &nbsp;Acts 10:36 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 107:20, &nbsp;Isaiah 52:7, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 17:27 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 55:6, etc.); &nbsp;Acts 17:29 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 40:18 f., &nbsp;Isaiah 46:5); &nbsp;Acts 17:31 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 9:8, etc.). </p> <p> Outside of the OT, no texts are ever cited as Scripture. Other sources are, however, clearly before the mind of the writer. Thus &nbsp;Acts 7:21 suggests Wis 11:14; 18:5; 17:29, Wis 13:10; and 17:30, &nbsp;Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 11:23; &nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 12:2. The phraseology of &nbsp;Acts 3:14 (cf. &nbsp;Acts 7:52, &nbsp;Acts 22:14) &nbsp;Acts 4:12, &nbsp;Acts 10:4, &nbsp;Acts 17:31 recalls Enoch, xxxviii. 2, xlviii. 7, xcix. 3, and xli. 9 respectively. In St. Stephen’s speech (&nbsp;Acts 7:36; &nbsp;Acts 7:38 f.) R. H. [[Charles]] finds distinct evidence of dependence on the Assumption of Moses (iii. 11-13). There is here also (&nbsp;Acts 7:16) betrayed an acquaintance with extra-canonical [[Jewish]] tradition regarding the burial of Joseph’s brethren, as it was afterwards committed to writing in the Book of Jubilees (xlvi. 9 f.). Finally, St. Paul’s great speech at [[Athens]] brings classical poetry into the service of Christ. The final clause of &nbsp;Acts 17:28, Τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν (‘for we are also his offspring’) has long been recognized as an exact quotation from Aratus’ Phaenomena, line 5 (cf. the similar phrase, ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ γένος ἐσμέν, from Cleanthes’ [[Hymn]] to Jove, line 4). But Rendel Harris has recently traced the immediately preceding words (‘for in him we live and move and have our being’) to the [[Minos]] of the Cretan pcet, Epimenides, from which also &nbsp;Titus 1:12 is drawn, the text being restored as follows: </p> <p> τύμβον ἐτεκτῄναντο σέθεν, κύδιστε, μέγιστε, </p> <p> Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀργαί. </p> <p> Ἀλλὰ σύ γʼ οὐ θνήσκεις, ἕστηκας γὰρ ζοὸς αἰεί, </p> <p> ἐν γὰρ σοὶ ζῶμεν καὶ κινύμεθʼ ἠδὲ καὶ ἐσμέν </p> <p> (cf. Exp_, 8th ser., iv. [1912] 348 ff.). </p> <p> 2. The [[Pauline]] Epistles.-These are peculiarly rich in allusions. Every important doctrinal argument is buttressed by an appeal to Scripture; and even moral counsels are, as a rule, referred to some basal principle of the OT. The Apostle’s ordinary language is likewise steeped in OT phraseology. Here too the LXX_ is the great storehouse of literary reference. ‘More than half of the direct quotations of the OT in the [[Epistles]] of St. Paul are taken from the LXX_ without material change’ (H. B. Swete, Introduction to the OT in Greek, Cambridge, 1900, p. 400). In the remaining cases he allows himself considerable freedom, sometimes quoting from memory, or otherwise altering the text for the purpose immediately in view, though occasionally there is evidence of direct translation from the Hebrew. </p> <p> (a) The [[Epistle]] to the Romans is a veritable mine of quotations. Exact reproductions of the LXX_ are found as follows: &nbsp;Romans 3:4 b = &nbsp;Psalms 51:4 b; &nbsp;Psalms 4:3 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 4:5 ff.) = &nbsp;Genesis 15:6; &nbsp;Genesis 4:7 f. = &nbsp;Psalms 32:1 f.; psa 4:17 (πατέρα πολλῶν ἐθνῶν τέθεικά σε) is excerpted from &nbsp;Genesis 17:5; &nbsp;Genesis 4:18 (οὕτως ἔσται τὸ σπέρμα σου) from &nbsp;Genesis 15:5; &nbsp;Genesis 7:7 (οὐκ ἐπιθυμήσεις) from the [[Decalogue]] (&nbsp;Exodus 20:17); &nbsp;Romans 8:36 = &nbsp;Psalms 44:22; &nbsp;Psalms 9:7 (ἐν Ἰσαὰκ κληθήσεταί σοι σπέρμα) comes from &nbsp;Genesis 21:12; &nbsp;Genesis 9:12 (ὁ μείζων δουλεύσει τῷ ἐλάσσονι) from &nbsp;Genesis 25:23; &nbsp;Genesis 9:15 = &nbsp;Exodus 33:19; &nbsp;Exodus 9:29 = &nbsp;Isaiah 1:9; &nbsp;Isaiah 10:13 = Jl 2:32; 10:16 = &nbsp;Isaiah 53:1 a; &nbsp;Isaiah 10:18 = Ps 19:4; 12:20 = &nbsp;Proverbs 25:21 f. (omitting the last words); &nbsp;Romans 13:9 (ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου ὡς σεαυτόν) comes from &nbsp;Leviticus 19:18; &nbsp;Leviticus 15:3 = Ps 69:9; 15:9 = Ps 18:49; 15:10 (εὐφράνθητε, ἔθνη, μετὰ τοῦ λαοῦ αὐτοῦ) from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:43; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:11 (acc. to certain MSS_) = &nbsp;Psalms 117:1. The quotation from &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:4 introduced in &nbsp;Romans 1:17 is identical with the LXX_ save for the omission of μού (ct._ Heb. áÌÆàÁîé֣ðÈúåÉ, ‘through his faith’); &nbsp;Romans 2:6 likewise differs from &nbsp;Proverbs 24:12 only in the pronouns. The long citation, &nbsp;Romans 3:10-18, opens with a phrase from &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 7:20; the rest is almost an exact reproduction of the LXX_ text of &nbsp;Psalms 14:1-3, though this is really a conflate of various OT passages (&nbsp;Psalms 5:9; &nbsp;Psalms 140:3; &nbsp;Psalms 10:7, &nbsp;Isaiah 59:7 f., and &nbsp;Psalms 36:1) interwoven with the original. &nbsp;Romans 3:20 is clearly introduced as a quotation (from &nbsp;Psalms 143:2), but differs considerably from both the Hebrew and the LXX_; &nbsp;Romans 9:9 is a free, abbreviated reference to &nbsp;Genesis 18:10; &nbsp;Genesis 18:14; &nbsp;Genesis 9:13 a citation from &nbsp;Malachi 1:2 f., with a trifling transposition of the opening words. &nbsp;Romans 9:17 (from &nbsp;Exodus 9:16) shows a distinct approach to the original Hebrew. On the other hand, &nbsp;Romans 9:25 f., &nbsp;Romans 9:27 f., &nbsp;Romans 9:32 f. are free reproductions of the thought of &nbsp;Hosea 1:10; &nbsp;Hosea 2:23, &nbsp;Isaiah 10:22 f., &nbsp;Isaiah 28:16 (blended with &nbsp;Romans 8:14) respectively, in the last instance so free as to yield a sense quite contrary to the original. The final clause of &nbsp;Romans 9:33 is repeated in &nbsp;Romans 10:11 with the addition of πᾶς; while &nbsp;Romans 10:5 is a direct application of &nbsp;Leviticus 18:5 to ‘the righteousness that is of the law.’ The long passage on the nearness and saving power of the Word of God (&nbsp;Romans 10:6-9) is another free compound of &nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:4; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 30:11-14, etc. &nbsp;Romans 10:15 (from &nbsp;Isaiah 52:7) gives further evidence of direct use of the Hebrew; &nbsp;Romans 10:19 differs from the LXX_ text of &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:21 only in the substitution of the personal pronoun ‘you’ for ‘them,’ and &nbsp;Romans 10:20 f. from &nbsp;Isaiah 65:1 f. in a slight transposition of words. &nbsp;Romans 11:3 f. (from &nbsp;1 Kings 19:10 ff.), has been altered and transposed under Hebrew influence. &nbsp;Romans 11:8 is a free blend of ideas from &nbsp;Isaiah 29:10, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 29:4, etc. (with traces of Hebrew influence); &nbsp;Romans 11:26 f. is also a complex from &nbsp;Isaiah 59:20 f. (in the main) and &nbsp;Psalms 14:7, &nbsp;Isaiah 27:9, etc. &nbsp;Romans 11:9 f., again, is a close, though abbreviated, citation of &nbsp;Psalms 69:22 f., and &nbsp;Romans 11:34 f. is but slightly altered from &nbsp;Isaiah 40:13 f. (in the fuller reading of àA, etc.). &nbsp;Romans 12:19 (from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:35) shows the same approach to the original Hebrew as the [[Targum]] of Onkelos. &nbsp;Romans 14:11 is a somewhat free rendering of &nbsp;Isaiah 45:23, with introductory phrase from &nbsp;Isaiah 49:18, or a similar context; &nbsp;Romans 15:12 is an abbreviated reference to &nbsp;Isaiah 11:10 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 42:4); and &nbsp;Romans 15:21 is the exact equivalent of &nbsp;Isaiah 52:15, except for the transposition of ὄψονται. </p> <p> (b) A number of these citations are repeated in other Epistles of St. Paul. Thus the fundamental assertion of justification by faith (&nbsp;Romans 1:17 = &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:4) reappears in &nbsp;Galatians 3:11, and the texts &nbsp;Romans 3:20 (from &nbsp;Psalms 143:2) in &nbsp;Galatians 2:16; &nbsp;Romans 4:3 (=&nbsp;Genesis 15:6) in &nbsp;Galatians 3:6; &nbsp;Romans 10:5 (from &nbsp;Leviticus 18:5) in &nbsp;Galatians 3:12; &nbsp;Romans 13:9 b (from &nbsp;Leviticus 19:18) in &nbsp;Galatians 5:14; and &nbsp;Romans 11:34 (from &nbsp;Isaiah 40:13) in &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:16 (a different close being here adopted). </p> <p> [[Fresh]] quotations from the OT are found as follows: &nbsp;Galatians 4:27 = Isa 54:1; 4:30 = &nbsp;Genesis 21:10 (with the significant change of τῆς ἐλευθέρας instead of Ἰσαάκ); &nbsp;Galatians 3:8, a blend of the promises in &nbsp;Genesis 12:3; &nbsp;Genesis 18:18, etc.; &nbsp;Galatians 3:10, from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:26, with phrase in woven from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:11; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 3:13, an abbreviated, and slightly altered, citation from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 21:23; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 3:16, a direct application to Christ of the promise to [[Abraham]] and his ‘seed’ (&nbsp;Genesis 12:7; &nbsp;Genesis 13:15; &nbsp;Genesis 17:8, etc.). </p> <p> The closing phrase of &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:16 comes directly from &nbsp;Genesis 2:24 (the whole verse being reproduced in &nbsp;Ephesians 5:31); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:9 (in reading of àAD, etc.) = &nbsp;Deuteronomy 25:4 (repeated in &nbsp;1 Timothy 5:18 with transposition of words); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:7 = &nbsp;Exodus 32:6; &nbsp;Exodus 10:26, a phrase from Ps 24:1; 15:32 = &nbsp;Isaiah 22:13; &nbsp;Isaiah 1:19 f. comes from &nbsp;Isaiah 29:14 with alteration of verb; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 1:31 (repeated in &nbsp;2 Corinthians 10:17) is a free reproduction of &nbsp;Jeremiah 9:23; &nbsp;Jeremiah 2:9 a very free rendering, perhaps through independent Jewish channels (cf. below), of the ideas in &nbsp;Isaiah 64:4, with suggestions from &nbsp;Isaiah 65:16 or &nbsp;Jeremiah 3:16; &nbsp;Jeremiah 3:19 is from &nbsp;Job 5:13, under direct influence of the Hebrew; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 3:20, from &nbsp;Psalms 94:11, with ‘of the wise’ substituted for ‘of men’ (to make the application more apt); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:20 (δαιμονίοις καὶ οὐ θεῷ θύουσιν) from &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:17, with a change in the order of words; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 14:21, a very free citation, supported by λέγει Κύριος, of &nbsp;Isaiah 28:11 f.; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 14:34, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:3-4; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:15; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:45; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:47, free allusions to &nbsp;Genesis 3:18, &nbsp;Isaiah 53:12, &nbsp;Hosea 6:2, and &nbsp;Genesis 2:7, all adduced as ‘written’ or Scriptural authorities; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:27 (cf. &nbsp;Ephesians 1:22, &nbsp;Philippians 3:21), from &nbsp;Psalms 8:6 with direct reference to the Hebrew; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:54 f., a free conflate of &nbsp;Isaiah 25:8 and &nbsp;Hosea 13:14. </p> <p> &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:13 (ἐπίστευσα διὸ ἐλάλησα) exactly = &nbsp;Psalms 116:10; &nbsp;Psalms 6:2 = &nbsp;Isaiah 49:8; &nbsp;Isaiah 9:9 = &nbsp;Psalms 112:9; &nbsp;Psalms 13:1 (cf. &nbsp;1 Timothy 5:19) = &nbsp;Deuteronomy 19:15 (Luc.); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:6, a free blend of &nbsp;Genesis 1:2 f., &nbsp;Isaiah 9:1 f., etc.; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:18, a loose conflate of &nbsp;Ezekiel 37:27 and &nbsp;Leviticus 26:11 f.; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:17, abbreviated from &nbsp;Isaiah 52:11 and &nbsp;Ezekiel 20:34; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:18, a compound of &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:9, &nbsp;Isaiah 43:6; Isaiah 43 :&nbsp;2 Samuel 7:8, etc.; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 8:15, from &nbsp;Exodus 16:18, with direct approach to the Hebrew; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 9:7, a free reproduction of &nbsp;Proverbs 22:9 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 25:2). </p> <p> &nbsp;Ephesians 4:8 is from &nbsp;Psalms 68:18, with the ἔλαβες boldly altered to ἔδωκεν, to make it more applicable to the [[Giver]] of good; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:25, from &nbsp;Zechariah 8:16 with the àÆú more accurately rendered by μετὰ τοῦ; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:26, an excerpt from Ps 4:4; 5:14, a very free reproduction of &nbsp;Isaiah 60:1; &nbsp;Isaiah 60:19 f. (cf. below); &nbsp;Ephesians 5:16, from &nbsp;Proverbs 23:31 (with οἴνῳ for ἐν οἴνοις); &nbsp;Ephesians 6:2 f., from the Decalogue (&nbsp;Exodus 20:12), the motive being somewhat altered, and a new clause added to emphasize the element of ‘promise.’ </p> <p> &nbsp;Philippians 1:19 is a literal extract from &nbsp;Job 13:16; and the two ‘seals’ of &nbsp;2 Timothy 2:19 are free citations of &nbsp;Numbers 16:5 and &nbsp;Isaiah 26:13 respectively. [[Direct]] quotations from the OT are not found in Colossians , 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Titus, or Philemon. </p> <p> Among the more striking reminiscences may be noted &nbsp;Romans 1:23 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:15-18, &nbsp;Psalms 106:20); &nbsp;Romans 2:5 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 110:5, &nbsp;Zephaniah 1:18); &nbsp;Romans 3:4 a (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 116:11); &nbsp;Romans 3:29 f. (cf. &nbsp;Malachi 2:10); &nbsp;Romans 4:11 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 17:11); &nbsp;Romans 4:13; &nbsp;Romans 4:16 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 12:7; &nbsp;Genesis 13:15, etc.); &nbsp;Romans 4:19 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 17:17, etc.); &nbsp;Romans 4:25, &nbsp;Romans 5:19; &nbsp;Romans 5:21 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 53:12); &nbsp;Romans 5:5 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 22:4 f., &nbsp;Psalms 25:20); &nbsp;Romans 7:8; &nbsp;Romans 7:11 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 2:16 f., &nbsp;Romans 3:1 ff.); &nbsp;Romans 8:27 (cf. Heb. text of &nbsp;Psalms 7:9); &nbsp;Romans 8:33 f. (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 50:3 f.); &nbsp;Romans 9:20 f. (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 29:16; &nbsp;Isaiah 45:9); &nbsp;Romans 11:1 f. (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 94:14); &nbsp;Romans 11:16 ff. (cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 11:16); &nbsp;Romans 11:25, &nbsp;Romans 12:16 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 5:21, &nbsp;Proverbs 3:7); &nbsp;Romans 12:14 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 109:28); &nbsp;Romans 12:17 (cf. &nbsp;Proverbs 3:4). </p> <p> &nbsp;1 Corinthians 1:2 (cf. &nbsp;Joel 2:32); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 1:20 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 19:11 f., &nbsp;Isaiah 33:18); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 3:11 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 28:16); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:7 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 12:15); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:2 (cf. &nbsp;Daniel 7:18 ff.); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:17 (cf. &nbsp;2 Kings 18:6); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 8:6 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:35; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:39, &nbsp;Malachi 2:10, etc.); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:7 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:6, &nbsp;Proverbs 27:18, etc.); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:13 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 18:1 ff., &nbsp;Numbers 18:8 ff.); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:1 ff., from &nbsp;Exodus 13:2 ff. (combined with tradition); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:22 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:21); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:7 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 1:26 f.); &nbsp;1 Corinthians 14:25 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 45:14, &nbsp;Zechariah 8:23; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:31 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 44:22). </p> <p> &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:3; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:7 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 31:18, &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:33, &nbsp;Ezekiel 11:19, etc.); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:7 ff. (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 34:29 ff.); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:11 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 44:22); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 5:10 (cf. &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 12:14); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 5:17 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 43:18 f.); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:9 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 118:17 f.); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:11 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 119:32); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 7:6 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 49:13); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 8:21 (cf. &nbsp;Proverbs 3:4); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 9:10 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 55:10, &nbsp;Hosea 10:12); &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:3 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:4). </p> <p> &nbsp;Galatians 1:4 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 53:12); &nbsp;Galatians 1:15 f. (cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 1:5); &nbsp;Galatians 3:17 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 12:40 f.); &nbsp;Galatians 3:20 (cf. &nbsp;Malachi 2:10); &nbsp;Galatians 6:16 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 125:5, etc.). </p> <p> &nbsp;Ephesians 1:20 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 110:1); &nbsp;Ephesians 1:22 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 8:6); &nbsp;Ephesians 2:13 ff. (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 57:19); &nbsp;Ephesians 2:19 (cf. &nbsp;Leviticus 25:23); &nbsp;Ephesians 2:20 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 28:16); &nbsp;Ephesians 4:6 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:4); &nbsp;Ephesians 4:9 f. (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 30:12 ff.); &nbsp;Ephesians 5:2 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 8:21, &nbsp;Exodus 29:18, etc.); &nbsp;Ephesians 5:22 ff. (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:16); &nbsp;Ephesians 6:14 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 11:5; &nbsp;Isaiah 59:17, etc.); &nbsp;Ephesians 6:15 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 52:7); &nbsp;Ephesians 6:17 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 49:2; &nbsp;Isaiah 51:16; &nbsp;Isaiah 59:17). </p> <p> &nbsp;Philippians 2:10 f. (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 45:23); &nbsp;Philippians 2:15 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:5); &nbsp;Philippians 2:16 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 49:4; &nbsp;Isaiah 65:23); &nbsp;Philippians 3:3 (cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 9:23 f.); &nbsp;Philippians 3:21 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 8:6); &nbsp;Philippians 4:3 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 69:28, etc.). </p> <p> &nbsp;Colossians 2:3 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 45:3); &nbsp;Colossians 2:22 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 29:13); &nbsp;Colossians 3:1 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 110:1); &nbsp;Colossians 3:10 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 1:27); &nbsp;Colossians 3:18 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:16). </p> <p> &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 2:4 (cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 11:20); &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 2:16 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 15:18, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:20); &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 4:8 (cf. &nbsp;Ezekiel 11:19; &nbsp;Ezekiel 36:26 f., &nbsp;Psalms 51:11); &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:8 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 59:17); &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:22 (&nbsp;Job 1:1; &nbsp;Job 1:8). </p> <p> &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 1:8 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 3:2, &nbsp;Isaiah 66:15); &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 1:9 f. (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 2:10 ff., &nbsp;Psalms 89:8); &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 1:12 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 24:15; &nbsp;Isaiah 49:3; &nbsp;Isaiah 66:5); &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:4 (cf. &nbsp;Daniel 11:36, etc.); &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:8 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 11:4); &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:13 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 33:12). </p> <p> &nbsp;1 Timothy 1:17 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:35, etc.); &nbsp;1 Timothy 2:6 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 53:4 ff.); &nbsp;1 Timothy 2:11 f. (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:16); &nbsp;1 Timothy 2:14 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:6 ff.); &nbsp;1 Timothy 6:1 (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 52:5); &nbsp;1 Timothy 6:15 (cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 10:17, &nbsp;Psalms 136:3, &nbsp;Daniel 2:47, etc.). </p> <p> &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:14 (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 28:4; &nbsp;Psalms 62:12); &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:17 (cf. &nbsp;Daniel 6:20). </p> <p> &nbsp;Titus 2:5 (cf. &nbsp;Genesis 3:16); &nbsp;Titus 2:14 (cf. &nbsp;Exodus 19:5, &nbsp;Isaiah 53:4 ff., &nbsp;Ezekiel 37:23, etc.). </p> <p> The Pauline Epistles also show the influence of apocryphal books. A clear instance is found in &nbsp;Romans 12:15, compared with &nbsp;Sirach 7:34 (μὴ ὑστέρει ἀπὸ κλαιόντων, καὶ μετὰ πενθούντων πένθησον); cf., further, &nbsp;Romans 2:11 (&nbsp;Sirach 32:15 f.) &nbsp;Romans 16:27 (&nbsp;Sirach 1:8), &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:12 (&nbsp;Sirach 37:28), &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:13 (&nbsp;Sirach 36:23) &nbsp;1 Corinthians 7:13; 1Co_7:36 (&nbsp;Sirach 42:9 f.), &nbsp;Colossians 2:3 (&nbsp;Sirach 1:25), &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 4:6 (&nbsp;Sirach 5:3). Between Romans and the Wisdom of Solomon there are several close parallels betraying St. Paul’s intimate acquaintance with the latter; cf., especially, &nbsp;Romans 1:18 ff. (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 13:1 ff; &nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 14:8 f.), &nbsp;Romans 8:18 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 3:4 ff.), &nbsp;Romans 9:19 f. (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 12:12), &nbsp;Romans 9:21 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 15:7), &nbsp;Romans 9:31 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 2:11), &nbsp;Romans 11:32 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 11:23), &nbsp;Romans 13:10 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 6:18). Of the other Epistles, cf. &nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:7 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 2:23) &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:45; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:47 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 15:11), &nbsp;2 Corinthians 5:1 ff. (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 9:15), &nbsp;Ephesians 1:16, &nbsp;Colossians 1:12 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 5:5), &nbsp;Ephesians 2:12 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 3:18), &nbsp;Ephesians 6:11 ff. (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 5:17 ff.), &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 1:10 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 16:8). To a common use of Wisdom are no doubt to be traced the frequent resemblances between the Epistles and Philo. A considerable list of parallels with the Book of [[Enoch]] has been drawn up by Charles, the most obvious being &nbsp;Romans 8:38, &nbsp;Ephesians 1:21, &nbsp;Colossians 1:16 (En. lxi. 10), &nbsp;Romans 9:5, &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:31 (En. lxxvii. 1), &nbsp;Philippians 2:10 (En. xlviii. 5), &nbsp;Colossians 2:3 (En. xlvi. 3), &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 1:7 (En. lxi. 10), &nbsp;1 Timothy 1:15 (En. xciv. 1). The very free citation, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:9, is referred by [[Origen]] and other Church [[Fathers]] to the [[Apocalypse]] of Elijah, and is actually found in the Latin version (ii. 34); this may well have been the direct source, its ultimate dependence on the OT explaining the formula κάθως γέγραπται (cf. 1 Clem. xxxiv. 8, where the text recurs in almost the same form, though </p>
       
== Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_53531" /> ==
<p> <strong> [[Quotations]] (IN NT) </strong> . The NT writings contain quotations from four sources: (1) the OT; (2) non-canonical Jewish writings; (3) non-Jewish sources; (4) letters to which the author of a letter is replying, or other private sources. It is significant of the relation of the NT writings to the OT [[Scriptures]] and of the attitude of the NT writers to these Scriptures, that the quotations of the first class far outnumber all those of the other three classes. Swete counts 160 passages directly quoted from the OT by writers of the NT, including those which are cited with an introductory formula, and those which, by their length or accuracy of quotation, are clearly shown to be intended as quotations. Westcott and Hort reckon the total number of NT quotations from the OT at 1279, including both passages formerly cited and those in which an influence of the OT upon the NT passage is otherwise shown. Even this list is perhaps not absolutely complete. Thus, while WH [Note: H Westcott and Hort’s text.] enumerate 61 passages from Is 1 39, H. Osgood, in his essay <em> Quotations from the OT in the NT </em> , finds exactly twice as many 122. Against this large number of quotations from the OT there can be cited at the utmost only some 24 quotations by NT writers from non-canonical Jewish sources (see Ryle, art. ‘Apocrypha’ in Smith’s <em> DB </em> <em> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] </em> 2; Zahn, <em> Com. on </em> &nbsp; Galatians 3:10 <em> ; &nbsp; Galatians 5:3 </em> <em> ; &nbsp;Galatians 6:15 </em> ; Woods, art. ‘Quotations’ in Hastings’ <em> DB </em> <em> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] </em> ). Of quotations from non-Jewish sources the following are the only probable instances: &nbsp; Titus 1:12 , &nbsp; Acts 17:28 , 1Co 12:12-27; &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 15:33 . To this short list it should be added that Luke’s preface (&nbsp; Luke 1:1-4 ) is perhaps constructed on classical models (cf. Farrar, <em> Life and Work of Paul </em> , Excursus 3; Zahn, <em> Eînl </em> . 2 i. p. 51). Of quotations from private sources there are several unquestionable examples in the Pauline letters; &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 7:1; 1Co 8:1; &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 11:2; &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 11:17 f., &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 12:1 , &nbsp; Philippians 1:3; &nbsp; Philippians 2:25 f., &nbsp; Philippians 4:14-18; cf. also &nbsp; Philippians 1:5-7 . </p> <p> Of the numerous quotations from the OT by far the largest number are derived directly from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , even the freedom of quotation, which the NT writers in common with others of their time permitted themselves, in no way obscuring their direct dependence upon the Greek version. Among the NT books the Epistle to the Hebrews shows the strongest and most constant influence of the LXX. [Note: Septuagint.] According to Westcott ( <em> Com </em> . p. 479), 15 quotations agree with the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] and Hebrew, 8 with the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] where it differs from the Hebrew, 3 differ from LXX [Note: Septuagint.] and Hebrew, 3 are free renderings. Westcott adds that ‘the writer regarded the Greek version as authoritative, and … nowhere shows any immediate knowledge of the Hebrew text.’ </p> <p> The [[Gospel]] of Matthew, on the other hand, exhibits the largest influence of the Hebrew. In the quotations from the OT which are common to the Synoptic [[Gospels]] (occurring chiefly in the sayings of Jesus) the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] clearly exerts the dominant influence. But in those passages which are peculiar to this Gospel being Introduced by the writer by way of comment on events though the writer is not unacquainted with or uninfluenced by the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , the Hebrew is the dominant influence; &nbsp;Matthew 1:23; &nbsp; Matthew 2:15; &nbsp; Matthew 2:18; &nbsp; Matthew 2:23; &nbsp; Matthew 4:15 f., &nbsp; Matthew 8:17; &nbsp; Matthew 12:18 ff., &nbsp; Matthew 13:35; &nbsp; Matthew 21:5; &nbsp; Matthew 27:9 f.; cf. also &nbsp; Matthew 2:6 . This difference in the two groups of quotations tends to show that while the common source of the Synoptic Gospels was, in the form in which it was used by the Evangelists, in Greek, and shaped under [[Hellenistic]] influence, the author of the First Gospel was a [[Christian]] Jew who still read his Bible in Hebrew, or drew his series of prophetic comment-quotations from a special source compiled by a Jew of this kind. The quotations in the Gospel of John and the Epistles of Paul, while derived mainly from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , show also an acquaintance of their authors with the original Hebrew. (On the singular fact that the NT quotations from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] show a special similarity to the type of LXX [Note: Septuagint.] text found in Cod. A, cf. Staerh, <em> Ztschr. f. wiss. Theol </em> . Nos. XXXV, XXXVI, XXXVIII, XL; and Swete, <em> Introd. to OT in Greek </em> , p. 395.) </p> <p> As regards the nature and extent of the [[Influence]] exerted by the OT in passages which may be called quotations in the broad sense indicated above, there are several distinguishable classes, though it is sometimes difficult to draw the line sharply. We may recognize: (1) <em> Argumentative quotations </em> . The OT passage is quoted, with recognition of its source, and with intention to employ the fact or teaching or prophecy for an argumentative purpose. Passages so quoted may be: ( <em> a </em> ) historical statements which are supposed to contain in themselves an enunciation of a principle or precept, or to involve a prediction, or to tend to prove a general rule of some kind; cf. &nbsp; Mark 2:25 f., &nbsp; Matthew 2:18 , &nbsp; John 19:24 , &nbsp; Matthew 15:7-9 , &nbsp; Hebrews 7:1-10; ( <em> b </em> ) predictions; cf. <em> e.g. </em> &nbsp; Acts 2:17 ff.; ( <em> c </em> ) imperative precepts, quoted to enforce a teaching; &nbsp; Mark 12:29 ff., &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 9:9; or ( <em> d </em> ) affirmations interpreted as involving a general principle of Divine action or a general characteristic of human nature; &nbsp; Mark 12:26 , &nbsp; Matthew 9:13 , &nbsp; Luke 4:11 , &nbsp; Acts 7:48 f., &nbsp; Romans 3:4; &nbsp; Romans 3:10-18 , Jam 1:10 f., &nbsp; 1 Peter 1:24 f., (2) <em> Quotations made the basis of comment </em> . In this case the language of the OT is not cited as supporting the statement of the speaker or writer, but is itself made the basis of exposition or comment, sometimes with disapproval of its teaching or of the teaching commonly based on It; &nbsp; Matthew 5:21; &nbsp; Matthew 5:27; &nbsp; Matthew 5:31 , etc., &nbsp; Romans 4:9 f., &nbsp; Acts 8:32 , (3) <em> Quotations of comparison or of transferred application </em> . The OT language is employed, with recognition of it as coming from the OT and with the intention of connecting the OT event or teaching with the NT matter, but for purposes of comparison rather than argument. The language itself may refer directly and solely to the OT event, being introduced for the sake of comparing with this event some NT fact (simile); or the OT language may be applied directly to a NT fact, yet so as to imply comparison or likeness of the two events (metaphor); &nbsp; Matthew 12:40-41 , &nbsp; Luke 11:29 f., &nbsp; Acts 28:26 f., &nbsp; Matthew 21:42 f., &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 10:7 f., Closely allied to these, yet perhaps properly belonging to the class of argumentative quotations, are cases of quotation accompanied by allegorical interpretation; cf. <em> e.g. </em> &nbsp; Galatians 4:21-31 . (4) <em> Literary influence </em> . In the cases which fall under this head the language is employed because of its familiarity, and applicability to the matter in band, but without intention of affirming any other connexion than this between the OT thought and the NT fact or teaching. The writer may be conscious of this influence of the OT language or not, and the interpreter often cannot determine with certainty which is the case; &nbsp; Matthew 5:5; &nbsp; Matthew 10:35 , &nbsp; Galatians 6:16 , &nbsp; Ephesians 1:20 , &nbsp; Revelation 5:1; &nbsp; Revelation 7:1; &nbsp; Revelation 9:14; &nbsp; Revelation 14:8; &nbsp; Revelation 21:11 . </p> <p> As concerns the method of interpretation and the attitude towards the OT thus disclosed, there is a wide difference among the speakers and writers of the NT. It is an indirect but valuable testimony to the historical accuracy of the Synoptic Gospels that they almost uniformly ascribe to Jesus a method of interpretation quite different from that which they themselves employ. Jesus quotes the OT almost exclusively for its moral and religious teaching, rather than for any predicative element in it, and interprets alike with insight and with sobriety the passages which He quotes. The author of the First Gospel, on the other hand, quotes the OT mainly for specific predictions which he conceives it to contain, and controls his interpretation of the passages quoted rather by the proposition which he wishes to sustain, than by the actual sense of the original. The one quotation which is common to the first three Gospels, and not included in the teaching of Jesus, has the same general character (&nbsp;Mark 1:3 and parallels). In general it may be said of the other NT writers that they stand in this respect between Jesus and Matthew, less uniformly sober and discerning in their interpretation of the OT than Jesus, yet in many instances approaching much nearer to His method than Matthew commonly does. The Apocalypse, while constantly showing the literary influence of the OT, contains no explicit or argumentative quotation from it. </p> <p> Ernest D. Burton. </p>
       
== Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18975" /> ==
<p> New [[Testament]] writers frequently quote the Old Testament, and in doing so show their acceptance of the Old Testament as God’s authoritative Word (see [[Inspiration]] ). But in some cases the New Testament quotations differ from the Old Testament originals. In others the meanings given to the quotations in the New Testament differ from those of the Old Testament originals. </p> <p> '''Different wording in Old and New Testaments''' </p> <p> Since the Old Testament was written in Hebrew and the New Testament in Greek, any quotation of the Old Testament in the New requires translation. This naturally brings a change in wording. Sometimes the New Testament writers made their own translations. Usually, however, they used the existing translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint (abbreviated LXX), which Jewish scholars had made in the third and second centuries of the era before Christ (see [[Septuagint]] ). </p> <p> Just as a preacher today may use an alternative translation to give the desired emphasis, so did the New Testament writers. They used the translation that suited their purposes (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 28:16 with &nbsp;Romans 10:11). </p> <p> In many cases, again like preachers today, the New Testament writers made their quotations from memory. As a result their quotations do not follow the Old Testament originals word for word. They were concerned with the meaning rather than the wording of the passages they quoted (cf. &nbsp;Romans 11:8 with &nbsp;Deuteronomy 29:4; &nbsp;Isaiah 29:10). In other cases, however, they were concerned with the wording rather than the meaning. They may even have based a teaching on the meaning of a particular word (cf. &nbsp;Galatians 3:16 with &nbsp;Genesis 12:7). </p> <p> Writers and preachers, ancient and modern, often quote passages from well known writings merely to give liveliness or colour to their writings. The New Testament writers at times did likewise. They were so familiar with the Old Testament that they quoted its words naturally. They may not have intended any connection between the Old and New Testament contexts (cf. &nbsp;2 Corinthians 6:16-17 with &nbsp;Exodus 29:45; &nbsp;Isaiah 52:11; &nbsp;2 Samuel 7:14). </p> <p> '''The nature of fulfilment''' </p> <p> [[Certain]] passages of the Old Testament are quoted repeatedly in the New Testament. This suggests that there was in New Testament times a collection, either oral or written, of selected Old Testament passages in common use among the churches. For example, &nbsp;Psalms 118:22-23, &nbsp;Isaiah 8:14 and &nbsp;Isaiah 28:16 are used in such passages as &nbsp;Matthew 21:42, &nbsp;Acts 4:10-12, &nbsp;1 Peter 2:1-10, &nbsp;Romans 9:33 and &nbsp;Romans 10:11. Similarly &nbsp;Zechariah 12:10-14 is found in &nbsp;Matthew 24:30, &nbsp;John 19:37 and &nbsp;Revelation 1:7. Psalms 69 is quoted in &nbsp;Matthew 27:34, &nbsp;John 2:17, &nbsp;John 15:25, &nbsp;Acts 1:20, &nbsp;Romans 11:9-10 and &nbsp;Romans 15:3. </p> <p> These selections of [[Scripture]] are all used in relation to Jesus Christ, for the New Testament writers understood them as having their fulfilment in him. The primary meaning of that fulfilment was not just that Old Testament predictions had now come true, but that the Old Testament work had now been completed. The Old Testament was written not merely to predict New Testament events, but to record what God was doing in working out his purposes. The New Testament writers saw that in Christ God had brought that work to completion, to fulfilment, to finality. </p> <p> God was the controller of history. His repetitive activity in judgment and salvation, bondage and deliverance, reached its climax in one great act of judgment and salvation at Golgotha. There God gave absolute deliverance to those who were in hopeless bondage. He completed the pattern that he had been working out for all people through the history of Israel. In Christ he brought his plans to fulfilment (&nbsp;Exodus 6:6-8; &nbsp;Isaiah 11:15-16; &nbsp;Hosea 2:14-15; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:7; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:1-13; &nbsp;Revelation 5:9; &nbsp;Revelation 15:3). </p> <p> Israel’s Old Testament history was the record of the ongoing revelation of God. It was not just a record of events, but a record of what God was doing. What the Old Testament writers saw, though having meaning in its own day, developed greater significance through the New Testament events. [[Christians]] now saw Jesus as the goal towards which all God’s Old Testament activity had been moving. They saw Jesus as the centre of all history. The old era prepared the way for him; the new results from him. </p> <p> '''Jesus and the Old Testament''' </p> <p> Now that God’s purposes had been fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the New Testament writers discovered in the Old Testament writings greater truths than the original writers were aware of (&nbsp;1 Peter 1:10-12). While accepting the original meaning of the writings, the New Testament writers expanded that meaning because of the fuller revelation that had come through Jesus Christ. </p> <p> [[Promises]] may have already been fulfilled in the Old Testament, but now they had a greater fulfilment in the New (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:9; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 25:19; &nbsp;Joshua 21:45; &nbsp;Hebrews 4:1-10). Psalms, prophecies and songs may have been written at first concerning some Old Testament person or event, but now they had new meaning because people saw them as foreshadowings of Christ (cf. quotations from Psalms 2 in &nbsp;Acts 4:25-26; &nbsp;Acts 13:33; cf. quotations from Psalms 45 in &nbsp;Hebrews 1:8-9; cf. quotations from Psalms 69 in &nbsp;John 2:17; &nbsp;John 15:25; &nbsp;John 19:28-30; &nbsp;Acts 1:20; cf. quotation of &nbsp;Isaiah 7:14 in &nbsp;Matthew 1:23). </p> <p> The New Testament writers saw Jesus the [[Messiah]] as the fulfilment of all God’s purposes for Israel. He was the great descendant of Abraham through whom Israel received its supreme glory and through whom people of all nations are blessed (&nbsp;Genesis 12:1-3; &nbsp;Galatians 3:16). </p> <p> Since Jesus was the one to whom the entire Old Testament pointed, he fulfilled the Old Testament (&nbsp;Matthew 4:14-16; &nbsp;Matthew 8:17; &nbsp;Matthew 12:17-21). The New Testament writers were so convinced of this that they spoke of a ‘fulfilment’ even when they saw only a striking similarity between Old and New Testament events. For example, as Israel came out of Egypt, so did Jesus (&nbsp;Hosea 11:1; &nbsp;Matthew 2:15). As there was loud weeping when the [[Babylonians]] took the [[Israelites]] captive, so was there when Herod slaughtered the Jewish babies (&nbsp;Jeremiah 31:15; &nbsp;Matthew 2:17-18). </p> <p> Although Israel repeatedly failed and suffered God’s punishment, the people still hoped for a glorious future. Jesus Christ, the true fulfilment of Israel, not only suffered for his people’s sins, but he completed perfectly what Israel had failed to do (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 53:4 with &nbsp;Matthew 8:17; cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 42:1-4 with &nbsp;Matthew 12:18-21). The New Testament fulfils the Old in that Jesus Christ became all that Israel should have been but never was (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 53:5-6 with &nbsp;1 Peter 2:24-25; cf. &nbsp;Zechariah 9:9-11 with &nbsp;Matthew 21:5; &nbsp;Matthew 26:28-29; see [[Servant Of The Lord]] ). </p> <p> Like Israel in general, David’s kingdom in particular failed to fulfil God’s purposes. David’s psalms reflect both his sorrow over Israel’s failures and his expectation of better things to come. He looked for the day when God’s people would enjoy his blessings in a kingdom of righteousness. The ideals that David longed for found their fulfilment in David’s great descendant, Jesus the Messiah (cf. &nbsp;Psalms 40:6-8 with &nbsp;Hebrews 10:5-9; cf. &nbsp;Psalms 110:1 with &nbsp;Matthew 22:44). (For discussion on the use of David’s psalms in the New Testament see PSALMS, BOOK OF, sub-heading ‘Interpreting the Psalms’.) </p>
       
== Morrish Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_68270" /> ==
<p> The quotations from the Old Testament in the New are important as proving incontestably that God is the author of the whole. It is not simply that Moses or David said this or that — though the quotations prove that Moses was the writer of the [[Pentateuch]] — but they are introduced by such words as "God commanded," &nbsp;Matthew 15:4; "The [[Holy]] Ghost saith," &nbsp;Hebrews 3:7; "David himself said by the Holy Ghost," &nbsp;Mark 12:36; "Spake the Holy Ghost by [[Esaias]] the prophet," &nbsp;Acts 28:25 . Then the whole is spoken of as 'the scriptures,' which are all inspired by God. Whatever therefore is inscribed with 'It is written' has theauthority of God Himself. </p> <p> The quotations from the prophets are introduced in various ways. </p> <p> <i> 1. </i> "In order (ἵνα) that it might be fulfilled." &nbsp; Matthew 1:22 , etc. The event happens that <i> that </i> prophecy should be fulfilled. </p> <p> <i> 2. </i> "So that (ὅπως)it might be fulfilled." &nbsp;Matthew 2:23 , etc. Such events fall within the <i> scope </i> of the prophecy, and may also apply at other times. </p> <p> <i> 3. </i> "Then (τότε) was fulfilled." &nbsp; Matthew 2:17 , etc. The prophecy <i> applied </i> to that event, without its being the purpose of the prophecy. </p> <p> <i> 4. </i> "Was fulfilled." &nbsp;Mark 15:28 . "This day is fulfilled." &nbsp;Luke 4:21 . The prophecy was then and there fulfilled. </p> <p> The citations also illustrate how the scriptures, both the Old and the New Testaments, may be <i> applied, </i> as when the Lord quoted from Deuteronomy in repelling the temptations of Satan. See also the different applications of &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:4 . — In &nbsp;Romans 1:17 , it is a question of righteousness: "the <i> just </i> shall live by faith." In &nbsp; Galatians 3:11 , it is in contrast to the law: "the just shall live <i> by faith. </i> " And in &nbsp;Hebrews 10:38 , it is in contrast to drawing back: "the just shall <i> live </i> by faith." </p> <p> The quotations are from Moses, the Psalms, and the Prophets. In those days the books were not divided into chapters and verses as now, which accounts for various expressions. As in &nbsp;Mark 2:26 , a quotation is from '[the section] of [[Abiathar]] the high priest.' &nbsp;1 Samuel 21:1-6 . In &nbsp;Luke 20:37 , 'Moses showed in [the section on] the bush.' &nbsp;Exodus 3 . In &nbsp;Romans 11:2 , 'the scripture says in [the history of] Elias.' &nbsp;1 Kings 17 - &nbsp; 1 Kings 19 . This may also account for &nbsp;Matthew 27:9,10 , where the quotation is said to be from Jeremiah — that prophet being anciently the first in the Book of the Prophets, his name may have been used as a sort of heading. </p> <p> Most of the quotations are from the Septuagint (LXX), doubtless because it was then better known than the Hebrew, in the same way that the A.V. is now constantly quoted, even where it is not an exact translation. Some quotations are not literally from the Hebrew or the LXX, the Holy Spirit in alluding to them gives them a fulness and power beyond the revelation of the Old Testament.* </p> <p> * In "The New Testament Handbook" the quotations as they stand in the Hebrew (shown by the A.V.) and in the LXX (by an English translation) are given in full. (G. Morrish, Paternoster Square.) In Horne's "Introduction" the Hebrew and Greek text are also given. </p>
       
== Easton's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_33190" /> ==
&nbsp;Luke 20:37&nbsp;Exodus 3:6&nbsp;Mark 2:26&nbsp;1 Samuel 21:1-6&nbsp;Romans 11:2 <p> In general, the New Testament writers quote from the Septuagint (q.v.) version of the Old Testament, as it was then in common use among the Jews. But it is noticeable that these quotations are not made in any uniform manner. Sometimes, e.g., the quotation does not agree literally either with the LXX. or the Hebrew text. This occurs in about one hundred instances. Sometimes the LXX. is literally quoted (in about ninety instances), and sometimes it is corrected or altered in the quotations (in over eighty instances). </p> <p> Quotations are sometimes made also directly from the Hebrew text (&nbsp;Matthew 4:15,16; &nbsp;John 19:37; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:54 ). Besides the quotations made directly, there are found numberless allusions, more or less distinct, showing that the minds of the New Testament writers were filled with the expressions and ideas as well as historical facts recorded in the Old. </p> <p> There are in all two hundred and eighty-three direct quotations from the Old Testament in the New, but not one clear and certain case of quotation from the [[Apocrypha]] (q.v.). </p> <p> Besides quotations in the New from the Old Testament, there are in Paul's writings three quotations from certain Greek poets, &nbsp;Acts 17:28; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:33; &nbsp;Titus 1:12 . These quotations are memorials of his early classical education. </p>
       
