Difference between revisions of "Palestine"

<p> Pal'estine. (land of strangers). These two forms, [Palesti'na and Pal'estine], occur in the Authorized Version, but four times in all, always in poetical passages; the first in Exodus 15:14 and Isaiah 14:29, the second in Joel 3:4. In each case, the Hebrew is Pelesheth, a word found, besides the above, only in Psalms 60:8; Psalms 83:7; Psalms 87:4 and Psalms 108:9. In all of which, our translators have rendered as "Philistia" or "Philistines." Palestine, in the Authorized Version, really means nothing, but Philistia. The original Hebrew word, Pelesheth, to the Hebrews signified merely the long and broad strip of maritime plain inhabited by their encroaching neighbors; nor does it appear that, at first, it signified more to the Greeks. </p> <p> As lying next the sea, and as being also the high road from Egypt to [[Phoenicia]] and the richer regions, take note of it, but the Philistine plain became sooner known to the western world than the country farther inland, and was called by them, Syria [[Palestina]] (Philistine Syria). From thence, it was gradually extended to the country farther inland, till in the Roman and later Greek authors, both heathen sad Christian, it became the usual appellation for the whole country of the Jews, both west and east of Jordan. The word is now so commonly employed, in our more familiar language, to destinate the whole country of Israel that, although biblically a misnomer, it has been chosen here as the most convenient heading under which to give a general description of The Holy Land, embracing those points which have not been treated under the separate headings of cities or tribes. </p> <p> This description will most conveniently divide itself Into three sections: - I. The [[Names]] applied to the country of Israel in the Bible and elsewhere. II. The Land; its situation, aspect, climb, physical characteristics in connection with its history, its structure, botany and natural history. III. The History of the country is so fully given, under its various headings throughout the work, that it is unnecessary to recapitulate it here. </p> <p> I. The Names. - Palestine, then, is designated in the Bible by more than one name. During the patriarchal period, the conquest and the age of the Judges, and also where those early periods are referred to in the later literature (as in) Psalms 105:11, it is spoken of as "Canaan", or more frequently, "the land of Canaan", meaning thereby, the country west of the Jordan, as opposed to "the land of Gilead", on the east. </p> <p> During the monarchy, the name usually, though not frequently, employed is "the land of Israel". 1 Samuel 13:19. </p> <p> Between the captivity and the time of our Lord, the name "Judea" had extended itself, from the southern portion, to the whole of the country, and even that beyond the Jordan. Matthew 19:1; Mark 10:1. </p> <p> The Roman division of the country hardly coincided with the biblical one, and it does not appear that the Romans had any distinct name for that which we understand by Palestine. </p> <p> Soon after the Christian era, we find the name "Palestina" in possession of the country. </p> <p> The name most frequently used throughout the middle ages, and down to our own time, is Terra Sancta - The Holy Land. </p> <p> II. The Land. - The Holy Land is not, in size or physical characteristics, proportioned to its moral and historical position as the theatre of the most momentous events in the world's history. It is but a strip of country about the size of Wales, less than 140 miles in length and barely 40 miles in average breadth, on the very frontier of the East, hemmed in between the Mediterranean Sea, on the one hand, and the enormous trench of the Jordan valley, on the other, by which it is effectually cut off from the mainland of Asia behind it. On the north, it is shut in by the high ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and by the chasm of the Litany. On the south, it is no less enclosed by the arid and inhospitable deserts of the upper pert of the peninsula of Sinai. </p> <p> Its position. - Its position on the map of the world - as the world was when the Holy Land first made its appearance in history - is a remarkable one. </p> <p> (a) It was on the very outpost - and the extremist western edge of the East. On the shore of the Mediterranean it stands, as if it had advanced as far as possible toward the west, separated therefrom by that which, when the time arrived, proved to be no barrier, but the readiest medium of communication: the wide waters of the "great sea." Thus, it was open to all the gradual influences of the rising communities of the West, while it was saved from the retrogression and decrepitude, which have ultimately been the doom of all purely eastern states whose connections were limited to the East only. </p> <p> (b) There was, however, one channel, and but one, by which it could reach and be reached by the great Oriental empires. The rivals road by which the two great rivals of the ancient world could approach one another - by which alone, Egypt could get to [[Assyria]] and Assyria to lay along the broad flat strip of coast which formed the maritime portion of the Holy Land, and thence, by the plain of the Lebanon to the Euphrates. </p> <p> (c) After this, the Holy Land became, (like the [[Netherlands]] in Europe), the convenient arena on which, in successive ages, the hostile powers who contended for the empire of the East fought their battles. </p> <p> [[Physical]] features. - Palestine is essentially a mountainous country. Not that if contains independent mountain chains, as in Greece, for example, but that every part of the highland is in greater or less undulation. But it is not only a mountainous country. The mass of hills which occupies the centre of the country is bordered or framed on both sides, east and west, by a broad belt of Shefelah, or lowland, sunk deep below its own level. The slopes or cliffs, which form, as if it were, the retaining walls of this depression, are furrowed and cleft by the torrent beds, which discharge the waters of the hills, and form the means of communication between the upper and lower level. </p> <p> On the west, this Shefelah, or lowland, interposes between the mountains and the sea, and is the plain of Philistia and of Sharon. On the east, it is the broad bottom of the Jordan valley, deep down in which rushed the one river of Palestine to its grave in, the Dead Sea. Such is the first general impression of the physiognomy of the land. It is a physiognomy compounded of the three main features already named - the plains, the highland hills, and the torrent beds features, which are marked in the words of its earliest describers, Numbers 13:29; Joshua 11:16; Joshua 12:8, and which must be comprehended by every one who wishes to understand the countrym and the intimate connection existing between its structure and its history. </p> <p> About halfway up the coast, the maritime plain is suddenly interrupted by a long ridge thrown out from the central mass, rising considerably to shove up the general level, and terminating in a bold promontory on the very edge of the Mediterranean. This ridge is Mount Carmel. On its upper side, the plain, as if to compensate for its temporary displacement, invades the centre of the country, and forms an undulating hollow right across it from the Mediterranean to the Jordan valley. </p> <p> This central Shefelah, or lowland, which divides, with its broad depression, the mountains of Ephraim from the mountains of Galilee, is the plain of Esdraelon or Jezreel: the great battle-field of Palestine. North of Carmel, the Shefelah, or lowland resumes its position by the seaside till it is again interrupted, and finally put an end to, by the northern mountains, which push their way out of the sea, ending in the white promontory of the Ras Nakhura. </p> <p> Above this is the ancient