Difference between revisions of "Procurator"

<p> "governor"; Greek '''''Heegemoon''''' in New Testament, more strictly '''''Epitropos''''' . Used of Pontius Pilate, Felix, and [[Festus]] (Matthew 27; Acts 23; 24; &nbsp;Acts 26:30). (See [[Pontius]] PILATE.) [[Legates]] governed the imperial provinces, with term of office subject to the emperor's will. They had six lictors, the military dress and sword (Dion Cass. 53:13). Procurators administered for the emperor's treasury ( '''''Fiscus''''' ) the revenues. In smaller provinces as Judaea, attached to larger as Syria, the procurator had the judicial junctions as "president," subordinate to the chief president over Syria. </p> <p> [[Caesarea]] was the head quarters of the procurator of Judaea (&nbsp;Acts 23:23), where he had his judgment seat (&nbsp;Acts 25:6) in the audience chamber (&nbsp;Acts 25:23), assisted by a council (&nbsp;Acts 25:12) whom he cousulted in difficult cases. He had a bodyguard of soldiers (&nbsp;Matthew 27:27). He visited [[Jerusalem]] at the great feasts, when riots were frequent, and resided in Herod's palace, where was the '''''Proetorium''''' ("judgment hall," &nbsp;John 19:9; "common hall," &nbsp;Matthew 27:27; &nbsp;Acts 23:35). </p>

<p> This word does not occur in the [[Vulgate]] or in the A.V., nor is its accurate Greek equivalent, '''''Ἐπίτροπος''''' (though used by Philo, ''Leg. [[Ad]] Ceiium,'' and by Josephus. ''Ant.'' 20:6, 2, 8, 5; comp. 20:5,; his office is called '''''Ἐπιτροπή''''' ''[Ibid.'' 20:5, 1]), found in this sense in the Greek Testament, where it is represented by the vaguer term '''''Ἡγεμών''''' , rendered by our translators "governor" (&nbsp;Luke 2:2; &nbsp;Matthew 27:2; &nbsp;Matthew 28:14, etc.). '''''῾Ηγεμών''''' also occurs in a perfectly general sense (&nbsp;Matthew 10:18; &nbsp;1 Peter 2:14). In &nbsp;Matthew 2:6 it is rendered "prince," and corresponds to the [[Hebrew]] '''''אִלּוּ''''' . "Governor" in the A.V. is also used for '''''Ἐθνάρχης''''' (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:32). '''''Διοικητής''''' is another Greek term for procurator. The word '''''Ἡγεμών''''' , or procurator, is generally applied, both in the original and in our version, to the procurators of Judaea, Pontius Pilate (Matthew 27 etc.), Felix (Acts 23), and Festus (&nbsp;Acts 26:30); but it is also used of [[Cyrenius]] (Quirinus), who held the more responsible and distinguished office ''Of Praeses'' or ''Leqatus Caesaris'' over the province of Syria (&nbsp;Luke 2:2). Procurators were chiefly despatched to the imperial, and not to the senatorial provinces. (See [[Province]]). </p> <p> The revenues of the latter flowed into the merarium, or exchequer, while those of the former belonged to the fiscus, or privy purse. The ''Procuratore Caesoris'' were specially intrusted with the interests of the fiscus, and therefore managed the various taxes and imposts, performing similar duties to those exercised by the quaestors in the provinces administered by the senate. Procurators were, however, sometimes sent as well as quaestors to the senatorial provinces (Tacit. Ann. 13:1: [[Dio]] Cass. 53:15); but these were doubtless offices of less dignity, though bearing the same title. Procurator is also used for steward (Plautus, Pseud. 2, 2, 14), attorney (Ulpian, Dig. 3, 3), regent (Cesar, B. C. 3, 112), etc. They were selected from among men who had been consuls or praetors, and sometimes from the inferior senators (Dio Cass. 53:13-15). They were attended by six lictors, used the military dress, and wore the sword (ibid. 13). No quaestor came into the emperor's provinces, but the property and revenues of the imperial treasury were administered to the rationales, procucratores, and actores of the emperor, who were chosen from among his freedmen, or from among the knights (Tacit. Hist. v, 9; Dio Cass. 53:15). </p> <p> Sometimes the procurators were invested with the dignity of legati, or procuratores cum jure gladii ( '''''Τῇ''''' '''''Ἐπὶ''''' '''''Πᾶσιν''''' '''''Ἐξουσίᾷ''''' '','' Josephus, ''War,'' ii, 8, 1), and this was the case with the procurators of Judaea, which had been made a sub-province of Syria ( '''''Προσθήκη''''' '''''Τῆς''''' '''''Συρίας''''' ; id. ''Ant.'' 13:1, 1) since the deposition of the ethnarch Archelaus, A.D. 6. There is therefore no inaccuracy in the use of '''''Ἡγεμών''''' in the New Test., since we find from inscriptions that preeses and procurator were often interchangeable (Gruter, p. 493, b). In one respect, indeed, the '''''Ἡγεμόνες''''' were even more powerful than the proconsuls themselves ( '''''Ἀνθύπατοι''''' ) '';'' for, being regarded