==References ==
<references>


Quotations <ref name="term_57074" />
<ref name="term_57069"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-new-testament/quotations Quotations from Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament]</ref>
<p> <b> [[Quotations]] </b> </p> <p> <b> 1. Use of the [[Ot]] in the Gospels. </b> —In general it is agreed that a quotation is the intentional reproduction of some thought or fact already expressed in language by the use of the very words previously employed. This is an exact quotation. [[A]] free quotation is one which fails to reproduce the self-same words, because, either through defect of memory or lack of care, the person making it employed language varying more or less widely from that of his source, or he may have intended merely to give the substance of the original. Ordinarily an unintentional use of the same thought or of identical words is not to be regarded as a quotation. The <i> intention </i> is essential, to constitute a quotation either exact or free. The quotations in the [[Gospels]] may be classed as follows: </p> <p> ( <i> a </i> ) <i> Quotations which conform to both the [[Hebrew]] and the Greek of the [[Ot]] </i> : (α) by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 15:4 a (&nbsp;Mark 7:10 a) &nbsp;Matthew 15:4 b (&nbsp;Mark 7:10 b) &nbsp;Matthew 19:5 (&nbsp;Mark 10:7-8) &nbsp;Matthew 19:18-19 a, 19b, &nbsp;Matthew 21:13 a (&nbsp;Mark 11:17 a, &nbsp;Luke 19:46 a) &nbsp;Matthew 22:39 (&nbsp;Mark 12:31), &nbsp;Mark 12:36 (&nbsp;Luke 20:42-43), &nbsp;John 10:34; (β) by others, &nbsp;Matthew 5:21; &nbsp;Matthew 5:27; &nbsp;Matthew 5:38; &nbsp;Matthew 5:43; &nbsp;Matthew 21:9 (&nbsp;Mark 11:9, &nbsp;Luke 19:38, &nbsp;John 12:13), &nbsp;Luke 10:27; (γ) by the Evangelist, &nbsp;John 19:24. </p> <p> ( <i> b </i> ) <i> Quotations conforming to the Hebrew alone </i> : by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 9:13; &nbsp;Matthew 12:7; &nbsp;Matthew 27:46 (&nbsp;Mark 15:34), &nbsp;Luke 22:37; &nbsp;Luke 23:46. </p> <p> ( <i> c </i> ) <i> Quotations conforming to the Greek alone </i> : (α) by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 4:7 (&nbsp;Luke 4:12) &nbsp;Matthew 13:14-15, &nbsp;Matthew 19:4 (&nbsp;Mark 10:6) &nbsp;Matthew 21:16; &nbsp;Matthew 21:42 (&nbsp;Mark 12:10-11, &nbsp;Luke 20:17); (β) by the Evangelist, &nbsp;John 12:38. </p> <p> ( <i> d </i> ) <i> Free quotations varying from both Hebrew and Greek </i> : (a) by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 4:4 (&nbsp;Luke 4:4) &nbsp;Matthew 4:10 (&nbsp;Luke 4:8) &nbsp;Matthew 4:15-16, &nbsp;Matthew 11:10 (&nbsp;Luke 7:27) &nbsp;Matthew 18:16, &nbsp;Matthew 22:32 (&nbsp;Mark 12:26, &nbsp;Luke 20:37) &nbsp;Matthew 22:37 (&nbsp;Mark 12:29-30) &nbsp;Matthew 22:44, &nbsp;Matthew 26:31 (&nbsp;Mark 14:27), &nbsp;Mark 4:12; &nbsp;Mark 10:19 (&nbsp;Luke 18:20), &nbsp;John 6:35; &nbsp;John 13:18; &nbsp;John 15:25; (β) by others, &nbsp;Matthew 2:6; &nbsp;Matthew 4:6 (&nbsp;Luke 4:10-11), &nbsp;Mark 12:32-33, &nbsp;Luke 10:27, &nbsp;John 2:17; (γ) by the Evangelist, &nbsp;Matthew 2:18; &nbsp;Matthew 21:5 (&nbsp;John 12:15) &nbsp;Matthew 27:9-10, &nbsp;Mark 1:2, &nbsp;Luke 2:23-24, &nbsp;John 12:40; &nbsp;John 19:36-37. </p> <p> ( <i> e </i> ) <i> Free quotations varying less from the Hebrew than from the Greek </i> : by the Evangelist, &nbsp;Matthew 8:17; &nbsp;Matthew 12:18-21. </p> <p> ( <i> f </i> ) <i> Free quotations varying less from the Greek than from the Hebrew </i> : by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 15:8-9 (&nbsp;Mark 7:6-7) &nbsp;Matthew 24:15 (&nbsp;Mark 13:14), &nbsp;Luke 4:18-19; &nbsp;Luke 8:10. </p> <p> The variations in exactness of quotation and in the standard to which they conform are interesting. The importance of the variations is open to question. Few of them are noticeable. Yet more, if the teaching of Jesus had been confined to a few days or weeks, if He had spoken about the topics recorded in the Gospels but once or twice, and if there were evidence that He was particular about the exact phrasing of His teachings, the question might be of more importance. We remember, however, that Jesus lived three years with disciples, teaching them and speaking on a great variety of occasions; and these facts were inconsistent with a stereotyped mode of utterance. Moreover, the record of His deeds and teachings is brief at best. The Gospels give from one-fifth to one-third of their scanty space to a period of one week, and but slight, though vivid, glimpses of occasional scenes during the remaining three years. He must have spoken many times on the same subjects, and have uttered the same thoughts in many modes of expression. One who insisted, as He did, upon the supremacy of the spirit over the form would scarcely have permitted Himself to be bound by a strict conformity to the letter, while appealing to the [[Ot]] for the authority of the truths which He taught. This fact makes it seem strange that the collection of His teachings is not much larger and the variety of His expressions much greater. Under the influence of such a Teacher it is not likely that the disciples were over anxious to conform with exactness to the text of the [[Ot.]] </p> <p> The passages cited give evidence of intentional use of the [[Ot.]] Usually they are introduced by some formula of citation such as ‘it is written,’ ‘the [[Scripture]] saith,’ and the like. There are about fifty different variants in the mode of introducing explicit quotations found in the Gospels. </p> <p> Some of the passages given above have no formula of introduction, but the context of the passage shows conscious and intentional use of [[Ot]] material. It is also to be noticed that the Gospels vary in their representation of the same passage or fact. <i> e.g. </i> the [[Evangelist]] in &nbsp;John 19:24; &nbsp;John 19:28 connects the events with a passage in the [[Ot;]] the parallel narratives in the Synoptics mention these facts without connecting them in any way with the [[Ot,]] so that at the utmost, so far as these Gospels are concerned, the passage is, so to say, an accidental parallel having no proper classification with quotations. It cannot be regarded as in the slightest degree an instance of use of the [[Ot]] by these Evangelists. This is equally true of all events narrated in the Gospels which are not explicitly connected with [[Ot]] passages, no matter how striking the coincidence; <i> e.g. </i> &nbsp;Isaiah 50:6 might well have been referred to in the narratives in &nbsp;Matthew 26:67; &nbsp;Matthew 27:26, &nbsp;Mark 14:65, &nbsp;Luke 22:63-64, &nbsp;John 18:22, and so also might &nbsp;Psalms 22:8; &nbsp;Psalms 22:16, but neither of these notable [[Ot]] passages was so used. Again, while &nbsp;Matthew 13:14-15 is unquestionably a quotation, the same thought expressed in the parallel passage, &nbsp;Mark 4:12, has no formula of quotation, and has such transpositions and omissions that if we did not know of the passages in Isaiah and Mt., we might well doubt if it were a real quotation. As it is, we think it was intentionally derived from Isaiah. Further, &nbsp;Luke 8:10 is parallel with the passages just cited from Mt. and Mk.; it has a sentence from &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9, nothing from &nbsp;Isaiah 6:10, and is much more brief than Mark. If the parallel passages in Mt. and Mk. were unknown, even though we were fully acquainted with &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9-10 we should think that the use of the [[Ot]] thought and phraseology was due to familiarity with the language rather than to an intention to quote from it. As it is, we have little doubt that the writers had in mind to report the same utterances of Jesus, and that the report is more incomplete in one case than in the other. Yet it is quite possible that different discourses of Jesus are reported. These instances, the words recorded in &nbsp;John 9:39 as uttered by Jesus, and those of the Evangelist in &nbsp;John 12:40, lead us to think the passage in &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9-10 pointed many an utterance of Jesus. </p> <p> How many more passages like this in &nbsp;Luke 8:10 do the Gospels contain? That is a matter of conjecture. It is desirable to add to the lists already given several other lists of passages which go to show the nature of the connexion between the [[Ot]] and the [[Nt.]] </p> <p> ( <i> g </i> ) <i> Intentional and free use of [[Ot]] laws, facts, or statements independently of the original form of expression </i> : (α) by Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 5:12 b (&nbsp;Luke 13:34 a) &nbsp;Matthew 8:4 (&nbsp;Mark 1:44, &nbsp;Luke 5:14) &nbsp;Matthew 11:14, &nbsp;Matthew 17:10-11 (&nbsp;Mark 9:12-13) &nbsp;Matthew 12:3-4 (&nbsp;Mark 2:25-26, &nbsp;Luke 6:3-4) &nbsp;Matthew 12:5; &nbsp;Matthew 12:40-41 (&nbsp;Matthew 16:4 b, &nbsp;Luke 11:29-30; &nbsp;Luke 11:32) &nbsp;Matthew 12:42 (&nbsp;Luke 11:31) &nbsp;Matthew 23:35 (&nbsp;Luke 11:50-51) &nbsp;Matthew 24:37; &nbsp;Matthew 24:39 (&nbsp;Luke 17:26-27), &nbsp;Luke 4:25-27; &nbsp;Luke 17:28-29, &nbsp;John 5:39 c, &nbsp;John 5:46, &nbsp;John 8:17; (ß) by others, &nbsp;Matthew 22:24 (&nbsp;Mark 12:19, &nbsp;Luke 20:28) &nbsp;Matthew 23:30-31 (&nbsp;Luke 11:47-48), &nbsp;Luke 1:72 b, &nbsp;John 5:10; &nbsp;John 6:31; &nbsp;John 6:49; &nbsp;John 6:58; &nbsp;John 8:5; &nbsp;John 19:31; (γ) by the Evangelist, &nbsp;Luke 2:22, &nbsp;John 4:5 (?). </p> <p> ( <i> h </i> ) Another interesting group of passages consists of those which have a <i> formula of reference to the [[Ot]] </i> as their source or authority, but <i> whose content cannot be referred to any specific [[Ot]] passage </i> . These are all from the words of Jesus: &nbsp;Matthew 26:24 a (&nbsp;Mark 14:21) &nbsp;Matthew 26:34; &nbsp;Matthew 26:56 a (&nbsp;Mark 14:49), &nbsp;Mark 9:12 b, &nbsp;Mark 9:13, &nbsp;Luke 11:49; &nbsp;Luke 18:31; &nbsp;Luke 21:22 b, &nbsp;Matthew 24:44; &nbsp;Matthew 24:46, &nbsp;John 1:45; &nbsp;John 17:12. </p> <p> ( <i> i </i> ) Still another class of passages consists of <i> intentional allusions to something in the [[Ot]] </i> , but they make <i> no formal use of [[Ot]] material </i> , and are not quotations in any strict sense of the term. The allusion to the destruction of [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorrah]] is an illustration. (α) By Jesus, &nbsp;Matthew 8:11 (&nbsp;Luke 13:29) &nbsp;Matthew 10:15; &nbsp;Matthew 10:21 (&nbsp;Mark 13:12) &nbsp;Matthew 10:35-36 (&nbsp;Luke 12:52-53) &nbsp;Matthew 11:25 (&nbsp;Luke 10:21) &nbsp;Matthew 21:13 b (&nbsp;Mark 11:17 b, &nbsp;Luke 19:46 b) &nbsp;Matthew 24:30 b (&nbsp;Luke 23:37) &nbsp;Matthew 24:30 a, c (&nbsp;Mark 13:26) &nbsp;Luke 21:27) &nbsp;Matthew 26:64 (&nbsp;Mark 14:62, &nbsp;Matthew 16:27; &nbsp;Matthew 25:31), &nbsp;Luke 17:32, &nbsp;John 1:51; &nbsp;John 3:14 a, &nbsp;John 3:15; Joh_8:7; Joh_8:35; Joh_8:56; Joh_9:39; (ß) by others, &nbsp;Matthew 8:21, &nbsp;Luke 9:54, &nbsp;John 1:21; &nbsp;John 1:25; &nbsp;John 6:14; &nbsp;John 7:40; &nbsp;John 16:32. </p> <p> The instances thus far classified come almost entirely under the head of the use of the [[Ot]] as an authoritative Scripture. Another influence is quite as evident. It is the literary influence. This is the influence of any work of literature over the modes of thought and habits of expression of those who make much use of that work of literature. Men may be unconscious of this influence, or they may consciously use the forms of utterance which they have learned to love. It is doubtless more a matter of habit working within the region of the unconscious, while it is the appeal to authority which is operative within the region of the conscious use of the [[Ot.]] These two causes produce phenomena which are not altogether easy to classify together. </p> <p> ( <i> j </i> ) Such a passage as &nbsp;Luke 8:10 cited above compels the recognition of passages which <i> may have intentionally used, the [[Ot]] thought or language, yet do not give conclusive evidence that they were so used </i> . Its use may have been due to literary and unconscious influence. In any case there is such coincidence in thought and phraseology that an intimate connexion is shown between the thought of the Gospels and that of the [[Ot.]] For example, when we read in &nbsp;Hebrews 12:29 καὶ γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ἡμῶν πῦρ καταναλίσκον, and learn that the last two words are found together in the [[Lxx]] [[Septuagint]] only in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:24; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:3, we think it likely that the writer either intentionally used the phrase, with a thought of the passages in Dt., or that he was so familiar with Dt. that unintentionally and unconsciously he used its words and phrases. Thus also may we connect οἱ πενθοῦντες of &nbsp;Matthew 5:4 with אבלים or τοὺς πενθοῦντας of &nbsp;Isaiah 61:2. When we remember the fact that the mind of Jesus was saturated with the Book of Isaiah, we can easily be convinced that there is a literary connexion between the utterance of Jesus and the [[Ot]] passage. </p> <p> The following passages show a similar connexion: &nbsp;Matthew 5:5; &nbsp;Matthew 5:8; &nbsp;Matthew 5:34-35; &nbsp;Matthew 7:7-8 (&nbsp;Luke 11:9-10) &nbsp;Matthew 7:23 (&nbsp;Luke 13:27) &nbsp;Matthew 10:28 b, &nbsp;Matthew 11:5 (&nbsp;Luke 7:22) &nbsp;Matthew 11:23 (&nbsp;Luke 10:15) &nbsp;Matthew 12:37, &nbsp;Matthew 13:16, &nbsp;Matthew 15:14, &nbsp;Matthew 16:27 b, &nbsp;Matthew 19:17 (&nbsp;Luke 10:28) &nbsp;Matthew 19:26 (&nbsp;Mark 10:27, &nbsp;Luke 18:27, &nbsp;Mark 14:36) &nbsp;Matthew 20:28 (&nbsp;Mark 10:45) &nbsp;Matthew 21:11-12 (&nbsp;Mark 11:15, &nbsp;Luke 19:45, &nbsp;John 2:16) &nbsp;Matthew 23:12 (&nbsp;Luke 14:11; &nbsp;Luke 18:14) &nbsp;Matthew 23:37 (&nbsp;Luke 13:34) &nbsp;Matthew 23:38 (&nbsp;Luke 13:35 a) &nbsp;Matthew 24:2 (&nbsp;Mark 13:2, &nbsp;Luke 21:6) &nbsp;Matthew 24:21 (&nbsp;Mark 13:19) &nbsp;Matthew 24:29 (&nbsp;Mark 13:24-25, &nbsp;Luke 21:25-26 a) &nbsp;Matthew 24:30 b, &nbsp;Matthew 25:32, &nbsp;Matthew 26:11 (&nbsp;Mark 14:7, &nbsp;John 12:8) &nbsp;Matthew 27:46 (&nbsp;Mark 15:34) &nbsp;Matthew 28:3, &nbsp;Luke 1:32-33; &nbsp;Luke 1:69; &nbsp;Luke 6:21; &nbsp;Luke 14:8; &nbsp;Luke 14:10; &nbsp;Luke 16:15 b, &nbsp;Luke 23:30, &nbsp;John 1:14; &nbsp;John 1:34; &nbsp;John 3:21; &nbsp;John 7:24; &nbsp;John 9:39; &nbsp;John 12:8 a, &nbsp;John 14:15; &nbsp;John 14:21; &nbsp;John 14:24. </p> <p> ( <i> k </i> ) [[Prolonged]] examination brings to recognition a class of passages in which, <i> without marked literary relation, or intentional use of the [[Ot,]] there is yet a genetic relation between the [[Ot]] and the [[Nt.]] </i> Jesus had the Spirit without measure, and was an authoritative interpreter of the [[Ot.]] He had so absorbed the [[Ot]] that its ideals were His commonplaces of thought, and the scattered suggestions of truth in the [[Ot]] were apprehended by Him in their full or explicit meaning. Imperfect or fragmentary suggestions became positive principles. In dealing with divorce He went to the fundamental conception of marriage (&nbsp;Matthew 13:5 = &nbsp;Mark 10:7-8). In dealing with the Sabbath, He said that the [[Sabbath]] was made for man, and not man for the Sabbath (&nbsp;Mark 2:27). This is a universal statement which is suggested in &nbsp;Exodus 23:12 and &nbsp;Deuteronomy 5:14. Again &nbsp;John 4:37 ‘For herein is the saying true, One soweth and another reapeth’ may be a current proverb, or it may be derived in thought from &nbsp;Job 31:8, &nbsp;Micah 6:15. Whatever be true about that passage, there can be little doubt that the words of Jesus given in &nbsp;Matthew 5:44 ‘Love your enemies, and pray for them that persecute you,’ is the explicit statement of an ideal of conduct that finds suggestion in &nbsp;Job 31:19 and several other [[Ot]] passages. </p> <p> The following is a list of similar passages: &nbsp;Matthew 5:3; &nbsp;Matthew 5:6 (&nbsp;Luke 6:21 a) &nbsp;Matthew 5:7; &nbsp;Matthew 5:9; &nbsp;Matthew 