Phoenicia. The country, thus roughly portrayed, is, to all intents and purposes, the whole land of israel. The northern portion is Galilee; the centre is Samaria; and the south is Judea. This is the land of Canaan, which was bestowed on Abraham, - the covenanted home of his descendants. </p> <p> The highland district, surrounded and intersected by its broad Shefelah, or lowland plains, preserves, from north to south, a remarkably even and horizontal profile. Its average height may betaken as 1600 to 1800 feet above the Mediterranean. It can hardly be denominated a plateau; yet, so evenly is the general level preserved and so thickly do the hills stand behind and between one another, that, when seen from the coast, or the western part of the maritime plain, it has quite the appearance of a wall. This general monotony of profile is however, relieved at intervals, by certain centers of elevation. </p> <p> Between these elevated points runs the watershed of the country, sending off on either hand - to the Jordan valley on the east, and the Mediterranean on the west - the long, tortuous arms of ifs many torrent beds. The valleys, on the two sides of the watershed, differ considerably in character. Those on the east are extremely steep and rugged, while the western valleys are more gradual in their slope. </p> <p> Fertility. - When the highlands of the country are more closely examined, a considerable difference will be found to exist in the natural condition and appearance of their different portions. The south, as being nearer the arid desert and farther removed from the drainage of the mountains, is drier and less productive than the north. The tract below Hebron, which forms the link between the hills of Judah and the desert, was known to the ancient Hebrews by a term originally derived from its dryness - Negeb. This was the south country. </p> <p> As the traveller advances north of this tract, there is an improvement; but perhaps no country equally cultivated is more monotonous, bare or uninviting in its aspect than a great part of the highlands of Judah and Benjamin, during the larger portion of the year. The spring covers even those bald gray rocks with verdure and color, and fills the ravines with torrents of rushing water; but in summer and autumn, the look of the country from Hebron up to Bethel is very dreary and desolate. At Jerusalem, this reaches its climax. </p> <p> To the west and northwest of the highlands, where the sea-breezes are felt, there is considerably more vegetation. Hitherto, we have spoken of the central and northern portions of Judea. Its eastern portion - a tract some nine or ten miles in width by about thirty-five miles in length, which intervenes between the centre and the abrupt descent to the Dead Sea - is far more wild and desolate, and that, not for a portion of the year only, but throughout it. This must have been always what it is now - an uninhabited desert, because uninhabitable. </p> <p> No descriptive sketch of this part of the country can be complete which does not allude to the caverns, characteristic of all limestone districts, but here, existing in astonishing numbers. Every hill and ravine is pierced with them, some very large and of curious formation - perhaps partly natural, partly artificial - others mere grottos. Many of them are connected with most important, and interesting events of the ancient history of the country. [[Especially]] is this true of the district now under consideration. Machpelah, Makkedah, [[Adullam]] En-gedi, names inseparably connected with the lives, adventures and deaths of Abraham, Joshua, David and other Old [[Testament]] worthies, are all within the small circle of the territory of Judea. </p> <p> The bareness and dryness which prevail more or less in Judea are owing partly to the absence of wood, partly to its proximity to the desert, and partly to a scarcity of water, arising from its distance from the Lebanon. But to this discouraging aspect, there are some important exceptions. The valley of Urtas, south of Bethlehem, contains springs which, in abundance and excellence, rival even those of Nablus. The huge "Pools of Solomon" are enough to supply a district for many miles round them; and the cultivation, now going on in that neighborhood, shows what might be done with a soil which required only irrigation, and a moderate amount of labor, to evoke a boundless produce. </p> <p> It is obvious that, in the ancient days of the nation, when Judah and Benjamin possessed the teeming population indicated in the Bible, the condition and aspect of the country must have been very different. Of this, there are, not wanting, sure evidences. There is no country in which the ruined towns bear so large a proportion to those still existing. [[Hardly]] a hill-top of the many within sight that is not covered with vestiges of some fortress or city. But, besides this, forests appear to have stood in many parts of Judea until the repeated invasions and sieges caused their fall; and all this vegetation must have reacted on the moisture of the climate, and, by preserving the water in many a ravine and natural reservoir where now it is rapidly dried by the fierce sun of the early summer, must have influenced, materially , the look and the resources of the country. </p> <p> Advancing northward from Judea, the country, (Samaria), becomes gradually more open and pleasant. [[Plains]] of good soil occur between the hills, at first, small, but afterward, comparatively large. The hills assume here a more varied aspect than in the southern districts, springs are more abundant and more permanent until at last, when the district of Jebel Nablus is reached - the ancient Mount Ephraim - the traveller encounters an atmosphere and an amount of vegetation and water which are greatly superior to anything he has met with in Judea, and even sufficient to recall much of the scenery of the West. </p> <p> Perhaps the springs are the only objects which in themselves, and apart from their associations, really strike an English traveller with astonishment and admiration. Such glorious fountains as those of Ain-jalud or the Ras el-Mukatta - where a great body of the dearest water wells silently but swiftly out from deep blue recesses worn in the foot of a low cliff of limestone rock, and at once, forms a considerable stream - are rarely to be met with out of irregular, rocky, mountainous countries, and being such unusual sights can hardly be looked on by the traveler, without surprise and emotion. </p> <p> The valleys which lead down from the upper level in this district to the valley of the Jordan are less precipitous than in Judea. The eastern district of the Jebel Nablus contains some of the most fertile end valuable spots in the Holy Land. Hardly less rich is the extensive region which lies northwest of the city of Shechem (Nablus), between it and Carmel, in which the mountains gradually break down into the plain of Sharon. </p> <p> But with all its richness and all its advance on the southern part of the country, there is a strange dearth of natural wood about this central district. It is this which makes the wooded sides of [[Carmel]] and the park-like scenery of the adjacent slopes and plains so remarkable. No sooner, however, is the plain of Eadraelon passed than a considerable improvement is perceptible. The low hills which spread down from the mountains of Galilee, and form the barrier between the plains of Akka and Esdraelon, are covered with timber, of moderate size, it is true, but of thick, vigorous growth, and pleasant to the eye. [[Eastward]] of these hills, rises the round mass of Tabor dark with its copses of oak, and set on, by contrast, with the bare slopes of Jebel ed-Duhy, (the so called "Little Hermon") and the white hills of Nazareth. </p> <p> A few words must be said in general description of the Shefelah, or maritime lowland, which intervenes between the sea and the highlands. This region, only slightly elevated above the level of the Mediterranean, extends without interruption from el-Arish, south of Gaza, to Mount Carmel. It naturally divides itself into two portions, each of about half its length; the lower one, the wider, and the upper one, the narrower. The lower half is the plain of the Philistines-Philistia, or, as the Hebrews called it, the Shefelah, or Lowland. The upper half is the Sharon, or Saron, of the Old and New Testaments. </p> <p> The Philistine plain is on an average 15 or 16 miles in width, from the coast to the beginning of the belt of hills, which forms the gradual approach to the high land of the mountains of Judah. The larger towns, as Gaza and Ashdod, which stand near the shore, are surrounded with huge groves of olive, and sycamore, as in the days King David. 