as the immediate emissaries and representatives of the Caesar, by whom they were appointed to an indefinite tenure of office (Dio Cass. 53:13-15), they had the power of inflicting capital punishment at their own discretion (&nbsp;John 19:10; Josephus, ''War,'' ii, 8, 1). They also governed the province when the proconsul was dead or absent, "vice proconsilium," as we see from many inscriptions (Murat. p. 907, 4, etc.). In a turbulent and seditious province like Judaea, their most frequent functions were of a military or judicial character. The first procurator was Coponius, who was sent out with Quirinus to take a census of the property of the [[Jews]] and to confiscate that of [[Archelaus]] (Josephus, ''Ant.'' 18:1, 1). His successor was [[Marcus]] Ambivitus, then Annius Rufus, in whose time the emperor Augustus died. [[Tiberius]] sent [[Valerius]] Gratus. who was procurator for eleven years, and was succeeded by Pontius Pilate ( ''Ibid.'' 2, 2), who i called by [[Josephus]] (ibid. 3, 1) '''''Ἡγεμών''''' , as he is in the New Test. He was subject to the governor ( ''Praeses'' ) of Syria, for the council of the [[Samaritans]] denounced Pilate to Vitellitus, who sent him to Rome and put one of his own friends, Marcellus, in his place ( ''Ibid.'' 4, 2). The headquarters of the procurator were at Cesarea (Josephus, ''War,'' ii, 9, 2; &nbsp;Acts 23:23), where he had a judgment-seat (25:6) in the audience-chamber (&nbsp;Acts 23:23), and was assisted by a council (&nbsp;Acts 23:12) whom he consulted in cases of difficulty, the ''Assessores'' (Suieton. ''Gelb.'' 14), or ''; '''''Ἡγεμόνες''''' ,'' who are mentioned by Josephus (War, ii, 16, 1) as having been consulted by Cestius, the governor of Syria, when certain charges were made against Florus, the procurator of Judaea. More important cases were laid before the emperor (&nbsp;Acts 25:12; comp. Josephus, Ant. 20:6, 2). The procurator, as the representative of the emperor, had the power of life and death over his subjects (Dio Cass. 53:14; &nbsp;Matthew 27:26),which was denied to the proconsul. In the New Test. we see the procurator only in his judicial capacity. Thus Christ is brought before Pontius Pilate as a political offender (&nbsp;Matthew 27:2; &nbsp;Matthew 27:11), and the accusation is heard by the procurator, who is seated on the judgmentseat (&nbsp;Matthew 27:19). Felix heard St. Paul's accusation and defence from the judgment-seat at Caesarea (Acts 24), which was in the open air in the great stadium (Josephus, War, 2, 9, 2), and St. Paul calls him "judge" (&nbsp;Acts 24:10), as if this term described his chief functions. The procurator ( '''''Ἡγεμών''''' ) is again alluded to in his judicial capacity in &nbsp;1 Peter 2:14. </p> <p> He was attended by a cohort as body-guard (&nbsp;Matthew 27:27), and apparently went up to Jerusalem at the time of the high festivals, and there resided in the palace of Herod (Josephus, War. ii, 14, 3; Philo, De Leg. ad Caiunz, '''''§''''' 37, ii, 589, ed. Mang.), in which was the pretoriium, or "judgment-hall," as it is rendered in the A.V. (&nbsp;Matthew 27:27; &nbsp;Mark 15:16; comp. &nbsp;Acts 23:35). Sometimes, it appears, Jerusalem was made his winter quarters (Josephus, ''Ant.'' 18:3, 1). The high- priest was appointed and removed at the will of the procurator ( ''Ibid.'' 2, 2). Of the oppression and extortion practiced by one of these officers, Gessius Florus, which resulted in open rebellion, we have an account in Josephus ( ''Ant.'' 20:I, 1; ''War,'' ii, 14, 2). The same laws held both for the governors of the imperial and senatorial provinces, that they could not raise a levy or exact more than an appointed sum of money from their subjects, and that when their successors came they were to return to Rome within three months (Dio Cass. 53:15). The pomp and dignity of the procurators may be inferred from the narrative of these trials, and from the titles of "most excellent" and "most noble" ( '''''Κράτιστε''''' ), applied to them by such different lips as those of Claudius Lysias, Tertullian, and St. Paul; yet they were usually chosen from no higher rank than that of the equites, or even the freedmen of the emperor; and the "most noble Felix," in particular, was a mere manumitted slave (Tacit. ''Hist.'' 5, 9; ''Ann.'' 12:54; Sueton. ''Claud.'' 