5:11 (&nbsp;Luke 6:22) &nbsp;Matthew 5:14; &nbsp;Matthew 5:18 a (&nbsp;Luke 16:17) &nbsp;Matthew 5:28; &nbsp;Matthew 5:30, &nbsp;Matthew 18:8 (&nbsp;Mark 9:43) &nbsp;Matthew 5:42 a, (&nbsp;Luke 6:30 a) &nbsp;Matthew 5:43-44 a (&nbsp;Luke 6:27) &nbsp;Matthew 5:44 b, &nbsp;Matthew 5:48, &nbsp;Matthew 6:6; &nbsp;Matthew 6:9; &nbsp;Matthew 6:11; &nbsp;Matthew 6:14-15; &nbsp;Matthew 6:19; &nbsp;Matthew 6:24-26 (&nbsp;Luke 12:24) &nbsp;Matthew 7:6; &nbsp;Matthew 7:21 b (&nbsp;John 13:17) &nbsp;Matthew 10:6, &nbsp;Matthew 15:24 (&nbsp;Luke 15:6; &nbsp;Luke 19:10, &nbsp;Matthew 18:12) &nbsp;Matthew 10:10 b, &nbsp;Matthew 10:19; &nbsp;Matthew 10:37; &nbsp;Matthew 10:28 (&nbsp;John 6:27; &nbsp;John 7:37 b) &nbsp;Matthew 19:29 b (&nbsp;Mark 10:30, &nbsp;Luke 18:30) &nbsp;Matthew 10:41, &nbsp;Matthew 12:29 (&nbsp;Mark 3:27, &nbsp;Luke 11:21-22) &nbsp;Matthew 12:32 b, &nbsp;Matthew 13:39-41; &nbsp;Matthew 13:43-46, &nbsp;Matthew 15:13, &nbsp;Matthew 16:26 (&nbsp;Mark 8:37, &nbsp;Luke 9:25) &nbsp;Matthew 18:15 (&nbsp;Luke 17:3) &nbsp;Matthew 21:33 (&nbsp;Mark 12:1, &nbsp;Luke 20:9) &nbsp;Matthew 21:44 (&nbsp;Luke 20:18) &nbsp;Matthew 24:16-18 (&nbsp;Mark 13:14; &nbsp;Mark 13:16, &nbsp;Luke 21:21-22) &nbsp;Matthew 24:35 (&nbsp;Mark 13:31, &nbsp;Luke 21:33; &nbsp;Luke 16:17) &nbsp;Matthew 25:35-36; &nbsp;Matthew 25:40; &nbsp;Matthew 25:45; &nbsp;Matthew 25:42; &nbsp;Matthew 25:46, &nbsp;Matthew 26:28 (&nbsp;Mark 14:24, &nbsp;Luke 22:20) &nbsp;Matthew 26:52 c, &nbsp;Matthew 27:6, &nbsp;Matthew 28:18; &nbsp;Matthew 28:20, &nbsp;Mark 2:2; &nbsp;Mark 2:27; &nbsp;Mark 9:48, &nbsp;Luke 6:28; &nbsp;Luke 6:34-36; &nbsp;Luke 12:47-48; &nbsp;Luke 13:6-7; &nbsp;Luke 14:13; &nbsp;Luke 15:18-19; &nbsp;Luke 15:21; &nbsp;Luke 16:15 c, &nbsp;Luke 19:8; &nbsp;Luke 19:42; &nbsp;Luke 21:24-26; &nbsp;Luke 22:19; &nbsp;Luke 22:31; &nbsp;Luke 23:34 a, &nbsp;John 1:6; &nbsp;John 1:11; &nbsp;John 1:18; &nbsp;John 5:37 b, &nbsp;John 6:46; &nbsp;John 2:16; &nbsp;John 3:5 (&nbsp;Ezekiel 36:25-27; &nbsp;Ezekiel 11:19?) &nbsp;John 4:22 b, &nbsp;John 4:37; &nbsp;John 5:17; &nbsp;John 5:21-22; &nbsp;John 5:27; &nbsp;John 5:29; &nbsp;John 5:39 b, &nbsp;John 4:44; &nbsp;John 7:37 b, &nbsp;John 7:38-39 a, &nbsp;John 7:42; &nbsp;John 8:11; &nbsp;John 9:2; &nbsp;John 9:31; &nbsp;John 9:41; &nbsp;John 10:3; &nbsp;John 10:10; &nbsp;John 10:16; &nbsp;John 13:34; &nbsp;John 15:12; &nbsp;John 15:17; &nbsp;John 14:23; &nbsp;John 15:1; &nbsp;John 15:14-15; &nbsp;John 19:7; &nbsp;John 20:31. </p> <p> These lists of passages under ( <i> j </i> ) and ( <i> k </i> ) are by no means exhaustive. Dittmar ( <i> Vetus Test. in Novo </i> ) gives many more passages than have been enumerated, and Hühn ( <i> Die alttest. Citate und Reminiscenzen im [[Nt]] </i> ) gives a far greater number. It is not always easy to discriminate to one’s own satisfaction between classes ( <i> j </i> ) and ( <i> k </i> ). We must follow the more pronounced character of the passage as it appears to us at the moment of investigation. The border-line between a real literary reminiscence and an accidental coincidence is also difficult to determine. Not only would it be possible to increase the lists ( <i> j </i> ) and ( <i> k </i> ), but at least two other classes could be made out. One such class ( <i> l </i> ) would consist of expressions which belong to the life of the land, or the common utterances of the people of the land, such as &nbsp;Matthew 9:36 ‘as sheep not having a shepherd.’ These have no real significance, literary or otherwise. Again, there is another class of expressions ( <i> m </i> ) in which imagery similar to that of the [[Ot]] is found. ‘Wise as serpents’ (&nbsp;Matthew 10:16) is possibly a comparison suggested by &nbsp;Genesis 3:1, or it may have been current rhetoric. Or, again, the image of sifting (&nbsp;Luke 22:31) may have been a current phrase, or it may possibly have had a suggestion from &nbsp;Amos 9:9. </p> <p> <b> 2. Use of other writings in the Gospels. </b> —Are other writings than the [[Ot]] used in the Gospels? This question recognizes the possibility ( <i> a </i> ) of explicit citations from writings outside of the [[Ot]] as authoritative documents, or ( <i> b </i> ) of a general use of material as a source of historical example or explicit allusion, or ( <i> c </i> ) of literary relationship, or ( <i> d </i> ) of other writings with a genetic relation to the teachings of the Gospels. </p> <p> ( <i> a </i> ) The passages which have been brought into debate are &nbsp;Matthew 27:9, &nbsp;Luke 7:32 b, &nbsp;Luke 11:49, &nbsp;John 4:37; &nbsp;John 7:38. </p> <p> &nbsp;Matthew 27:9 <b> . </b> Is this a citation from some lost writing outside the [[Ot]] and attributed to Jeremiah? Apparently the dictate of common sense is that the passage is really from &nbsp;Zechariah 11:12-13, and that there was some slip in the memory of the writer of the Gospel, or that there was an error on the part of the earliest transcribers. </p> <p> &nbsp;Luke 7:32 <b> b. </b> [[Doubtless]] here Jesus was using as an illustration facts with which all persons who observed children at play were familiar. It seems an attempt to manufacture a difficulty. This passage should be dismissed from consideration. </p> <p> &nbsp;Luke 11:49 <b> . </b> This is a passage which is not so easily explained. (1) Is ‘The Wisdom of God, ‘the name of a book? No such book is known. (2) Is ‘The Wisdom of God’ a speaker in a book, after the manner of ‘Wisdom’ in Proverbs 8? Every trace of such a book now seems lost. (3) Is Jesus quoting Himself? See &nbsp;Matthew 23:34, where Jesus says, ‘Behold [[I]] send unto you prophets, and wise men, and scribes,’ just as in this passage Wisdom says, [[‘I]] will send unto them prophets and apostles.’ The words in Mt. are dated in the second day of [[Passion]] Week, while the passage in Lk. belongs to a time several weeks or months earlier. If Jesus in Lk. is quoting Himself, it is from an utterance of an earlier date, not elsewhere transmitted to us. Resch ( <i> [[Agrapha]] </i> 2 [Note: designates the particular edition of the work referred] , p. 184) would show that ‘The Wisdom of God’ was one of the self-designations of Jesus like ‘The Son of Man.’ To these statements it must be said that while they are possible, Jesus is nowhere else designated in this manner, nor is He elsewhere represented as quoting Himself in this manner. (4) It is claimed that the passage is founded upon &nbsp;Proverbs 1:20-31, and this is supported by the fact that in the early [[Christian]] Church the Book of Proverbs was called a <i> Sophia </i> . The passage hardly seems adequate for the words of Jesus. (5) This passage is claimed as an amplification of &nbsp;2 Chronicles 24:20-22. This is in reality the same as (7) below. (6) Used of [[Divine]] Providence, as manifested in history (cf. &nbsp;Proverbs 8:22-31), sending prophets and apostles, equivalent to saying ‘God in His wisdom said.’ This is supported by the passage &nbsp;Luke 7:35 ‘and wisdom is justified of all her children.’ This is quite tenable. (7) The personal wisdom of God in Christ. In support of this are the facts that Jesus says the same thing in &nbsp;Matthew 23:37 in His own Person, that He is elsewhere said to send prophets and apostles (&nbsp;Luke 10:3, &nbsp;Ephesians 4:11), and that this is a [[Logos]] conception of Jesus. Even so, a reason for the expression is not obvious, nor is it at all evident why Jesus should have used this unusual phrase. There are difficulties in regard to any explanation of this passage. The greatest of all is in the theory of an extra-OT source. The passage is perfectly intelligible without such a theory, whatever be said as to the reason of the expression. </p> <p> &nbsp;John 4:37 <b> . </b> ‘For herein is the saying true, One soweth, and another reapeth.’ Is this an explicit quotation from some writing? The word ‘saying’ does not point back to a writing. It might readily be something of a proverbial character, which had its origin in the mode of thought and utterance which is found in &nbsp;Leviticus 26:16, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:38-40; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:11, &nbsp;Job 31:8, &nbsp;Micah 6:15, thus having a literary connexion of some sort with the [[Ot.]] </p> <p> &nbsp;John 7:38 <b> . </b> If this is a quotation from a writing outside the [[Ot,]] a wholly unknown writing has to be assumed. Nowhere else in the [[Nt]] is a writing outside the [[Ot]] called γραφή, ‘Scripture.’ It is a tenable and adequate explanation to treat it as ‘a free quotation harmonizing in thought with parts of various passages, especially &nbsp;Isaiah 44:3; &nbsp;Isaiah 55:1; &nbsp;Isaiah 58:11’ (Meyer). See, on an attempt to trace the saying to a Buddhist source, <i> ExpT </i> [Note: xpT Expository Times.] xviii. [1906] p. 100. </p> <p> The examination of these passages fails to show the slightest probability that Jesus, a speaker in the Gospels, or any writer of the Gospels, explicitly cited any writing outside the [[Ot]] as authoritative Scripture. </p> <p> ( <i> b </i> ) Examination of the facts gives no greater probability that historical illustrations from writings other than the [[Ot]] occur in the Gospels, or intentional allusions to such writings, in any such manner as the illustrations taken from the [[Ot,]] or as the allusions to the [[Ot]] found in the Gospels. </p> <p> ( <i> c </i> ) It is difficult not to believe that literary connexion is quite marked. Note, especially, the following passages: &nbsp;Matthew 5:34-35 (&nbsp;Sirach 23:9) &nbsp;Matthew 5:42 a (&nbsp;Sirach 4:4-5) &nbsp;Matthew 5:42 b (&nbsp;Sirach 29:2 a) &nbsp;Matthew 5:44 (&nbsp;Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 12:19 a) &nbsp;Matthew 6:12; &nbsp;Matthew 6:14 (&nbsp;Sirach 28:2) &nbsp;Matthew 7:12 (To &nbsp;Matthew 4:15) &nbsp;Matthew 11:28 f. (&nbsp;Sirach 51:23 ff.) &nbsp;Matthew 19:21 (&nbsp;Sirach 29:11) &nbsp;Matthew 23:38 (To &nbsp;Matthew 14:4), &nbsp;Luke 6:38 (&nbsp;Sirach 14:16 a) &nbsp;Matthew 10:25, &nbsp;Matthew 18:18 (Enoch 40:9, Sibyl, <i> proœm </i> . 85 = frag. ii. 47) &nbsp;Matthew 16:8 (Enoch 108:11) &nbsp;Matthew 18:7 (Enoch 47:1, 2) &nbsp;Matthew 18:1-8 (&nbsp;Sirach 32:17-18) &nbsp;Matthew 20:10-11 (Enoch 89:51), &nbsp;John 6:27 a (&nbsp;Sirach 15:3; &nbsp;Sirach 24:19) 8:44 (&nbsp;Wisdom of Solomon 2:24, [[Enoch]] 69:6). </p> <p> ( <i> d </i> ) Is the relation between these writings more important than a merely literary relation? If it is, how important is it? What does it signify? In the references above, the extra-OT books are all prior to the birth of Jesus. They reveal something of the thought of the [[Jews]] before His time, and doubtless of His own generation. The very tone of the words of Jesus to [[Martha]] (&nbsp;John 11:23; &nbsp;John 11:25-26) shows that He assumed the truth of beliefs which had no prominence in the thought and life revealed in the [[Ot.]] The non-canonical literature gives abundant evidence that the belief in the resurrection had become an important factor in the beliefs of the Jews. Such a passage as &nbsp;Matthew 25:31-46 can hardly be said to be suggested by the [[Ot]] writings. Compare it with Enoch 90:18–38, and striking similarities are found. &nbsp;Matthew 25:41 b ‘Depart from me, ye cursed, into the eternal fire which is prepared for the devil and his angels,’ and similar passages, as also &nbsp;Matthew 13:42; &nbsp;Matthew 13:50, may be compared with Enoch 103:7, 8 and 108:5, 6. In &nbsp;Luke 16:26 the picture of separation between the righteous and sinners in [[Sheol]] may suggest Enoch 22:9–13, where the righteous and sinners, in separate divisions, await the Great Judgment. </p> <p> Although there is often a striking likeness in outstanding features, there is also a lack of harmony in details with the spirit of Jesus, which shows why He could not use these writings as an authority. For the possible connexion between the Book of Enoch and Christian thought, see <i> The Book of Enoch </i> , translation and ed. by [[R.]] [[H.]] Charles, pp. 48–53, where he enumerates ‘doctrines in Enoch which had an undoubted share in moulding the corresponding [[Nt]] doctrines, or at all events are necessary to the comprehension of the latter.’ Without doubt the points of contact between the Book of Enoch and Christian beliefs of the earlier Christian generations were more numerous and intimate than between the Book of Enoch and the Gospels. Also such literature as the extra-canonical [[Jewish]] writings had great influence in the early development of Christian doctrine. Their importance, so far as the Gospels are concerned, is chiefly that of explaining the surroundings of Jesus and the spiritual and mental conditions amidst which He worked. Instances such as have been given could be multiplied, but it is doubtful if they could change the conclusions already given. The centuries between the prophets of ancient [[Israel]] and Jesus had witnessed a development of thought, especially on eschatological subjects. ‘Jesus was a true [[Ot]] saint’ (Davidson, <i> [[Theology]] of the [[Ot]] </i> , p. 520), and joined the work which He did as closely as possible to that of the [[Ot]] prophets, using their authority for His teachings. Jesus was also a [[Prophet]] greater than any that had gone before Him, and He appropriated such current beliefs as were in harmony with His mission, without thereby authenticating other associated beliefs, but rather discrediting them by the general spirit of His teachings. </p> <p> See also artt. on Old Testament. </p> <p> Literature.—Allen, [[‘Ot]] Quotations in Matthew and Mark,’ <i> ExpT </i> [Note: xpT Expository Times.] xii. [1900–1901] pp. 187 ff., 281 ff. [a careful examination of the relation of the quotations in these books to the [[Ot]] passages]; [[E.]] Boehl, <i> Die Alttest. Citate im [[Nt]] </i> [the treatise and discussion superseded by that of Toy]; August Clemen, <i> Der Gebrauch des [[At]] </i> [Note: [[T]] Altes Testament.] <i> in den [[Nt]] Schriften </i> , Gütersloh, 1895 [a discussion of the meaning of the citations in the [[Nt]] context and in their original context]; Wilhelm Dittmar, <i> Vetus Test. in Novo </i> , Göttingen, 1903 [gives not only the quotations, but about five times as many parallels in thought or words in addition to the quotations. Almost invariably the Hebrew and Greek of the [[Ot]] are given, and the Greek of the [[Nt]] and of the Apocryphal books where they are cited. It is a valuable work]: Eugen Hühn, <i> Die [[At]] </i> [Note: [[T]] Altes Testament.] <i> Citate und Reminiscenzen im [[Nt]] </i> , Tübingen, 1900 [a list of passages much more full than that of Dittmar, almost twice as numerous. Few citations are given. The passages are classified as Messianic and non-Messianic. Both classes are divided into citations with formulae of citation, citations without formulae), and reminiscences. The material is valuable, but needs sifting and further classification]; Johnson, <i> Quotation of the [[Nt]] from the Old </i> , Philadelphia, 1896 [discusses the literary principles exemplified in the [[Nt]] quotations and defends them]; Tholuck, <i> [[At]] </i> [Note: [[T]] Altes Testament.] <i> im [[Nt]] </i> <i> 6 </i> [Note: designates the particular edition of the work referred] , Gotha, 1868 [translation in <i> Bibliotheca [[Sacra]] </i> , vol. xi. p. 568 ff.]; [[Crawford]] [[Ii.]] Toy, <i> Quotations in the New [[Testament]] </i> , New York, 1884 [holds that the quotations were made from the Greek or from an oral [[Aramaic]] version, the existence of which is assumed. It contains an admirable bibliography]; [[D.]] [[M.]] Turpie, <i> The Old Test, in the New </i> , London, 1868 [quotations classified according to their agreement with the Hebrew or Greek of the [[Ot,]] and discussed accordingly], and <i> The [[Nt]] View of the [[Ot]] </i> , London, 1872 [quotations classified and discussed according to their introductory formulae]; Woods, art. ‘Quotations’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible iv. 184 ff. </p> <p> [[F.]] [[B.]] Denio. </p>
       