1 Chronicles 27:28. </p> <p> The whole plain appears to consist of brown, loamy soil, light, but rich, and almost without a stone. It is now, as it was when the Philistines possessed it, one enormous cornfield; an ocean of wheat covers the wide expense between the hills and the sand dunes of the seashore, without interruption of any kind - no break or hedge, hardly even a single olive tree. Its fertility is marvellous; for the prodigious crops which if raises are produced, and probably have been produced. Almost year by year. For the last forty centuries, without any of the appliances which we find necessary for success. </p> <p> The plain of Sharon is much narrower than the plain of the Philistines-Philistia. It is about 10 miles wide from the sea to the foot of the mountains, which are, here, of a more abrupt character than those of Philistia, and without the intermediate hilly region there occurring. </p> <p> The one ancient port of the Jews, the "beautiful", city of Joppa, occupied a position central between the Shefelah and Sharon. [[Roads]] led from these various cities to each other to Jerusalem, [[Neapolis]] and Sebaste in the interior, and to [[Ptolemais]] and Gaza on the north and south. The commerce of Damascus, and beyond Damascus, of [[Persia]] and India, passed this way to Egypt, Rome and the infant colonies of the West; and that traffic and the constant movement of troops backward and forward must have made this plain, at the time of Christ, one of the busiest and most populous regions of Syria. </p> <p> The Jordan valley. - The chacteristics already described are hardly peculiar to Palestine, but there is one feature, as yet only alluded to, in which she stands alone. This feature is the Jordan - the one river of the country. The river is elsewhere described; see [[Jordan]], but it and the valley through which it rushes down its extraordinary descent must be here briefly characterized. This valley begins with the river at its remotest springs of Hasbeiya, on the northwest side of Hermon, and accompanies it to the lower end of the Dead Sea, a length of about 150 miles. During the whole of this distance, its course is straight and its direction nearly due north and south. </p> <p> The springs of Hasbeiya are 1700 feet above the level of the Mediterranean and the northern end of the Dead Sea is 1317 feet below it, so that, between these two points, the valley falls with more or less regularity, through a height of more than 3000 feet. But though the river disappears at this point, the valley still continues its descent below the waters of the Dead Sea till it reaches a further depth of 1308 feet. So that the bottom of this extraordinary crevasse is actually more than 2600 feet below the surface of the ocean. </p> <p> In width, the valley varies. In its upper and shallower portion, as between Banias and the lake of Merom (Huleh), it is about five miles across. Between the lake of Merom and the Sea or Galilee, it contracts, and becomes more of an ordinary ravine or glen. It is in its third and lower portion that the valley assumes its more definite and regular character. During the greater part of this portion, it is about seven miles wide from the one wall to the other. </p> <p> The eastern mountains preserve their straight line of direction, and their massive horizontal wall-like aspect, during almost the whole distance. The western mountains are more irregular in height, their slopes less vertical. North of Jericho, they recede in a kind of wide amphitheatre, and the valley becomes twelve miles broad - a breadth which it, thenceforward, retains to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. </p> <p> Buried, as it is, between such lofty ranges, and shielded from every breeze, the climate of the Jordan valley is extremely hot and relaxing. Its enervating influence is shown by the inhabitants of Jericho. All the irrigation necessary for the cultivation, which formerly existed, is obtained front the torrents of the western mountains. For all purposes to which a river ordinarily applied the Jordan is useless. The Dead Sea, which is the final receptacle of the Jordan, is described elsewhere. See [[The Salt Sea]]. </p> <p> Climate. - "Probably there is no country in the world of the same extent which has a greater variety of climate than Palestine. On Mount Hermon, at its northern border, there is perpetual snow. From this, we descend successively by the peaks of [[Bashan]] and upper Galilee, where the oak and pine flourish, to the hills of Judah and Samaria, where the vine and fig tree are at home, to the plains of the seaboard, where the palm and banana produce their fruit, down to the sultry shores of the Sea, on which we find tropical heat and tropical vegetation." - McClintock and Strong. </p> <p> As, in the time of our Saviour, Luke 12:64, the rains come chiefly from the south or southwest. They commence at the end of October or beginning of November, and continue, with greater or less constancy, till the end of February or March. It is not a heavy, continuous rain, so much as a succession of severe showers or storms, with intervening periods of fine, bright weather. Between April and November, there is, with the rarest exceptions, an uninterrupted succession of fine weather and skies without a cloud. Thus, the year divides itself into two, and only two, seasons - as indeed we see it constantly divided in the Bible - "winter and summer;" "cold and heat;" "seed-time and harvest." </p> <p> Botany. - The botany of Syria and Palestine differs but little from that of Asia Minor, which is one of the most rich and varied on the globe. Among trees, the oak is by far the most prevalent. The trees of the genus Pistacia rank next to the oak in abundance, and of these there are three species in Syria. There is also the carob or locust tree (Ceratonia siliqua), the pine, sycamore, poplar and walnut. </p> <p> Of planted trees and large shrubs, the first in importance is the vine, which is most abundantly cultivated all over the country, and produces, as in the time of the Canaanites, enormous bunches of grapes. This is especially the case in the southern districts, those of Eshcol being still particularly famous. Next to the vine, or even in some respects, its superior in importance, ranks the olive, which nowhere grows in greater luxuriance and abundance than in Palestine, where the olive orchards form a prominent feature throughout the landscape, and have done so from time immemorial. The fig forms another most important crop in Syria and Palestine. </p> <p> (Besides these are the almond, pomegranate, orange, pear, banana, quince and mulberry among fruit trees. Of vegetables, there are many varieties, such as the egg plant, pumpkin, asparagus, lettuce, melon and cucumber. Palestine is especially distinguished for its wild flowers, of which there are more than five hundred varieties. The geranium, pink, poppy, narcissus, honeysuckle, oleander, jessamine, tulip and iris are abundant. The various grains are also very largely cultivated. - Editor). </p> <p> Zoology. - It will be sufficient, in this article, to