28). It is satisfactory to find that even in the minutest details the glimpses of their position afforded to us by the New Test. are corroborated by the statements of heathen writers. The violence (&nbsp;Luke 13:1), the venality (&nbsp;Acts 24:26), the insolence (&nbsp;John 19:22), and the gross injustice (&nbsp;Acts 24:27), which we see exemplified in their conduct towards our Lord and his apostles, are amply illustrated by contemporary historians (Josephus, ''Ant.'' 18:3, 1; ''War,'' ii, 9; Cicero, ''In Veterem,'' passim); and they weighed so heavily on the mind of the emperor [[Trajan]] that he called the extortions of provincial governors "the spleen of the empire" (comp. Aurel. Vict. Epist. 42). [[Vespasian]] (mnore suo) took a more humorous view of the matter, and said that the procurators were like sponges (Sueton. Vesp. 16). The presence of the wives of Pilate (&nbsp;Matthew 27:19) and Felix (&nbsp;Acts 24:24) reminds us of the famous debate on the proposition of Caecina to forbid the proconsuls and procurators to be accompanied by their wives (Tacit. Ann. 3, 33, 34). This had been the old and perhaps the wise regulation of earlier days, since the cruelty, ambition, and luxury of these ladies were often more formidable to the provincials than those of the governors themselves. But the rule had often been violated, and had of late been deliberately abandoned. We see, too, in the ready handing-over of the prisoner from one authority to another ( '''''Ἀνέπεμψεν''''' , remisit, &nbsp;Luke 23:7; &nbsp;Acts 26:32), some trace of that salutary dread of being denounced after their term of office was over, which alone acted as a check upon the lawlessness of even the most unscrupulous governors. Even the mention made of things at first sight so trivial as the tribunal ( '''''Βῆμα''''' ), and the tessellated pavement ( '''''Λιθόστρωτον''''' ) on which it was elevated, derives an interest and importance from the fact that they were conventional symbols of wealth and dignity, and that [[Julius]] [[Caesar]] thought it worth while to carry one about with him from place to place (Sueton. ''Jul. C.'' 46). See Sibranda, ''De Statu Judaeoe Provinc.'' (Franc. 1698; also in Iken, ''Thes. Nov.'' ii, 529); Deyling, ''Observat.'' ii, 429; Grossmann, ''De Procuratore'' (Lips. 1823); Langen, in the ''Theol. Quartalschr.'' (1862) iii; ''Bible Educator,'' 3, 180. (See [[Governor]]). </p>

<p> ''''' prok´ū́ ''''' - ''''' rā ''''' - ''''' tẽr ''''' ( ἐπίτροπος , <i> ''''' epı́tropos ''''' </i> ): This word signified in a general sense a steward or bailiff of a private estate, or a financial agent with power of attorney, and the development of the special usage of the word to denote an imperial functionary or official is characteristic of the origin of many departments of administration under the Roman Empire which sprang from the emperor's household. At the time of Augustus, when the domestic quality of these offices had not been entirely lost, the procurators were mostly imperial freedmen. But after the systematic organization of the administration in the 2nd century, the title of procurator was reserved for functionaries of the equestrian class. In fact, the term is so intimately connected with the sphere of official activity of the Roman knights that the expressions "procuratorial career" and "equestrian career" are used synonymously (compare Hirschfeld, <i> Die kaiserlichen Verwaltungsbeamten bib auf [[Diocletian]] </i> , 410-65). </p> <p> During the last century of the Republic, the class of knights (equites) embraced in general all citizens of wealth who were not magistrates or members of the senate. The Roscian Law (67 BC) established 400,000 sesterces (about ,000 (in 1915), or 3,600 British pounds (in 1915)) as the minimum census rating for membership in this class. The gold ring, tunic with narrow purple border, and privilege of sitting in the first 14 rows at theater were the tokens of knighthood. Augustus added to these the public horse which was conferred henceforth by the emperor and recalled the original military significance of the order. From the time of Augustus the first three <i> decuriae </i> of jurors ( <i> judices </i> ), each containing 1,000 persons, were filled with knights. </p> <p> Under the [[Republic]] the influence of the equestrian class was chiefly exerted in the financial transactions of the companies which farmed the variable revenues. The importance of the publicani was greatly reduced under the Empire, but the emperors recompensed the knights for this loss of opportunity by entrusting them with a great variety of administrative functions. Military service as prefect or tribune was the preliminary step in the official equestrian career. The highest positions held by members of the equestrian class were called prefectures, and included the prefecture of the guard, of Egypt, of the grain-supply, of the watchmen in Rome, and of the fleet. But between these