 
<ref name="term_53531"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-bible/quotations Quotations from Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible]</ref>
== References ==
       
<references>
<ref name="term_18975"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/bridgeway-bible-dictionary/quotations Quotations from Bridgeway Bible Dictionary]</ref>
<ref name="term_57074"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-new-testament/quotations+(2) Quotations from Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_68270"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/morrish-bible-dictionary/quotations Quotations from Morrish Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_33190"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/easton-s-bible-dictionary/quotations Quotations from Easton's Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
</references>
</references>

Latest revision as of 10:08, 13 October 2021

Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament [1]

A wide variety has been found to exist in the literary allusions of the four Gospels. The same freedom pervades the rest of the NT. Characteristic differences are, no doubt, to be met with in different groups of apostolic writings; but the field of quotation, direct and indirect, extends throughout from exact reproduction of the original texts to the merest suggestion or reminiscence, often hardly to be traced. The present article seeks to cover the more obvious reminiscences, as well as explicit citations, in the NT books under review.

1. Acts of the Apostles.-The direct quotations in Acts are confined to speeches of the apostles and the story of the Ethiopian eunuch ( Acts 8:26 ff.). They are invariably drawn from the LXX_, even when that Version departs considerably from the Hebrew (as in  Acts 7:42 f.,  Acts 15:16 f.), and normally introduced by formulae like ‘It is written (in the book of Psalms),’ ‘This is that which hath been spoken by the prophets,’ ‘For David saith concerning him,’ etc. A number of the citations are exact, viz.  Acts 2:25-28 =  Psalms 16:8-11, omitting the last clause (identity being secured by reading ἡ καρδία μου with àAD, etc.);  Acts 2:34 f. =  Psalms 110:1; Ps 4:25f. =  Psalms 2:1 f.;  Acts 8:32 f. =  Isaiah 53:7 f. (with addition of αὐτόν, as in àA, etc.);  Acts 23:5 =  Exodus 22:28 (in Lucian’s recension);  Acts 28:26 f. =  Isaiah 6:9 f. (apart from a slight difference in the opening formula). Under the same category is virtually to be placed the long citation from  Joel 2:28-32 woven into Peter’s speech at Pentecost ( Acts 2:17-21), the only changes from the LXX_ (àA) being a substitution of the eschatological phrase ἐν ταῖς ἐσχάταις ἡμέραις (from  Isaiah 2:2,  Micah 4:1) for the simple μετὰ ταῦτα of the original, the insertion of the solemn formula of Divine utterance λέγει ὁ θεός, and the transposition of the clauses relating to the young men and the old. In close dependence on the historical narratives from Genesis to Kings stands Stephen’s long survey of the Divine leading and mission of Israel ( Acts 7:1 ff.), many of the verses being abbreviated, but sufficiently exact, citations of biblical texts (cf. esp. vv.  Acts 7:3;  Acts 7:6 f.,  Acts 7:26-28;  Acts 7:30-34;  Acts 7:40 with  Genesis 12:1;  Genesis 15:13 f.,  Exodus 2:13 f.,  Exodus 3:2 ff.,  Exodus 32:1). More deliberate alterations are evident in  Exodus 1:20, where the general denunciation of wicked men in  Psalms 69:25 (amplified by a further reference to  Psalms 109:8) is directly pointed against Judas;  Acts 2:30, an indirect citation of Ps 132:11; 3:22f. (abbreviated in  Acts 7:37), a conflate of  Deuteronomy 18:15-19 and  Leviticus 23:29; Lv 3:25, a free blending of the promises addressed to the fathers in  Genesis 12:3;  Genesis 18:18, etc.;  Genesis 4:11, a loose citation of the verses ( Psalms 118:22 f.) which are fully reproduced and applied to Christ in  Matthew 21:42 and parallel texts;  Acts 7:42 f., where the famous words of  Amos 5:25-27 are quoted with considerable changes, the most remarkable being the substitution of ‘Babylon’ for ‘Damascus’ (due either to accident, or, more probably, to a desire to bring the prophecy into line with later events);  Acts 7:49 f., where the prophet’s great contrast between the heavens of the Most High God and even the noblest temple built by man ( Isaiah 66:1 f.) is reproduced with considerable freedom;  Isaiah 13:22, a noteworthy conflate of  Psalms 89:20; Psalms 89 : 2 Samuel 23:1 (or  Psalms 72:20),  1 Samuel 13:14, and  Isaiah 44:28; other verses from St. Paul’s speech at Antioch, esp.  Acts 13:33-35;  Acts 13:41;  Acts 13:47, which are abbreviated citations of  Psalms 2:7,  Isaiah 55:3,  Psalms 16:10,  Habakkuk 1:5, and  Isaiah 49:6 respectively;  Acts 15:16 f., a free rendering of  Amos 9:11, introduced by a phrase from  Jeremiah 12:15;  Jeremiah 26:17 f., an application to St. Paul himself of the prophetic passage  Isaiah 42:7-16.

In addition to direct citations, however, there are many reminiscences of Scriptural phraseology scattered through Acts. The following may be presented as most suggestive of the original texts:  Acts 2:24 (cf.  Psalms 18:4 f.,  Psalms 116:3,  Job 39:2 f.);  Acts 2:39 (cf.  Isaiah 57:19,  Joel 2:32, etc.);  Acts 2:40 (cf.  Deuteronomy 32:5);  Acts 4:24,  Acts 14:15,  Acts 17:24 (cf.  Genesis 1:1,  Exodus 20:11, etc.);  Acts 4:34 (cf.  Deuteronomy 15:4);  Acts 5:4 (cf.  Joshua 24:27, etc.);  Acts 8:2 (cf.  Genesis 50:10);  Acts 8:21 (cf.  Deuteronomy 12:12,  Psalms 78:37);  Acts 10:36 (cf.  Psalms 107:20,  Isaiah 52:7, etc.);  Acts 17:27 (cf.  Isaiah 55:6, etc.);  Acts 17:29 (cf.  Isaiah 40:18 f.,  Isaiah 46:5);  Acts 17:31 (cf.  Psalms 9:8, etc.).

Outside of the OT, no texts are ever cited as Scripture. Other sources are, however, clearly before the mind of the writer. Thus  Acts 7:21 suggests Wis 11:14; 18:5; 17:29, Wis 13:10; and 17:30,  Wisdom of Solomon 11:23;  Wisdom of Solomon 12:2. The phraseology of  Acts 3:14 (cf.  Acts 7:52,  Acts 22:14)  Acts 4:12,  Acts 10:4,  Acts 17:31 recalls Enoch, xxxviii. 2, xlviii. 7, xcix. 3, and xli. 9 respectively. In St. Stephen’s speech ( Acts 7:36;  Acts 7:38 f.) R. H. Charles finds distinct evidence of dependence on the Assumption of Moses (iii. 11-13). There is here also ( Acts 7:16) betrayed an acquaintance with extra-canonical Jewish tradition regarding the burial of Joseph’s brethren, as it was afterwards committed to writing in the Book of Jubilees (xlvi. 9 f.). Finally, St. Paul’s great speech at Athens brings classical poetry into the service of Christ. The final clause of  Acts 17:28, Τοῦ γὰρ καὶ γένος ἐσμέν (‘for we are also his offspring’) has long been recognized as an exact quotation from Aratus’ Phaenomena, line 5 (cf. the similar phrase, ἐκ σοῦ γὰρ γένος ἐσμέν, from Cleanthes’ Hymn to Jove, line 4). But Rendel Harris has recently traced the immediately preceding words (‘for in him we live and move and have our being’) to the Minos of the Cretan pcet, Epimenides, from which also  Titus 1:12 is drawn, the text being restored as follows:

τύμβον ἐτεκτῄναντο σέθεν, κύδιστε, μέγιστε,

Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται, κακὰ θηρία, γαστέρες ἀργαί.

Ἀλλὰ σύ γʼ οὐ θνήσκεις, ἕστηκας γὰρ ζοὸς αἰεί,

ἐν γὰρ σοὶ ζῶμεν καὶ κινύμεθʼ ἠδὲ καὶ ἐσμέν

(cf. Exp_, 8th ser., iv. [1912] 348 ff.).

2. The Pauline Epistles.-These are peculiarly rich in allusions. Every important doctrinal argument is buttressed by an appeal to Scripture; and even moral counsels are, as a rule, referred to some basal principle of the OT. The Apostle’s ordinary language is likewise steeped in OT phraseology. Here too the LXX_ is the great storehouse of literary reference. ‘More than half of the direct quotations of the OT in the Epistles of St. Paul are taken from the LXX_ without material change’ (H. B. Swete, Introduction to the OT in Greek, Cambridge, 1900, p. 400). In the remaining cases he allows himself considerable freedom, sometimes quoting from memory, or otherwise altering the text for the purpose immediately in view, though occasionally there is evidence of direct translation from the Hebrew.

(a) The Epistle to the Romans is a veritable mine of quotations. Exact reproductions of the LXX_ are found as follows:  Romans 3:4 b =  Psalms 51:4 b;  Psalms 4:3 (cf.  Psalms 4:5 ff.) =  Genesis 15:6;  Genesis 4:7 f. =  Psalms 32:1 f.; psa 4:17 (πατέρα πολλῶν ἐθνῶν τέθεικά σε) is excerpted from  Genesis 17:5;  Genesis 4:18 (οὕτως ἔσται τὸ σπέρμα σου) from  Genesis 15:5;  Genesis 7:7 (οὐκ ἐπιθυμήσεις) from the Decalogue ( Exodus 20:17);  Romans 8:36 =  Psalms 44:22;  Psalms 9:7 (ἐν Ἰσαὰκ κληθήσεταί σοι σπέρμα) comes from  Genesis 21:12;  Genesis 9:12 (ὁ μείζων δουλεύσει τῷ ἐλάσσονι) from  Genesis 25:23;  Genesis 9:15 =  Exodus 33:19;  Exodus 9:29 =  Isaiah 1:9;  Isaiah 10:13 = Jl 2:32; 10:16 =  Isaiah 53:1 a;  Isaiah 10:18 = Ps 19:4; 12:20 =  Proverbs 25:21 f. (omitting the last words);  Romans 13:9 (ἀγαπήσεις τὸν πλησίον σου ὡς σεαυτόν) comes from  Leviticus 19:18;  Leviticus 15:3 = Ps 69:9; 15:9 = Ps 18:49; 15:10 (εὐφράνθητε, ἔθνη, μετὰ τοῦ λαοῦ αὐτοῦ) from  Deuteronomy 32:43;  Deuteronomy 15:11 (acc. to certain MSS_) =  Psalms 117:1. The quotation from  Habakkuk 2:4 introduced in  Romans 1:17 is identical with the LXX_ save for the omission of μού (ct._ Heb. áÌÆàÁîé֣ðÈúåÉ, ‘through his faith’);  Romans 2:6 likewise differs from  Proverbs 24:12 only in the pronouns. The long citation,  Romans 3:10-18, opens with a phrase from  Ecclesiastes 7:20; the rest is almost an exact reproduction of the LXX_ text of  Psalms 14:1-3, though this is really a conflate of various OT passages ( Psalms 5:9;  Psalms 140:3;  Psalms 10:7,  Isaiah 59:7 f., and  Psalms 36:1) interwoven with the original.  Romans 3:20 is clearly introduced as a quotation (from  Psalms 143:2), but differs considerably from both the Hebrew and the LXX_;  Romans 9:9 is a free, abbreviated reference to  Genesis 18:10;  Genesis 18:14;  Genesis 9:13 a citation from  Malachi 1:2 f., with a trifling transposition of the opening words.  Romans 9:17 (from  Exodus 9:16) shows a distinct approach to the original Hebrew. On the other hand,  Romans 9:25 f.,  Romans 9:27 f.,  Romans 9:32 f. are free reproductions of the thought of  Hosea 1:10;  Hosea 2:23,  Isaiah 10:22 f.,  Isaiah 28:16 (blended with  Romans 8:14) respectively, in the last instance so free as to yield a sense quite contrary to the original. The final clause of  Romans 9:33 is repeated in  Romans 10:11 with the addition of πᾶς; while  Romans 10:5 is a direct application of  Leviticus 18:5 to ‘the righteousness that is of the law.’ The long passage on the nearness and saving power of the Word of God ( Romans 10:6-9) is another free compound of  Deuteronomy 9:4;  Deuteronomy 30:11-14, etc.  Romans 10:15 (from  Isaiah 52:7) gives further evidence of direct use of the Hebrew;  Romans 10:19 differs from the LXX_ text of  Deuteronomy 32:21 only in the substitution of the personal pronoun ‘you’ for ‘them,’ and  Romans 10:20 f. from  Isaiah 65:1 f. in a slight transposition of words.  Romans 11:3 f. (from  1 Kings 19:10 ff.), has been altered and transposed under Hebrew influence.  Romans 11:8 is a free blend of ideas from  Isaiah 29:10,  Deuteronomy 29:4, etc. (with traces of Hebrew influence);  Romans 11:26 f. is also a complex from  Isaiah 59:20 f. (in the main) and  Psalms 14:7,  Isaiah 27:9, etc.  Romans 11:9 f., again, is a close, though abbreviated, citation of  Psalms 69:22 f., and  Romans 11:34 f. is but slightly altered from  Isaiah 40:13 f. (in the fuller reading of àA, etc.).  Romans 12:19 (from  Deuteronomy 32:35) shows the same approach to the original Hebrew as the Targum of Onkelos.  Romans 14:11 is a somewhat free rendering of  Isaiah 45:23, with introductory phrase from  Isaiah 49:18, or a similar context;  Romans 15:12 is an abbreviated reference to  Isaiah 11:10 (cf.  Isaiah 42:4); and  Romans 15:21 is the exact equivalent of  Isaiah 52:15, except for the transposition of ὄψονται.

(b) A number of these citations are repeated in other Epistles of St. Paul. Thus the fundamental assertion of justification by faith ( Romans 1:17 =  Habakkuk 2:4) reappears in  Galatians 3:11, and the texts  Romans 3:20 (from  Psalms 143:2) in  Galatians 2:16;  Romans 4:3 (= Genesis 15:6) in  Galatians 3:6;  Romans 10:5 (from  Leviticus 18:5) in  Galatians 3:12;  Romans 13:9 b (from  Leviticus 19:18) in  Galatians 5:14; and  Romans 11:34 (from  Isaiah 40:13) in  1 Corinthians 2:16 (a different close being here adopted).

Fresh quotations from the OT are found as follows:  Galatians 4:27 = Isa 54:1; 4:30 =  Genesis 21:10 (with the significant change of τῆς ἐλευθέρας instead of Ἰσαάκ);  Galatians 3:8, a blend of the promises in  Genesis 12:3;  Genesis 18:18, etc.;  Galatians 3:10, from  Deuteronomy 27:26, with phrase in woven from  Deuteronomy 9:11;  Deuteronomy 3:13, an abbreviated, and slightly altered, citation from  Deuteronomy 21:23;  Deuteronomy 3:16, a direct application to Christ of the promise to Abraham and his ‘seed’ ( Genesis 12:7;  Genesis 13:15;  Genesis 17:8, etc.).