give a general survey of the fauna of Palestine, as the reader will find more particular information in the several articles, which treat of the various animals, under their respective names. Jackals and foxes are common; the hyena and wolf are also occasionally observed; the lion is no longer a resident in Palestine or Syria. A species of squirrel of which the term orkidaun, "the leaper", has been noticed on the lower and middle parts of Lebanon. Two kinds of hare, rats and mice, which are said to abound, the jerboa, the porcupine, the short-tailed field-mouse, may be considered as the representatives of the Rodentia. </p> <p> Of the Pachydermata, the wild boar, which is frequently met with on [[Taber]] and Little Hermon, appears to be the only living wild example. There does not appear to be at present any wild ox in Palestine. Of domestic animals, we need only mention the Arabian or one-humped camel, the ass, the mule and the horse, all of which are in general use. The buffalo (Bubalus buffalo) is common. The ox of the country is small and unsightly in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, but in the richer pastures, the cattle, though small, are not unsightly. The common sheep of Palestine is the broadtail, with its varieties. Goats are extremely common everywhere. </p> <p> Palestine abounds in numerous kinds of birds. Vultures, eagles, falcons, kites, owls of different kinds represent the Raptorial order. In the south of Palestine especially, reptiles of various kinds abound. It has been remarked that, in its physical character, Palestine presents on a small scale, an epitome of the natural features of all regions, mountainous and desert, northern and tropical, maritime and inland, pastoral, arable and volcanic. </p> <p> Antiquities. - In the preceding descriptions, allusion has been made to many of the characteristic features of the Holy Land; but it is impossible to close this account, without mentioning a defect which is even more characteristic - its lack of monuments and personal relics of the nation, which possessed it for so many centuries, and gave it its claim to our veneration and affection. When compared with other nations of equal antiquity - Egypt, Greece, Assyria - the contrast is truly remarkable. </p> <p> In Egypt and Greece, and also in Assyria, as far as our knowledge at present extends, we find a series of buildings reaching down from the most remote and mysterious antiquity, a chain of which hardly a link is wanting, and which records the progress of the people in civilization, art and religion, as certainly as the buildings of the medieval architects do that of the various nations of modern Europe. </p> <p> But in Palestine, it is not too much to say that, there does not exist a single edifice, or part of an edifice, of which we can be sure that it is of a date, anterior to the Christian era. And as with the buildings, so with other memorials. </p> <p> With one exception, the museums of Europe do not possess a single piece of pottery or metal work, a single weapon or household utensil, an ornament or a piece of armor of Israelite make, which can give us the least conception of the manners or outward appliances of the nation before the date of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. </p> <p> The coins form the single exception. M. Renan has named two circumstances, which must have had a great effect in suppressing art or architecture amongst the ancient Israelites, while their very existence proves that the people had no genius in that direction. These are </p> <p> (1) the prohibition of sculptured representations of living creatures, and </p> <p> (2) the command not to build a Temple anywhere, but at Jerusalem. </p>

<p> ''''' pal´es ''''' - ''''' tı̄n ''''' ( פּלשׁת , <i> ''''' pelesheth ''''' </i> ; Φυλιστιείμ , <i> ''''' Phulistieı́m ''''' </i> , Ἀλλόφυλοι , <i> ''''' Allóphuloi ''''' </i> ; the King James Version Joel 3:4 (the Revised Version (British and American) "Philistia"), "Palestina"; the King James Version Exodus 15:14; Isaiah 14:29 , Isaiah 14:31; compare Psalm 60:8; Psalm 83:7; Psalm 87:4; Psalm 108:9 ): </p> <p> I. Physical [[Conditions]] </p> <p> 1. General Geographical Features </p> <p> 2. Water-Supply </p> <p> 3. Geological Conditions </p> <p> 4. Fauna and [[Flora]] </p> <p> 5. Climate </p> <p> 6. Rainfall </p> <p> 7. [[Drought]] and [[Famine]] </p> <p> II. Palestine In The [[Pentateuch]] </p> <p> 1. Places [[Visited]] by Abraham </p> <p> 2. Places Visited by [[Isaac]] </p> <p> 3. Places Visited by [[Jacob]] </p> <p> 4. [[Mentioned]] in Connection with Judah </p> <p> 5. Review of [[Geography]] of Genesis </p> <p> 6. Exodus and Leviticus </p> <p> 7. Numbers </p> <p> 8. Deuteronomy </p> <p> III. Palestine In The Historic Books Of The O LD [[Testament]] </p> <p> 1. Book of Joshua </p> <p> 2. Book of Judges </p> <p> 3. Book of Ruth </p> <p> 4. Books of Samuel </p> <p> 5. Books of Kings </p> <p> 6. Post-exilic [[Historical]] Books </p> <p> IV. Palestine In The Poetic Books Of The Old TESTAMENT </p> <p> 1. Book of Job </p> <p> 2. Book of Psalms </p> <p> 3. Book of Proverbs </p> <p> 4. Song of Songs </p> <p> V. Palestine In The [[Prophets]] </p> <p> 1. Isaiah </p> <p> 2. Jeremiah </p> <p> 3. Ezekiel </p> <p> 4. Minor Prophets </p> <p> VI. Palestine In The [[Apocrypha]] </p> <p> 1. Book of [[Judith]] </p> <p> 2. Book of Wisdom </p> <p> 3. 1 Maccabees </p> <p> 4. 2 Maccabees </p> <p> VII. Palestine In The New Testament </p> <p> 1. Synoptic Gospels </p> <p> 2. Fourth Gospel </p> <p> 3. Book of Acts </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> <p> The word properly means "Philistia," but appears to be first used in the extended sense, as meaning all the "Land of Israel" or "Holy Land" (Zechariah 2:12 ), by [[Philo]] and by [[Ovid]] and later Roman authors (Reland, <i> Palestine Illustr </i> ., I, 38-42). </p> I. Physical Conditions. <p> The Bible in general may be said to breathe air of Palestine; and it is here intended to show how important for sound criticism is the consideration of its geography, and of the numerous incidental allusions to the natural features, fauna, flora, cultivation, and climate of the land in which most of the Bible books were written. With the later history and topography of Palestine, after 70 AD, we are not here concerned, but a short account of its present physical and geological conditions is needed for our purpose. </p> <p> <b> 1. General Geographical Features: </b> </p> <p> Palestine West of the Jordan, between Dan and Beersheba, has an area of about 6,000 square miles, the length from Hermon southward being nearly 150 miles, and the width gradually increasing from 20 miles on the North to 60 miles on the South. It is thus about the size of Wales, and the height of the Palestinian mountains is about the same as that of the Welsh. East of the Jordan an area of about 4,000 square miles was included in the land of Israel. The general geographical features are familiar to all. </p> <p> (1) The land is divided by the deep chasm of the Jordan valley - an ancient geological fault continuing in the Dead Sea, where its depth (at the bottom of the lake) Isaiah 2,600 ft. below the Mediterranean. </p> <p> (2) West of the valley the mountain ridge, which is a continuation of Lebanon, has very steep slopes on the East and long spurs on the West, on which side the foothills (Hebrew <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> or "lowland") form a distinct district, widening gradually southward, while between this region and the sea the plains of Sharon and Philistia stretch to the sandhills and low cliffs of a harborless coast. </p> <p> (3) In Upper Galilee, on the North, the mountain ridge rises to 4,000 ft. above the Mediterranean. Lower Galilee, to the South, includes rounded hills less than 1,000 ft. above the sea, and the triangular plain of Esdraelon drained by the River [[Kishon]] between the Gilboa watershed on the