extremes the title procurator was applied generally to the functionaries whose positions were of imperial origin. </p> <p> The administration of the <i> fiscus </i> or imperial treasury at Rome and of the finances in the imperial provinces, as well as the collection of fiscal revenues in the senatorial provinces, was in the hands of procurators. They occupied many positions which, on account of their intimate relationship with the person of the monarch, could be safely entrusted only to those whose limited prestige precluded inordinate ambition (Friedlaender, <i> Sittengeschichte Roms </i> 7th edition, Part I, 132-43). Finally, several provinces, where the conditions were unfavorable to the introduction of the ordinary administrative system and Roman public law, were governed as imperial domains by officials of the equestrian class as the emperor's representatives. In Egypt the title prefect ( <i> praefectus </i> ) was employed permanently as the appellation of the viceroy, and while the same term may have been used originally to denote the governors of this class generally, when their military outweighed their civil functions, yet the designation procurator became at an early date the term of common usage to designate them (Hirschfeld, 382). </p> <p> Mauretania, Rhaetia, Noricum, Thrace, Cappadocia, Judea and some smaller districts were all, for a time at least, governed by procurators (Tacitus, <i> History </i> i. 11; Dio [[Cassius]] lvii. 17). </p> <p> The question concerning the original title of the Roman governors of Judea has arisen because the New [[Testament]] employs the word <i> ''''' hēgemṓn ''''' </i> (&nbsp; Matthew 27:2 , &nbsp;Matthew 27:11 , &nbsp;Matthew 27:14 , &nbsp;Matthew 27:15 , &nbsp;Matthew 27:21 , &nbsp;Matthew 27:27; &nbsp;Matthew 28:14; &nbsp;Luke 3:1; &nbsp;Luke 20:20; &nbsp;Acts 23:24; &nbsp;Acts 24:1; &nbsp;Acts 26:30 ), which corresponds with the Latin term, <i> praeses </i> , which might be considered synonymous with either procurator or <i> praefectus </i> (Hirschfeld, 384). There is no inscriptional evidence to establish the nomenclature of the rulers of [[Palestine]] before the time of Vespasian, and Hirschfeld is of the opinion that a certain passage in Tacitus ( <i> Ann. </i> xv. 44) where Pilate is called <i> procurator </i> is not sufficient proof in view of this writer's carelessness in details of this sort. Josephus ( <i> Ant. </i> , XX, i, 2), however, employs <i> ''''' epitropos ''''' </i> ( <i> procurator </i> ) for the time of Claudius, and it is convenient to follow common usage and assume that this title was current from the first. </p> <p> It was evidently the intention of Augustus that membership in the equestrian class should be a necessary qualification for the procurators who were appointed to govern provinces. But Claudius appointed a freedman, Antonius Felix, brother of the famous minister of finance, Pallas, as procurator of Judea (Suetonius, <i> Claudius </i> xxviii; Tacitus, <i> History </i> v. 9). This remained, however, an isolated instance in the annals of Palestine (Hirschfeld, 380), and it is probable, moreover, that Felix was raised to equestrian rank before the governorship was conferred upon him. </p> <p> The following list of the procurators of Judea is based on Marquardt ( <i> Romische Staatsverwaltung </i> , I, 409,412) and Schurer ( <i> Geschichte des judischen Volkes4 </i> , I, 485-585): </p> <p> [[Coponius]] (6 [[Ad]] to circa 10 AD) </p> <p> M. Ambibulus (circa 10-13) </p> <p> Annius [[Rufus]] (circa 13-15) </p> <p> Valerius [[Gratus]] (circa 15-26) </p> <p> Pontius Pilatus (26-35) </p> <p> [[Marcellus]] (probably 35-38) </p> <p> Maryllus (38-44) </p> <p> C. Cuspins Fadus (44-46) </p> <p> Tiberius [[Alexander]] (46-48) </p> <p> [[Ventidius]] [[Cumanus]] (48-52) </p> <p> M. Antonius Felix (52-60 or 61) </p> Note <p> Marquardt gives his name as Claudius Felix, supposing that he was a freedman of Claudius and therefore took his <i> nomen </i> (Suetonius, <i> Claudius </i> xxviii; Victor, <i> epitome </i> iv, 8); but there is stronger evidence in support of the belief that Felix was a freedman of Antonia, Claudius' mother, like his brother [[Pallas]] (Tacitus, <i> Annals </i> xii. 54; Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xviii , vi, 4; XX, vii, 1,2; XX, viii, 9; <i> Bj </i> , II, xii, 8), and accordingly had received the <i> praenomen </i> and <i> nomen </i> of Antonia's father (Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xviii , vi, 6). </p> <p> Portius Festus (61) </p> <p> [[Albinus]] (62-64) </p> <p> Gessius [[Florus]] (65-66) </p> <p> See, further, Governor . </p>