The closing phrase of  1 Corinthians 6:16 comes directly from  Genesis 2:24 (the whole verse being reproduced in  Ephesians 5:31);  1 Corinthians 9:9 (in reading of àAD, etc.) =  Deuteronomy 25:4 (repeated in  1 Timothy 5:18 with transposition of words);  1 Corinthians 10:7 =  Exodus 32:6;  Exodus 10:26, a phrase from Ps 24:1; 15:32 =  Isaiah 22:13;  Isaiah 1:19 f. comes from  Isaiah 29:14 with alteration of verb;  1 Corinthians 1:31 (repeated in  2 Corinthians 10:17) is a free reproduction of  Jeremiah 9:23;  Jeremiah 2:9 a very free rendering, perhaps through independent Jewish channels (cf. below), of the ideas in  Isaiah 64:4, with suggestions from  Isaiah 65:16 or  Jeremiah 3:16;  Jeremiah 3:19 is from  Job 5:13, under direct influence of the Hebrew;  1 Corinthians 3:20, from  Psalms 94:11, with ‘of the wise’ substituted for ‘of men’ (to make the application more apt);  1 Corinthians 10:20 (δαιμονίοις καὶ οὐ θεῷ θύουσιν) from  Deuteronomy 32:17, with a change in the order of words;  1 Corinthians 14:21, a very free citation, supported by λέγει Κύριος, of  Isaiah 28:11 f.;  1 Corinthians 14:34,  1 Corinthians 15:3-4;  1 Corinthians 15:15;  1 Corinthians 15:45;  1 Corinthians 15:47, free allusions to  Genesis 3:18,  Isaiah 53:12,  Hosea 6:2, and  Genesis 2:7, all adduced as ‘written’ or Scriptural authorities;  1 Corinthians 15:27 (cf.  Ephesians 1:22,  Philippians 3:21), from  Psalms 8:6 with direct reference to the Hebrew;  1 Corinthians 15:54 f., a free conflate of  Isaiah 25:8 and  Hosea 13:14.

 2 Corinthians 4:13 (ἐπίστευσα διὸ ἐλάλησα) exactly =  Psalms 116:10;  Psalms 6:2 =  Isaiah 49:8;  Isaiah 9:9 =  Psalms 112:9;  Psalms 13:1 (cf.  1 Timothy 5:19) =  Deuteronomy 19:15 (Luc.);  2 Corinthians 4:6, a free blend of  Genesis 1:2 f.,  Isaiah 9:1 f., etc.;  2 Corinthians 6:18, a loose conflate of  Ezekiel 37:27 and  Leviticus 26:11 f.;  2 Corinthians 6:17, abbreviated from  Isaiah 52:11 and  Ezekiel 20:34;  2 Corinthians 6:18, a compound of  Jeremiah 31:9,  Isaiah 43:6; Isaiah 43 : 2 Samuel 7:8, etc.;  2 Corinthians 8:15, from  Exodus 16:18, with direct approach to the Hebrew;  2 Corinthians 9:7, a free reproduction of  Proverbs 22:9 (cf.  Exodus 25:2).

 Ephesians 4:8 is from  Psalms 68:18, with the ἔλαβες boldly altered to ἔδωκεν, to make it more applicable to the Giver of good;  Ephesians 4:25, from  Zechariah 8:16 with the àÆú more accurately rendered by μετὰ τοῦ;  Ephesians 4:26, an excerpt from Ps 4:4; 5:14, a very free reproduction of  Isaiah 60:1;  Isaiah 60:19 f. (cf. below);  Ephesians 5:16, from  Proverbs 23:31 (with οἴνῳ for ἐν οἴνοις);  Ephesians 6:2 f., from the Decalogue ( Exodus 20:12), the motive being somewhat altered, and a new clause added to emphasize the element of ‘promise.’

 Philippians 1:19 is a literal extract from  Job 13:16; and the two ‘seals’ of  2 Timothy 2:19 are free citations of  Numbers 16:5 and  Isaiah 26:13 respectively. Direct quotations from the OT are not found in Colossians , 1 and 2 Thessalonians, Titus, or Philemon.

Among the more striking reminiscences may be noted  Romans 1:23 (cf.  Deuteronomy 4:15-18,  Psalms 106:20);  Romans 2:5 (cf.  Psalms 110:5,  Zephaniah 1:18);  Romans 3:4 a (cf.  Psalms 116:11);  Romans 3:29 f. (cf.  Malachi 2:10);  Romans 4:11 (cf.  Genesis 17:11);  Romans 4:13;  Romans 4:16 (cf.  Genesis 12:7;  Genesis 13:15, etc.);  Romans 4:19 (cf.  Genesis 17:17, etc.);  Romans 4:25,  Romans 5:19;  Romans 5:21 (cf.  Isaiah 53:12);  Romans 5:5 (cf.  Psalms 22:4 f.,  Psalms 25:20);  Romans 7:8;  Romans 7:11 (cf.  Genesis 2:16 f.,  Romans 3:1 ff.);  Romans 8:27 (cf. Heb. text of  Psalms 7:9);  Romans 8:33 f. (cf.  Isaiah 50:3 f.);  Romans 9:20 f. (cf.  Isaiah 29:16;  Isaiah 45:9);  Romans 11:1 f. (cf.  Psalms 94:14);  Romans 11:16 ff. (cf.  Jeremiah 11:16);  Romans 11:25,  Romans 12:16 (cf.  Isaiah 5:21,  Proverbs 3:7);  Romans 12:14 (cf.  Psalms 109:28);  Romans 12:17 (cf.  Proverbs 3:4).

 1 Corinthians 1:2 (cf.  Joel 2:32);  1 Corinthians 1:20 (cf.  Isaiah 19:11 f.,  Isaiah 33:18);  1 Corinthians 3:11 (cf.  Isaiah 28:16);  1 Corinthians 5:7 (cf.  Exodus 12:15);  1 Corinthians 6:2 (cf.  Daniel 7:18 ff.);  1 Corinthians 6:17 (cf.  2 Kings 18:6);  1 Corinthians 8:6 (cf.  Deuteronomy 4:35;  Deuteronomy 4:39,  Malachi 2:10, etc.);  1 Corinthians 9:7 (cf.  Deuteronomy 20:6,  Proverbs 27:18, etc.);  1 Corinthians 9:13 (cf.  Deuteronomy 18:1 ff.,  Numbers 18:8 ff.);  1 Corinthians 10:1 ff., from  Exodus 13:2 ff. (combined with tradition);  1 Corinthians 10:22 (cf.  Deuteronomy 32:21);  1 Corinthians 11:7 (cf.  Genesis 1:26 f.);  1 Corinthians 14:25 (cf.  Isaiah 45:14,  Zechariah 8:23;  1 Corinthians 15:31 (cf.  Psalms 44:22).

 2 Corinthians 3:3;  2 Corinthians 3:7 (cf.  Exodus 31:18,  Jeremiah 31:33,  Ezekiel 11:19, etc.);  2 Corinthians 3:7 ff. (cf.  Exodus 34:29 ff.);  2 Corinthians 4:11 (cf.  Psalms 44:22);  2 Corinthians 5:10 (cf.  Ecclesiastes 12:14);  2 Corinthians 5:17 (cf.  Isaiah 43:18 f.);  2 Corinthians 6:9 (cf.  Psalms 118:17 f.);  2 Corinthians 6:11 (cf.  Psalms 119:32);  2 Corinthians 7:6 (cf.  Isaiah 49:13);  2 Corinthians 8:21 (cf.  Proverbs 3:4);  2 Corinthians 9:10 (cf.  Isaiah 55:10,  Hosea 10:12);  2 Corinthians 11:3 (cf.  Genesis 3:4).

 Galatians 1:4 (cf.  Isaiah 53:12);  Galatians 1:15 f. (cf.  Jeremiah 1:5);  Galatians 3:17 (cf.  Exodus 12:40 f.);  Galatians 3:20 (cf.  Malachi 2:10);  Galatians 6:16 (cf.  Psalms 125:5, etc.).

 Ephesians 1:20 (cf.  Psalms 110:1);  Ephesians 1:22 (cf.  Psalms 8:6);  Ephesians 2:13 ff. (cf.  Isaiah 57:19);  Ephesians 2:19 (cf.  Leviticus 25:23);  Ephesians 2:20 (cf.  Isaiah 28:16);  Ephesians 4:6 (cf.  Deuteronomy 6:4);  Ephesians 4:9 f. (cf.  Deuteronomy 30:12 ff.);  Ephesians 5:2 (cf.  Genesis 8:21,  Exodus 29:18, etc.);  Ephesians 5:22 ff. (cf.  Genesis 3:16);  Ephesians 6:14 (cf.  Isaiah 11:5;  Isaiah 59:17, etc.);  Ephesians 6:15 (cf.  Isaiah 52:7);  Ephesians 6:17 (cf.  Isaiah 49:2;  Isaiah 51:16;  Isaiah 59:17).

 Philippians 2:10 f. (cf.  Isaiah 45:23);  Philippians 2:15 (cf.  Deuteronomy 32:5);  Philippians 2:16 (cf.  Isaiah 49:4;  Isaiah 65:23);  Philippians 3:3 (cf.  Jeremiah 9:23 f.);  Philippians 3:21 (cf.  Psalms 8:6);  Philippians 4:3 (cf.  Psalms 69:28, etc.).

 Colossians 2:3 (cf.  Isaiah 45:3);  Colossians 2:22 (cf.  Isaiah 29:13);  Colossians 3:1 (cf.  Psalms 110:1);  Colossians 3:10 (cf.  Genesis 1:27);  Colossians 3:18 (cf.  Genesis 3:16).

 1 Thessalonians 2:4 (cf.  Jeremiah 11:20);  1 Thessalonians 2:16 (cf.  Genesis 15:18,  Deuteronomy 8:20);  1 Thessalonians 4:8 (cf.  Ezekiel 11:19;  Ezekiel 36:26 f.,  Psalms 51:11);  1 Thessalonians 5:8 (cf.  Isaiah 59:17);  1 Thessalonians 5:22 ( Job 1:1;  Job 1:8).

 2 Thessalonians 1:8 (cf.  Exodus 3:2,  Isaiah 66:15);  2 Thessalonians 1:9 f. (cf.  Isaiah 2:10 ff.,  Psalms 89:8);  2 Thessalonians 1:12 (cf.  Isaiah 24:15;  Isaiah 49:3;  Isaiah 66:5);  2 Thessalonians 2:4 (cf.  Daniel 11:36, etc.);  2 Thessalonians 2:8 (cf.  Isaiah 11:4);  2 Thessalonians 2:13 (cf.  Deuteronomy 33:12).

 1 Timothy 1:17 (cf.  Deuteronomy 4:35, etc.);  1 Timothy 2:6 (cf.  Isaiah 53:4 ff.);  1 Timothy 2:11 f. (cf.  Genesis 3:16);  1 Timothy 2:14 (cf.  Genesis 3:6 ff.);  1 Timothy 6:1 (cf.  Isaiah 52:5);  1 Timothy 6:15 (cf.  Deuteronomy 10:17,  Psalms 136:3,  Daniel 2:47, etc.).

 2 Timothy 4:14 (cf.  Psalms 28:4;  Psalms 62:12);  2 Timothy 4:17 (cf.  Daniel 6:20).

 Titus 2:5 (cf.  Genesis 3:16);  Titus 2:14 (cf.  Exodus 19:5,  Isaiah 53:4 ff.,  Ezekiel 37:23, etc.).

The Pauline Epistles also show the influence of apocryphal books. A clear instance is found in  Romans 12:15, compared with  Sirach 7:34 (μὴ ὑστέρει ἀπὸ κλαιόντων, καὶ μετὰ πενθούντων πένθησον); cf., further,  Romans 2:11 ( Sirach 32:15 f.)  Romans 16:27 ( Sirach 1:8),  1 Corinthians 6:12 ( Sirach 37:28),  1 Corinthians 6:13 ( Sirach 36:23)  1 Corinthians 7:13; 1Co_7:36 ( Sirach 42:9 f.),  Colossians 2:3 ( Sirach 1:25),  1 Thessalonians 4:6 ( Sirach 5:3). Between Romans and the Wisdom of Solomon there are several close parallels betraying St. Paul’s intimate acquaintance with the latter; cf., especially,  Romans 1:18 ff. ( Wisdom of Solomon 13:1 ff;  Wisdom of Solomon 14:8 f.),  Romans 8:18 ( Wisdom of Solomon 3:4 ff.),  Romans 9:19 f. ( Wisdom of Solomon 12:12),  Romans 9:21 ( Wisdom of Solomon 15:7),  Romans 9:31 ( Wisdom of Solomon 2:11),  Romans 11:32 ( Wisdom of Solomon 11:23),  Romans 13:10 ( Wisdom of Solomon 6:18). Of the other Epistles, cf.  1 Corinthians 11:7 ( Wisdom of Solomon 2:23)  1 Corinthians 15:45;  1 Corinthians 15:47 ( Wisdom of Solomon 15:11),  2 Corinthians 5:1 ff. ( Wisdom of Solomon 9:15),  Ephesians 1:16,  Colossians 1:12 ( Wisdom of Solomon 5:5),  Ephesians 2:12 ( Wisdom of Solomon 3:18),  Ephesians 6:11 ff. ( Wisdom of Solomon 5:17 ff.),  1 Thessalonians 1:10 ( Wisdom of Solomon 16:8). To a common use of Wisdom are no doubt to be traced the frequent resemblances between the Epistles and Philo. A considerable list of parallels with the Book of Enoch has been drawn up by Charles, the most obvious being  Romans 8:38,  Ephesians 1:21,  Colossians 1:16 (En. lxi. 10),  Romans 9:5,  2 Corinthians 11:31 (En. lxxvii. 1),  Philippians 2:10 (En. xlviii. 5),  Colossians 2:3 (En. xlvi. 3),  2 Thessalonians 1:7 (En. lxi. 10),  1 Timothy 1:15 (En. xciv. 1). The very free citation,  1 Corinthians 2:9, is referred by Origen and other Church Fathers to the Apocalypse of Elijah, and is actually found in the Latin version (ii. 34); this may well have been the direct source, its ultimate dependence on the OT explaining the formula κάθως γέγραπται (cf. 1 Clem. xxxiv. 8, where the text recurs in almost the same form, though

Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible [2]

Quotations (IN NT) . The NT writings contain quotations from four sources: (1) the OT; (2) non-canonical Jewish writings; (3) non-Jewish sources; (4) letters to which the author of a letter is replying, or other private sources. It is significant of the relation of the NT writings to the OT Scriptures and of the attitude of the NT writers to these Scriptures, that the quotations of the first class far outnumber all those of the other three classes. Swete counts 160 passages directly quoted from the OT by writers of the NT, including those which are cited with an introductory formula, and those which, by their length or accuracy of quotation, are clearly shown to be intended as quotations. Westcott and Hort reckon the total number of NT quotations from the OT at 1279, including both passages formerly cited and those in which an influence of the OT upon the NT passage is otherwise shown. Even this list is perhaps not absolutely complete. Thus, while WH [Note: H Westcott and Hort’s text.] enumerate 61 passages from Is 1 39, H. Osgood, in his essay Quotations from the OT in the NT , finds exactly twice as many 122. Against this large number of quotations from the OT there can be cited at the utmost only some 24 quotations by NT writers from non-canonical Jewish sources (see Ryle, art. ‘Apocrypha’ in Smith’s DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] 2; Zahn, Com. on   Galatians 3:10  ;   Galatians 5:3  ;  Galatians 6:15  ; Woods, art. ‘Quotations’ in Hastings’ DB [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] ). Of quotations from non-Jewish sources the following are the only probable instances:   Titus 1:12 ,   Acts 17:28 , 1Co 12:12-27;   1 Corinthians 15:33 . To this short list it should be added that Luke’s preface (  Luke 1:1-4 ) is perhaps constructed on classical models (cf. Farrar, Life and Work of Paul , Excursus 3; Zahn, Eînl . 2 i. p. 51). Of quotations from private sources there are several unquestionable examples in the Pauline letters;   1 Corinthians 7:1; 1Co 8:1;   1 Corinthians 11:2;   1 Corinthians 11:17 f.,   1 Corinthians 12:1 ,   Philippians 1:3;   Philippians 2:25 f.,   Philippians 4:14-18; cf. also   Philippians 1:5-7 .

Of the numerous quotations from the OT by far the largest number are derived directly from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , even the freedom of quotation, which the NT writers in common with others of their time permitted themselves, in no way obscuring their direct dependence upon the Greek version. Among the NT books the Epistle to the Hebrews shows the strongest and most constant influence of the LXX. [Note: Septuagint.] According to Westcott ( Com . p. 479), 15 quotations agree with the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] and Hebrew, 8 with the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] where it differs from the Hebrew, 3 differ from LXX [Note: Septuagint.] and Hebrew, 3 are free renderings. Westcott adds that ‘the writer regarded the Greek version as authoritative, and … nowhere shows any immediate knowledge of the Hebrew text.’