East and the long spur of Carmel on the West. </p> <p> (4) In Samaria the mountains are extremely rugged, but a small plain near [[Dothan]] adjoins that of Esdraelon, and another stretches East of Shechem, 2,500 ft. above the level of the Jordan valley. In Judea the main ridge rises toward Hebron and then sinks to the level of the Beersheba plains about 1,000 ft. above the sea. The desert of Judah forms a plateau (500 ft. above sea-level), between this ridge and the Dead Sea, and is throughout barren and waterless; but the mountains - which average about 3,000 ft. above the sea - are full of good springs and suitable for the cultivation of the vine, fig and olive. The richest lands are found in the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> region - especially in Judea - and in the corn plains of Esdraelon, Sharon, and Philistia. </p> <p> (5) East of the Jordan the plateau of Bashan (averaging 1,500 ft. above the sea) is also a fine corn country. South of this, Gilead presents a mountain region rising to 3,600 ft. above sea-level at <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Osha' ''''' </i> , and sloping gently on the East to the desert. The steep western slopes are watered by the Jabbok River, and by many perennial brooks. In North Gilead especially the wooded hills present some of the most picturesque scenery of the Holy Land. South of Gilead, the Moab plateau (about 2,700 ft. above sea-level) is now a desert, but is fitted for raising grain, and, in places, for vines. A lower shelf or plateau (about 500 to 1,000 ft. above sea-level) intervenes between the main plateau and the Dead Sea cliffs, and answers to the Desert of Judah West of the lake. </p> <p> <b> 2. Water-Supply: </b> </p> <p> The water-supply of Palestine is abundant, except in the desert regions above noticed, which include only a small part of its area. The Jordan runs into the Dead Sea, which has no outlet and which maintains its level solely by evaporation, being consequently very salt; the surface is nearly 1,300 ft. below the Mediterranean, whereas the Sea of Galilee (680 ft. below sea-level) is sweet and full of fish. The Jordan is fed, not only by the snows of Hermon, but by many affluent streams from both sides. There are several streams also in Sharon, including the [[Crocodile]] River under Carmel. In the mountains, where the hard dolomite limestone is on the surface, perennial springs are numerous. In the lower hills, where this limestone is covered by a softer chalky stone, the supply depends on wells and cisterns. In the Beersheba plains the water, running under the surface, is reached by scooping shallow pits - especially those near Gerar, to be noticed later. </p> <p> <b> 3. Geological Conditions: </b> </p> <p> The fertility and cultivation of any country depends mainly on its geological conditions. These are comparatively simple in Palestine, and have undergone no change since the age when man first appeared, or since the days of the Hebrew patriarchs. The country was first upheaved from the ocean in the Eocene age; and, in the subsequent Miocene age, the great crack in the earth's surface occurred, which formed a narrow gulf stretching from that of the <i> ''''' ‛A ''''' </i> qabah on the South almost to the foot of Hermon. Further upheaval, accompanied by volcanic outbreaks which covered the plateaus of Golan, Bashan, and Lower Galilee with lava, cut off the Jordan valley from the Red Sea, and formed a long lake, the bottom of which continued to sink on the South to its present level during the Pleiocene and Pluvial periods, after which - its peculiar fauna having developed meanwhile - the lake gradually dried up, till it was represented only, as it now is, by the swampy <i> ''''' Ḥûleh ''''' </i> , the pear-shaped Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea. These changes all occurred long ages before the appearance of man. The beds upheaved include: (1) the Nubian Sandstone (of the Greensand period), which was sheared along the line of the Jordan fault East of the river, and which only appears on the western slopes of Hermon, Gilead, and Moab; (2) the limestones of the Cretaceous age, including the hard dolomite, and softer beds full of characteristic fossils; (3) the soft Eocene limestone, which appears chiefly on the western spurs and in the foothills, the angle of upheaval being less steep than that of the older main formation. On the shores of the Mediterranean a yet later sandy limestone forms the low cliffs of Sharon. See [[Geology Of Palestine]] . </p> <p> <b> 4. Fauna and Flora: </b> </p> <p> As regards fauna, flora and cultivation, it is sufficient here to say that they are still practically the same as described throughout the Bible. The lion and the wild bull ( <i> Bos primigenius </i> ) were exterminated within historic times, but have left their bones in the Jordan gravels, and in caves. The bear has gradually retreated to Hermon and Lebanon. The buffalo has been introduced since the Moslem conquest. Among trees the apple has fallen out of cultivation since the Middle Ages, and the cactus has been introduced; but Palestine is still a land of grain, wine and oil, and famous for its fruits. Its trees, shrubs and plants are those noticed in the Bible. Its woods have been thinned in Lower Galilee and Northern Sharon, but on the other hand the copse has often grown over the site of former vineyards and villages, and there is no reason to think that any general desiccation has occurred within the last 40 centuries, such as would affect the rainfall. </p> <p> <b> 5. Climate: </b> </p> <p> The climate of Palestine is similar to that of other Mediterranean lands, such as Cyprus, [[Sicily]] or Southern Italy; and, in spite of the fevers of mosquito districts in the plains, it is much better than that of the Delta in Egypt, or of Mesopotamia. The summer heat is oppressive only for a few days at a time, when (espescially in May) the dry wind - deficient in ozone - blows from the eastern desert. For most of the season a moisture-laden sea breeze, rising about 10 AM, blows till the evening, and fertilizes all the western slopes of the mountains. In the bare deserts the difference between 90ø F. by day and 40ø F. by night gives a refreshing cold. With the east wind the temperature rises to 105ø F., and the nights are oppressive. In the Jordan valley, in autumn, the shade temperature reaches 120ø F. In this season mists cover the mountains and swell the grapes. In winter the snow sometimes lies for several days on the watershed ridge and on the [[Edomite]] mountains, but in summer even Hermon is sometimes quite snowless at 9,000 ft. above the sea. There is perhaps no country in which such a range of climate can be found, from the Alpine to the tropical, and none in which the range of fauna and flora is consequently so large, from the European to the African. </p> <p> <b> 6. Rainfall: </b> </p> <p> The rainfall of Palestine is between 20,30 inches annually, and the rainy season is the same as in other Mediterranean countries. The "former rains" begin with the thunderstorms of November, and the "latter rains" cease with April showers. From December to February - except in years of drought - the rains are heavy. In most years the supply is quite sufficient for purposes of cultivation. The plowing begins in autumn, and the corn is rarely spoiled by storms in summer. The fruits ripen in autumn and suffer only from the occasional appearance of locust swarms. There appears to be no reason to suppose that climate or rainfall have undergone any change since the times of the Bible; and a consideration of Bible allusions confirms this view. </p> <p> <b> 7. Drought and Famine: </b> </p> <p> Thus, the occurrence of drought, and of consequent famine, is mentioned in the Old Testament as occasional in all times (Genesis 12:10; Genesis 26:2; Genesis 41:50; Leviticus 26:20; 2 Samuel 21:1; 1 Kings 8:35; Isaiah 5:6; Jeremiah 14:1; Joel 1:10-12; Haggai 1:11; Zechariah 14:17 ), and droughts are also noticed in the [[Mishna]] ( <i> '''''Ta‛ănı̄th''''' </i> , i. 4-7) as occurring in autumn, and even lasting throughout the rainy season till spring. Good rains were a blessing from God, and drought was a sign of His displeasure, in Hebrew belief (Deuteronomy 11:14; Jeremiah 5:24; Joel 2:23 ). A thunderstorm in harvest time (May) was most unusual (1 Samuel 12:17 , 1 Samuel 12:18 ), yet such a storm does still occur as a very exceptional phenomenon. By "snow in harvest" (Proverbs 25:13 ) we are not to understand a snowstorm, for it is likened to a "faithful messenger," and the reference is to the use of snow for cooling wine, which is still usual at Damascus. The notice of fever on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Matthew 8:14 ) shows that this region was as unhealthy as it still is in summer. The decay of irrigation in Sharon may have rendered the plain more malarious than of old, but the identity of the Palestinian flora with that of the Bible indicates that the climate, generally speaking, is unchanged. </p> II. Palestine in the Pentateuch. <p> <b> 1. Places Visited by Abraham: </b> </p> <p> The Book of Genesis is full of allusions to sites sacred to the memory of the Hebrew patriarchs. In the time of Abraham the population consisted of tribes, mainly Semitic, who came originally from Babylonia, including Canaanites ("lowlanders") between Sidon and Gaza, and in the Jordan valley, and Amorites ("highlanders") in the mountains (Genesis 10:15-19; Numbers 13:29 ). Their language was akin to Hebrew, and it is only in Egypt that we read of an interpreter being needed (Genesis 42:23 ), while excavated remains of seal-cylinders, and other objects, show that the civilization of Palestine was similar to that of Babylonia. </p> (1) Shechem. <p> The first place noticed is the shrine or "station" ( <i> ''''' māḳōm ''''' </i> ) of Shechem, with the [[Elon]] Moreh, the [[Septuagint]] "high oak"), where Jacob afterward buried the idols of his wives, and where Joshua set up a stone by the "holy place" ( Genesis 12:6; Genesis 35:4; Joshua 24:26 ). Samaritan tradition showed the site near <i> '''''Balâṭa''''' </i> ("the oak") at the foot of Mt. Gerizim. The "Canaanite was then in the land" (in Abraham's time), but was exterminated (Genesis 34:25 ) by Jacob's sons. From Shechem Abraham journeyed southward and raised an altar between Bethel ( <i> '''''Beitı̂n''''' </i> ) and [[Hal]] ( <i> '''''Ḥayân''''' </i> ), East of the town of Luz, the name of which still survives hard-by at the spring of <i> '''''Lôzeh''''' </i> (Genesis 12:8; Genesis 13:3; Genesis 28:11 , Genesis 28:19; Genesis 35:2 ). </p> (2) The Negeb. <p> But, on his return from Egypt with large flocks (Genesis 12:16 ), he settled in the pastoral region, between Beersheba and the western Kadesh (Genesis 13:1; Genesis 20:1 ), called in Hebrew the <i> '''''neghebh''''' </i> , "dry" country, on the edge of the cultivated lands. From East of Bethel there is a fine view of the lower Jordan valley, and here [[Lot]] "lifted up his eyes" (Genesis 13:10 ), and chose the rich grass lands of that valley for his flocks. The "cities of the Plain" ( <i> '''''kikkār''''' </i> ) were clearly in this valley, and Sodom must have been near the river, since Lot's journey to [[Zoar]] (Genesis 19:22 ) occupied only an hour or two (Genesis 19:15 , Genesis 19:23 ) through the plain to the foot of the Moab mountains. These cities are not said to have been visible from near Hebron; but, from the hilltop East of the city, Abraham could have seen "the smoke of the land" (Genesis 19:28 ) rising up. The first land owned by him was the garden of [[Mamre]] (Genesis 13:18; Genesis 18:1; Genesis 23:19 ), with the cave-tomb which tradition still points out under the floor of the Hebron mosque. His tent was spread under the "oaks of Mamre" (Genesis 18:1 ), where his mysterious guests rested "under the tree" (Genesis 18:8 ). One aged oak still survives in the flat ground West of the city, but this tree is very uncommon in the mountains of Judah. In all these incidental touches we have evidence of the exact knowledge of Palestine which distinguishes the story of the patriarchs. </p> (3) Campaign of Amraphel. <p> Palestine appears to have been an outlying province of the empire of. Hammurabi, king of Babylon in Abraham's time; and the campaign of [[Amraphel]] resembled those of later Assyrian overlords exacting tribute of petty kings. The route (Genesis 14:5-8 ) lay through Bashan, Gilead and Moab to Kadesh (probably at Petra), and the return through the desert of Judah to the plains of Jericho. Thus Hebron was not attacked (see Genesis 14:13 ), and the pursuit by Abraham and his [[Amorite]] allies led up the Jordan valley to Dan, and thence North of Damascus (Genesis 14:15 ). The [[Salem]] whose king blessed Abraham on his return was thought by the Samaritans, and by Jerome, to be the city near the Jordan valley afterward visited by Jacob (Genesis 14:18; Genesis 33:18 ). See [[Jerusalem]] . </p> (4) Gerar. <p> Abraham returned to the southern plains, and "sojourned in Gerar" (Genesis 20:1 ), now <i> '''''Umm''''' </i> <i> '''''Jerrâr''''' </i> , 7 miles South of Gaza. The wells which he dug in this valley (Genesis 26:15 ) were no doubt shallow excavations like those from which the Arabs still obtain the water flowing under the surface in the same vicinity ( <i> SWP </i> , III, 390), though that at Beersheba (Genesis 21:25-32 ), to which Isaac added another (Genesis 26:23-25 ), may have been more permanent. Three masonry wells now exist at <i> '''''Bı̂r''''' </i> <i> '''''es''''' </i> <i> '''''Seba‛''''' </i> , but the masonry is modern. The planting of a "tamarisk" at this place (Genesis 21:33 ) is an interesting touch, since the tree is distinctive of the dry lowlands. From Beersheba Abraham journeyed to "the land of Moriah" Septuagint "the high land") to sacrifice Isaac (Genesis 22:2 ); and the mountain, according to Hebrew tradition (2 Chronicles 3:1 ), was at Jerusalem, but according to the Samaritans was Gerizim near the Elon [[Moreh]] - a summit which could certainly have been seen "afar off" (2 Chronicles 3:4 ) on "the third day." </p> <p> <b> 2. Places Visited by Isaac: </b> </p> <p> Isaac, living in the same pastoral wilderness, at the western Kadesh (Genesis 25:11 ) and at [[Gerar]] (Genesis 26:2 ), suffered like his father in a year of drought, and had similar difficulties with the Philistines. At Gerar he sowed grain (Genesis 26:12 ), and the vicinity is still capable of such cultivation. [[Thence]] he retreated Southeast to [[Rehoboth]] ( <i> '''''Ruḥeibeh''''' </i> ), North of Kadesh, where ancient wells like those at Beersheba still exist (Genesis 26:22 ). To Beersheba he finally returned (Genesis 26:23 ). </p> <p> <b> 3. Places Visited by Jacob: </b> </p> <p> When Jacob fled to [[Haran]] from Beersheba (Genesis 28:10 ) he slept at the "place" (or shrine) consecrated by Abraham's altar near Bethel, and like any modern Arab visitor to a shrine - erected a memorial stone (Genesis 28:18 ), which he renewed twenty years later (Genesis 35:14 ) when God appeared to him "again" (Genesis 35:9 ). </p> (1) Haran to Succoth. <p> His return journey from Haran to Gilead raises an interesting question. The distance is about 350 miles from Haran to the [[Galeed]] or "witness heap" (Genesis 31:48 ) at [[Mizpah]] - probably <i> '''''Sûf''''' </i> in North Gilead. This distance [[Laban]] is said to have covered in 7 days (Genesis 31:23 ), which would be possible for a force mounted on riding camels. But the news of Jacob's flight reached Laban on the 3rd day (Genesis 31:22 ), and some time would elapse before he could gather his "brethren." Jacob with his flocks and herds must have needed 3 weeks for the journey. It is remarkable that the vicinity of Mizpah still presents ancient monuments like the "pillar" (Genesis 31:45 ) round which