The Gospel of Matthew, on the other hand, exhibits the largest influence of the Hebrew. In the quotations from the OT which are common to the Synoptic Gospels (occurring chiefly in the sayings of Jesus) the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] clearly exerts the dominant influence. But in those passages which are peculiar to this Gospel being Introduced by the writer by way of comment on events though the writer is not unacquainted with or uninfluenced by the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , the Hebrew is the dominant influence;  Matthew 1:23;   Matthew 2:15;   Matthew 2:18;   Matthew 2:23;   Matthew 4:15 f.,   Matthew 8:17;   Matthew 12:18 ff.,   Matthew 13:35;   Matthew 21:5;   Matthew 27:9 f.; cf. also   Matthew 2:6 . This difference in the two groups of quotations tends to show that while the common source of the Synoptic Gospels was, in the form in which it was used by the Evangelists, in Greek, and shaped under Hellenistic influence, the author of the First Gospel was a Christian Jew who still read his Bible in Hebrew, or drew his series of prophetic comment-quotations from a special source compiled by a Jew of this kind. The quotations in the Gospel of John and the Epistles of Paul, while derived mainly from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] , show also an acquaintance of their authors with the original Hebrew. (On the singular fact that the NT quotations from the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] show a special similarity to the type of LXX [Note: Septuagint.] text found in Cod. A, cf. Staerh, Ztschr. f. wiss. Theol . Nos. XXXV, XXXVI, XXXVIII, XL; and Swete, Introd. to OT in Greek , p. 395.)

As regards the nature and extent of the Influence exerted by the OT in passages which may be called quotations in the broad sense indicated above, there are several distinguishable classes, though it is sometimes difficult to draw the line sharply. We may recognize: (1) Argumentative quotations . The OT passage is quoted, with recognition of its source, and with intention to employ the fact or teaching or prophecy for an argumentative purpose. Passages so quoted may be: ( a ) historical statements which are supposed to contain in themselves an enunciation of a principle or precept, or to involve a prediction, or to tend to prove a general rule of some kind; cf.   Mark 2:25 f.,   Matthew 2:18 ,   John 19:24 ,   Matthew 15:7-9 ,   Hebrews 7:1-10; ( b ) predictions; cf. e.g.   Acts 2:17 ff.; ( c ) imperative precepts, quoted to enforce a teaching;   Mark 12:29 ff.,   1 Corinthians 9:9; or ( d ) affirmations interpreted as involving a general principle of Divine action or a general characteristic of human nature;   Mark 12:26 ,   Matthew 9:13 ,   Luke 4:11 ,   Acts 7:48 f.,   Romans 3:4;   Romans 3:10-18 , Jam 1:10 f.,   1 Peter 1:24 f., (2) Quotations made the basis of comment . In this case the language of the OT is not cited as supporting the statement of the speaker or writer, but is itself made the basis of exposition or comment, sometimes with disapproval of its teaching or of the teaching commonly based on It;   Matthew 5:21;   Matthew 5:27;   Matthew 5:31 , etc.,   Romans 4:9 f.,   Acts 8:32 , (3) Quotations of comparison or of transferred application . The OT language is employed, with recognition of it as coming from the OT and with the intention of connecting the OT event or teaching with the NT matter, but for purposes of comparison rather than argument. The language itself may refer directly and solely to the OT event, being introduced for the sake of comparing with this event some NT fact (simile); or the OT language may be applied directly to a NT fact, yet so as to imply comparison or likeness of the two events (metaphor);   Matthew 12:40-41 ,   Luke 11:29 f.,   Acts 28:26 f.,   Matthew 21:42 f.,   1 Corinthians 10:7 f., Closely allied to these, yet perhaps properly belonging to the class of argumentative quotations, are cases of quotation accompanied by allegorical interpretation; cf. e.g.   Galatians 4:21-31 . (4) Literary influence . In the cases which fall under this head the language is employed because of its familiarity, and applicability to the matter in band, but without intention of affirming any other connexion than this between the OT thought and the NT fact or teaching. The writer may be conscious of this influence of the OT language or not, and the interpreter often cannot determine with certainty which is the case;   Matthew 5:5;   Matthew 10:35 ,   Galatians 6:16 ,   Ephesians 1:20 ,   Revelation 5:1;   Revelation 7:1;   Revelation 9:14;   Revelation 14:8;   Revelation 21:11 .

As concerns the method of interpretation and the attitude towards the OT thus disclosed, there is a wide difference among the speakers and writers of the NT. It is an indirect but valuable testimony to the historical accuracy of the Synoptic Gospels that they almost uniformly ascribe to Jesus a method of interpretation quite different from that which they themselves employ. Jesus quotes the OT almost exclusively for its moral and religious teaching, rather than for any predicative element in it, and interprets alike with insight and with sobriety the passages which He quotes. The author of the First Gospel, on the other hand, quotes the OT mainly for specific predictions which he conceives it to contain, and controls his interpretation of the passages quoted rather by the proposition which he wishes to sustain, than by the actual sense of the original. The one quotation which is common to the first three Gospels, and not included in the teaching of Jesus, has the same general character ( Mark 1:3 and parallels). In general it may be said of the other NT writers that they stand in this respect between Jesus and Matthew, less uniformly sober and discerning in their interpretation of the OT than Jesus, yet in many instances approaching much nearer to His method than Matthew commonly does. The Apocalypse, while constantly showing the literary influence of the OT, contains no explicit or argumentative quotation from it.

Ernest D. Burton.

Bridgeway Bible Dictionary [3]

New Testament writers frequently quote the Old Testament, and in doing so show their acceptance of the Old Testament as God’s authoritative Word (see Inspiration ). But in some cases the New Testament quotations differ from the Old Testament originals. In others the meanings given to the quotations in the New Testament differ from those of the Old Testament originals.

Different wording in Old and New Testaments

Since the Old Testament was written in Hebrew and the New Testament in Greek, any quotation of the Old Testament in the New requires translation. This naturally brings a change in wording. Sometimes the New Testament writers made their own translations. Usually, however, they used the existing translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint (abbreviated LXX), which Jewish scholars had made in the third and second centuries of the era before Christ (see Septuagint ).

Just as a preacher today may use an alternative translation to give the desired emphasis, so did the New Testament writers. They used the translation that suited their purposes (cf.  Isaiah 28:16 with  Romans 10:11).

In many cases, again like preachers today, the New Testament writers made their quotations from memory. As a result their quotations do not follow the Old Testament originals word for word. They were concerned with the meaning rather than the wording of the passages they quoted (cf.  Romans 11:8 with  Deuteronomy 29:4;  Isaiah 29:10). In other cases, however, they were concerned with the wording rather than the meaning. They may even have based a teaching on the meaning of a particular word (cf.  Galatians 3:16 with  Genesis 12:7).

Writers and preachers, ancient and modern, often quote passages from well known writings merely to give liveliness or colour to their writings. The New Testament writers at times did likewise. They were so familiar with the Old Testament that they quoted its words naturally. They may not have intended any connection between the Old and New Testament contexts (cf.  2 Corinthians 6:16-17 with  Exodus 29:45;  Isaiah 52:11;  2 Samuel 7:14).

The nature of fulfilment

Certain passages of the Old Testament are quoted repeatedly in the New Testament. This suggests that there was in New Testament times a collection, either oral or written, of selected Old Testament passages in common use among the churches. For example,  Psalms 118:22-23,  Isaiah 8:14 and  Isaiah 28:16 are used in such passages as  Matthew 21:42,  Acts 4:10-12,  1 Peter 2:1-10,  Romans 9:33 and  Romans 10:11. Similarly  Zechariah 12:10-14 is found in  Matthew 24:30,  John 19:37 and  Revelation 1:7. Psalms 69 is quoted in  Matthew 27:34,  John 2:17,  John 15:25,  Acts 1:20,  Romans 11:9-10 and  Romans 15:3.

These selections of Scripture are all used in relation to Jesus Christ, for the New Testament writers understood them as having their fulfilment in him. The primary meaning of that fulfilment was not just that Old Testament predictions had now come true, but that the Old Testament work had now been completed. The Old Testament was written not merely to predict New Testament events, but to record what God was doing in working out his purposes. The New Testament writers saw that in Christ God had brought that work to completion, to fulfilment, to finality.

God was the controller of history. His repetitive activity in judgment and salvation, bondage and deliverance, reached its climax in one great act of judgment and salvation at Golgotha. There God gave absolute deliverance to those who were in hopeless bondage. He completed the pattern that he had been working out for all people through the history of Israel. In Christ he brought his plans to fulfilment ( Exodus 6:6-8;  Isaiah 11:15-16;  Hosea 2:14-15;  1 Corinthians 5:7;  1 Corinthians 10:1-13;  Revelation 5:9;  Revelation 15:3).

Israel’s Old Testament history was the record of the ongoing revelation of God. It was not just a record of events, but a record of what God was doing. What the Old Testament writers saw, though having meaning in its own day, developed greater significance through the New Testament events. Christians now saw Jesus as the goal towards which all God’s Old Testament activity had been moving. They saw Jesus as the centre of all history. The old era prepared the way for him; the new results from him.

Jesus and the Old Testament

Now that God’s purposes had been fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the New Testament writers discovered in the Old Testament writings greater truths than the original writers were aware of ( 1 Peter 1:10-12). While accepting the original meaning of the writings, the New Testament writers expanded that meaning because of the fuller revelation that had come through Jesus Christ.

Promises may have already been fulfilled in the Old Testament, but now they had a greater fulfilment in the New ( Deuteronomy 12:9;  Deuteronomy 25:19;  Joshua 21:45;  Hebrews 4:1-10). Psalms, prophecies and songs may have been written at first concerning some Old Testament person or event, but now they had new meaning because people saw them as foreshadowings of Christ (cf. quotations from Psalms 2 in  Acts 4:25-26;  Acts 13:33; cf. quotations from Psalms 45 in  Hebrews 1:8-9; cf. quotations from Psalms 69 in  John 2:17;  John 15:25;  John 19:28-30;  Acts 1:20; cf. quotation of  Isaiah 7:14 in  Matthew 1:23).

The New Testament writers saw Jesus the Messiah as the fulfilment of all God’s purposes for Israel. He was the great descendant of Abraham through whom Israel received its supreme glory and through whom people of all nations are blessed ( Genesis 12:1-3;  Galatians 3:16).

Since Jesus was the one to whom the entire Old Testament pointed, he fulfilled the Old Testament ( Matthew 4:14-16;  Matthew 8:17;  Matthew 12:17-21). The New Testament writers were so convinced of this that they spoke of a ‘fulfilment’ even when they saw only a striking similarity between Old and New Testament events. For example, as Israel came out of Egypt, so did Jesus ( Hosea 11:1;  Matthew 2:15). As there was loud weeping when the Babylonians took the Israelites captive, so was there when Herod slaughtered the Jewish babies ( Jeremiah 31:15;  Matthew 2:17-18).

Although Israel repeatedly failed and suffered God’s punishment, the people still hoped for a glorious future. Jesus Christ, the true fulfilment of Israel, not only suffered for his people’s sins, but he completed perfectly what Israel had failed to do (cf.  Isaiah 53:4 with  Matthew 8:17; cf.  Isaiah 42:1-4 with  Matthew 12:18-21). The New Testament fulfils the Old in that Jesus Christ became all that Israel should have been but never was (cf.  Isaiah 53:5-6 with  1 Peter 2:24-25; cf.  Zechariah 9:9-11 with  Matthew 21:5;  Matthew 26:28-29; see Servant Of The Lord ).

Like Israel in general, David’s kingdom in particular failed to fulfil God’s purposes. David’s psalms reflect both his sorrow over Israel’s failures and his expectation of better things to come. He looked for the day when God’s people would enjoy his blessings in a kingdom of righteousness. The ideals that David longed for found their fulfilment in David’s great descendant, Jesus the Messiah (cf.  Psalms 40:6-8 with  Hebrews 10:5-9; cf.  Psalms 110:1 with  Matthew 22:44). (For discussion on the use of David’s psalms in the New Testament see PSALMS, BOOK OF, sub-heading ‘Interpreting the Psalms’.)

Morrish Bible Dictionary [4]

The quotations from the Old Testament in the New are important as proving incontestably that God is the author of the whole. It is not simply that Moses or David said this or that — though the quotations prove that Moses was the writer of the Pentateuch — but they are introduced by such words as "God commanded,"  Matthew 15:4; "The Holy Ghost saith,"  Hebrews 3:7; "David himself said by the Holy Ghost,"  Mark 12:36; "Spake the Holy Ghost by Esaias the prophet,"  Acts 28:25 . Then the whole is spoken of as 'the scriptures,' which are all inspired by God. Whatever therefore is inscribed with 'It is written' has theauthority of God Himself.

The quotations from the prophets are introduced in various ways.

1. "In order (ἵνα) that it might be fulfilled."   Matthew 1:22 , etc. The event happens that that prophecy should be fulfilled.

2. "So that (ὅπως)it might be fulfilled."  Matthew 2:23 , etc. Such events fall within the scope of the prophecy, and may also apply at other times.

3. "Then (τότε) was fulfilled."   Matthew 2:17 , etc. The prophecy applied to that event, without its being the purpose of the prophecy.

4. "Was fulfilled."  Mark 15:28 . "This day is fulfilled."  Luke 4:21 . The prophecy was then and there fulfilled.

The citations also illustrate how the scriptures, both the Old and the New Testaments, may be applied, as when the Lord quoted from Deuteronomy in repelling the temptations of Satan. See also the different applications of  Habakkuk 2:4 . — In  Romans 1:17 , it is a question of righteousness: "the just shall live by faith." In   Galatians 3:11 , it is in contrast to the law: "the just shall live by faith. " And in  Hebrews 10:38 , it is in contrast to drawing back: "the just shall live by faith."

The quotations are from Moses, the Psalms, and the Prophets. In those days the books were not divided into chapters and verses as now, which accounts for various expressions. As in  Mark 2:26 , a quotation is from '[the section] of Abiathar the high priest.'  1 Samuel 21:1-6 . In  Luke 20:37 , 'Moses showed in [the section on] the bush.'  Exodus 3 . In  Romans 11:2 , 'the scripture says in [the history of] Elias.'  1 Kings 17 -   1 Kings 19 . This may also account for  Matthew 27:9,10 , where the quotation is said to be from Jeremiah — that prophet being anciently the first in the Book of the Prophets, his name may have been used as a sort of heading.

Most of the quotations are from the Septuagint (LXX), doubtless because it was then better known than the Hebrew, in the same way that the A.V. is now constantly quoted, even where it is not an exact translation. Some quotations are not literally from the Hebrew or the LXX, the Holy Spirit in alluding to them gives them a fulness and power beyond the revelation of the Old Testament.*

* In "The New Testament Handbook" the quotations as they stand in the Hebrew (shown by the A.V.) and in the LXX (by an English translation) are given in full. (G. Morrish, Paternoster Square.) In Horne's "Introduction" the Hebrew and Greek text are also given.

Easton's Bible Dictionary [5]

 Luke 20:37 Exodus 3:6 Mark 2:26 1 Samuel 21:1-6 Romans 11:2

In general, the New Testament writers quote from the Septuagint (q.v.) version of the Old Testament, as it was then in common use among the Jews. But it is noticeable that these quotations are not made in any uniform manner. Sometimes, e.g., the quotation does not agree literally either with the LXX. or the Hebrew text. This occurs in about one hundred instances. Sometimes the LXX. is literally quoted (in about ninety instances), and sometimes it is corrected or altered in the quotations (in over eighty instances).

Quotations are sometimes made also directly from the Hebrew text ( Matthew 4:15,16;  John 19:37;  1 Corinthians 15:54 ). Besides the quotations made directly, there are found numberless allusions, more or less distinct, showing that the minds of the New Testament writers were filled with the expressions and ideas as well as historical facts recorded in the Old.

There are in all two hundred and eighty-three direct quotations from the Old Testament in the New, but not one clear and certain case of quotation from the Apocrypha (q.v.).

Besides quotations in the New from the Old Testament, there are in Paul's writings three quotations from certain Greek poets,  Acts 17:28;  1 Corinthians 15:33;  Titus 1:12 . These quotations are memorials of his early classical education.

References

  1. ↑ Quotations from Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament
  2. ↑ Quotations from Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible
  3. ↑ Quotations from Bridgeway Bible Dictionary
  4. ↑ Quotations from Morrish Bible Dictionary
  5. ↑ Quotations from Easton's Bible Dictionary
Retrieved from "http://wiki.bibleportal.com/index.php?title=Quotations&oldid=316008"