the "memorial cairn" ( <i> '''''yeghar''''' </i> - <i> '''''sāhădhūthā''''' </i> ) was formed. From this place Jacob journeyed to [[Mahanaim]] (probably <i> '''''Maḥmah''''' </i> ), South of the Jabbok river - a place which afterward became the capital of South Gilead (Genesis 32:1 f; 1 Kings 4:14 ); but, on hearing of the advance of [[Esau]] from Edom, he retreated across the river (Genesis 32:22 ) and then reached [[Succoth]] (Genesis 33:17 ), believed to be <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''Der‛ala''''' </i> , North of the stream. </p> (2) From the Jordan to Hebron. <p> [[Crossing]] the Jordan by one of several fords in this vicinity, Jacob approached Shechem by the perennial stream of <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Fâr‛ah ''''' </i> , and camped at [[Shalem]] ( <i> ''''' Sâlim ''''' </i> ) on the east side of the fertile plain which stretches thence to Shechem, and here he bought land of the [[Hivites]] ( Genesis 33:18-20 ). We are not told that he dug a well, but the necessity for digging one in a region full of springs can only be explained by [[Hivite]] jealousy of water rights, and the well still exists East of Shechem (compare John 4:5 f), not far from the Elon Moreh where were buried the <i> '''''terāphı̄m''''' </i> (Genesis 35:4 ) or "spirits" (Assyrian, <i> '''''tarpu''''' </i> ) from Haran (Genesis 31:30 ) under the oak of Abraham. These no doubt were small images, such as are so often unearthed in Palestine. The further progress of Jacob led by Bethel and Bethlehem to Hebron (Genesis 35:6 , Genesis 35:19 , Genesis 35:27 ), but some of his elder sons seem to have remained at Shechem. Thus, Joseph was sent later from Hebron (Genesis 37:14 ) to visit his brethren there, but found them at Dothan. </p> (3) Dothan. <p> Dothan (Genesis 37:17 ) lay in a plain on the main trade route from Egypt to Damascus, which crossed the low watershed at this point and led down the valley to Jezreel and over Jordan to Bashan. The "well of the pit" ( <i> SWP </i> , II, 169) is still shown at <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''Dothân''''' </i> , and the Ishmaelites, from [[Midian]] and Gilead, chose this easy caravan route (Genesis 37:25 , Genesis 37:28 ) for camels laden with the Gilead balm and spices. The plain was fitted for feeding Jacob's flocks. The products of Palestine then included also honey, pistachio nuts, and almonds (Genesis 43:11 ); and a few centuries later we find notice in a text of Thothmes Iii of honey and balsam, with oil, wine, wheat, spelt, barley and fruits, as rations of the Egyptian troops in Canaan (Brugsch, <i> Hist Egypt </i> , I, 332). </p> <p> <b> 4. Mentioned in Connection with Judah: </b> </p> <p> The episode of Judah and [[Tamar]] is connected with a region in the <i> ''''' Shephēlāh ''''' </i> , or low hills of Judea. Adullam ( <i> ''''' ‛Aı̂d ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> ), [[Chezib]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Ain ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Kezbeh ''''' </i> ), and [[Timnath]] ( <i> ''''' Tibneh ''''' </i> ) are not far apart ( Genesis 38:1 , Genesis 38:5 , Genesis 38:12 ), the latter being in a pastoral valley where Judah met his "sheep shearers." Tamar sat at "the entrance of Enaim" (compare Genesis 38:14 , Genesis 38:22 the English Revised Version) or [[Enam]] ( Joshua 15:34 ), perhaps at <i> '''''Kefr''''' </i> <i> '''''‛Ana''''' </i> , 6 miles Northwest of Timnath. She was mistaken for a <i> '''''ḳedhēshāh''''' </i> , or votary (sacred prostitute) of [[Ashtoreth]] (Genesis 38:15 , Genesis 38:21 ), and we know from Hammurabi's laws that such votaries were already recognized. The mention of Judah's signet and staff (Genesis 38:18 ) also reminds us of Babylonian customs as described by Herodotus (i. 195), and signet-cylinders of Babylonian style, and of early date, have been unearthed in Palestine at Gezer and elsewhere (compare the "Babylonian garment," Joshua 7:21 ). </p> <p> <b> 5. Review of the Geography of Genesis: </b> </p> <p> [[Generally]] speaking, the geography of Gen presents no difficulties, and shows an intimate knowledge of the country, while the allusions to natural products and to customs are in accord with the results of scientific discovery. Only one difficulty needs notice, where [[Atad]] (Genesis 50:10 ) on the way from Egypt to Hebron is described as "beyond the Jordan." In this case the Assyrian language perhaps helps us, for in that tongue <i> '''''Yaur''''' </i> - <i> '''''danu''''' </i> means "the great river," and the reference may be to the Nile itself, which is called <i> '''''Yaur''''' </i> in Hebrew ( <i> '''''ye'ōr''''' </i> ) and Assyrian alike. </p> <p> <b> 6. Exodus and Leviticus: </b> </p> <p> Exodus is concerned with Egypt and the Sinaitic desert, though it may be observed that its simple agricultural laws (Exodus 21 through 23), which so often recall those of Hammurabi, would have been needed at once on the conquest of Gilead and Bashan, before crossing the Jordan. In Leviticus 11 we have a list of animals most of which belong to the desert - as for instance the "coney" or hyrax ( Leviticus 11:5; Psalm 104:18; Proverbs 30:26 ), but others - such as the swine (Leviticus 11:7 ), the stork and the heron (Leviticus 11:19 ) - to the <i> '''''‛A''''' </i> rabah and the Jordan valley, while the hoopoe (the King James Version "lapwing," Leviticus 11:19 ) lives in Gilead and in Western Palestine. In Deuteronomy 14 the fallow deer and the roe (Deuteronomy 14:5 ) are now inhabitants of Tabor and Gilead, but the "wild goat" (ibex), "wild ox" (buball), "pygarg" (addax) and "chamois" (wild sheep), are found in the <i> '''''‛Arabah''''' </i> and in the deserts. </p> <p> <b> 7. Numbers: </b> </p> <p> In Numbers, the conquest of Eastern Palestine is described, and most of the towns mentioned are known (21:18-33); the notice of vineyards in Moab (Numbers 21:22 ) agrees with the discovery of ancient rock-cut wine presses near [[Heshbon]] ( <i> SEP </i> , I, 221). The view of Israel, in camp at [[Shittim]] by [[Balaam]] (Numbers 22:41 ), standing on the top of [[Pisgah]] or Mt. Nebo, has been shown to be possible by the discovery of <i> '''''Jebel''''' </i> Neba, where also rude dolmens recalling Balak's altars have been found ( <i> SEP </i> , I, 202). The plateau of Moab (Numbers 32:3 ) is described as a "land for cattle," and still supports Arab flocks. The camps in which Israel left their cattle, women and children during the wars, for 6 months, stretched (Numbers 33:49 ) from Beth-jeshimoth ( <i> '''''Suweimeh''''' </i> ), near the northeastern corner of the Dead Sea over Abel-shittim ("the acacia meadow" - a name it still bears) in a plain watered by several brooks, and having good herbage in spring. </p> <p> <b> 8. Deuteronomy: </b> </p> (1) Physical Allusions. <p> The description of the "good land" in Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 8:7 ) applies in some details with special force to Mt. Gilead, which possesses more perennial streams than Western Palestine throughout - "a land of brooks of water, of fountains and springs, flowing forth in valleys and hills"; a land also "of wheat and barley, and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates, a land of olive-trees and honey" is found in Gilead and Bashan. Palestine itself is not a mining country, but the words (Matthew 8:9 ), "a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig copper," may be explained by the facts that iron mines existed near Beirut in the 10th century AD, and copper mines at [[Punon]] North of [[Petra]] in the 4th century AD, as described by [[Jerome]] ( <i> Onomasticon </i> , under the word "Phinon"). In Deuteronomy also (Deuteronomy 11:29; compare Deuteronomy 27:4; Joshua 8:30 ) Ebal and Gerizim are first noticed, as beside the "oaks of Moreh." Ebal the mountain of curses (3, 077 ft. above sea-level) and Gerizim the mountain of blessings (2, 850 ft.) are the two highest tops in Samaria, and Shechem lies in a rich valley between them. The first sacred center of Israel was thus established at the place where Abraham built his first altar and Jacob dug his well, where Joseph was buried and where Joshua recognized a holy place at the foot of Gerizim (Joshua 24:26 ). The last chapters of Deuteronomy record the famous Pisgah view from Mt. [[Nebo]] (34:1-3), which answers in all respects to that from <i> '''''Jebel''''' </i> <i> '''''Neba''''' </i> , except as to Dan, and the utmost (or "western") sea, neither of which is visible. Here we should probably read "toward" rather than "to," and there is no other hill above the plains of Shittim whence a better view can be obtained of the Jordan valley, from Zoar to Jericho, of the watershed mountains as far North as Gilboa and Tabor, and of the slopes of Gilead. </p> (2) Archaeology. <p> But besides these physical allusions, the progress of exploration serves to illustrate the archaeology of Deuteronomy. Israel was commanded (Deuteronomy 12:3 ) to overthrow the Canaanite altars, to break the standing stones which were emblems of superstition, to burn the <i> ''''''ăshērāh''''' </i> poles (or artificial trees), and to hew down the graven images. That these commands were obeyed is clear. The rude altars and standing stones are now found only in Moab, and in remote parts of Gilead, Bashan, and Galilee, not reached by the power of reforming kings of Judah. The <i> ''''''ăshērāh''''' </i> poles have disappeared, the images are found, only deep under the surface. The carved tablets which remain at Damascus, and in Phoenicia and Syria, representing the gods of Canaan or of the Hittites, have no counterpart in the Holy Land. Again when we read of ancient "landmarks" (Deuteronomy 19:14; Proverbs 22:28; Proverbs 23:10 ), we are not to understand a mere boundary stone, but rather one of those monuments common in [[Babylonia]] - as early at least as the 12th century Bc - on which the boundaries of a field are minutely described, the history of its grant by the king detailed, and a curse (compare Deuteronomy 27:17 ) pronounced against the man who should dare to remove the stone. See illustration under [[Nebuchadnezzar]] . </p> III. Palestine in the Historic Books of the Old Testament. <p> <b> 1. Book of Joshua: </b> </p> <p> Joshua is the great geographical book of the Old Testament; and the large majority of the 600 names of places, rivers and mountains in Palestine mentioned in the Bible are to be found in this book. </p> (1) Topographical Accuracy. <p> About half of this total of names were known, or were fixed by Dr. Robinson, between 1838,1852, and about 150 new sites were discovered (1872-1878,1881-1882) in consequence of the 1-in. trigonometrical survey of the country, and were identified by the present writer during this period; a few interesting sites have been added by M. Clermont-Ganneau (Adullam and Gezer), by A. Henderson (Kiriathjearim), by W.F. Birch (Zoar at <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' esh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Shâghûr ''''' </i> ), and by others. Thus more than three-quarters of the sites have been fixed with more or less certainty, most of them preserving their ancient names. It is impossible to study this topography without seeing that the Bible writers had personal knowledge of the country; and it is incredible that a Hebrew priest, writing in Babylonia, could have possessed that intimate acquaintance with all parts of the land which is manifest in the geographical chapters of Joshua. The towns are enumerated in due order by districts; the tribal boundaries follow natural lines - valleys and mountain ridges - and the character of various regions is correctly indicated. Nor can we suppose that this topography refers to conditions subsequent to the return from captivity, for these were quite different. [[Simeon]] had ceased to inhabit the south by the time of David ( 1 Chronicles 4:24 ), and the lot of Dan was colonized by men of Benjamin after the captivity (1 Chronicles 8:12 , 1 Chronicles 8:13; Nehemiah 11:34 , Nehemiah 11:35 ). [[Tirzah]] is mentioned (Joshua 12:24 ) in Samaria, whereas the future capital of Omri is not. [[Ai]] is said to have been made "a heap forever" (Joshua 8:28 ), but was inhabited apparently in Isaiah's time (Isaiah 10:28 = Aiath) and certainly after the captivity ( Ezra 2:28; Nehemiah 7:32; Nehemiah 11:31 = Aija). At latest, the topography seems to be that of Solomon's age, though it is remarkable that very few places in Samaria are noticed in the Book of Joshua. </p> (2) The [[Passage]] of the Jordan. <p> Israel crossed Jordan at the lowest ford East of Jericho. The river was in flood, swollen by the melting snows of Hermon (Joshua 3:15 ); the stoppage occurred 20 miles farther up at [[Adam]] ( <i> '''''ed''''' </i> - <i> '''''Dâmieh''''' </i> ), the chalky cliffs at a narrow place being probably undermined and falling in, thus damming the stream. A M oslem writer asserts that a similar stoppage occurred in the 13th century AD, near the same point. (See [[Jordan River]] .) The first camp was established at Gilgal ( <i> '''''Jilgûlieh''''' </i> ), 3 miles East of Jericho, and a "circle" of 12 stones was erected. Jericho was not at the medieval site ( <i> '''''er''''' </i> <i> '''''Rı̂ḥa''''' </i> ) South of Gilgal, or at the Herodian site farther West, but at the great spring <i> '''''‛Ain''''' </i> <i> '''''es''''' </i> <i> '''''Sulṭân''''' </i> , close to the mountains to which the spies escaped (Joshua 2:16 ). The great mounds were found by Sir C. [[Warren]] to consist of sun-dried bricks, and further excavations (see <i> Mitteil </i> . <i> der deutschen Orient-Gesell </i> ., December, 1909, No. 41) have revealed little but the remains of houses of various dates. </p> (3) Joshua's First Campaign. <p> The first city in the mountains attacked by Israel was Ai, near Chayan, 2 miles Southeast of Bethel. It has a deep valley to the North, as described (Joshua 8:22 ). The fall of Ai and Bethel (Joshua 8:17 ) seems to have resulted in the peaceful occupation of the region between Gibeon and Shechem (Josh 8:30 through 9:27); but while the Hivites submitted the Amorites of Jerusalem and of the South attacked Gibeon ( <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Jı̂b''''' </i> ) and were driven down the steep pass of Beth-horon ( <i> '''''Beit''''' </i> <i> '''''‛Aûr''''' </i> ) to the plains (Joshua 10:1-11 ). Joshua's great raid, after this victory, proceeded through the plain to Makkedah, now called <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Mughâr''''' </i> , from the "cave" (compare Joshua 10:17 ), and by [[Libnah]] to [[Lachish]] ( <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Ḥesy''''' </i> ), whence he went up to Hebron, and "turned" South to [[Debir]] ( <i> '''''edh''''' </i> <i> '''''Dhâherı̂yeh''''' </i> ), thus subduing the <i> '''''shephēlāh''''' </i> of Judah and the southern mountains, though the capital at Jerusalem was not taken. It is now very generally admitted that the six letters of the Amorite king of Jerusalem included in <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''el''''' </i> - <i> '''''Amarna''''' </i> [[Letters]] may refer to this war. The <i> '''''‛Abı̂ri''''' </i> or <i> '''''Ḥabiri''''' </i> are therein noticed as a fierce people from Seir, who "destroyed all the rulers," and who attacked Ajalon, Lachish, Ashkelon, [[Keilah]] (on the main road to Hebron) and other places. See [[Exodus]] , The . </p> (4) The Second Campaign. <p> The second campaign (Joshua 11:1-14 ) was against the nations of Galilee; and the Hebrew victory was gained at "the waters of Merom" (Joshua 11:5 ). There is no sound reason for placing these at the <i> '''''Ḥûleh''''' </i> lake; and the swampy Jordan valley was a very unlikely field of battle for the Canaanite chariots (Joshua 11:6 ). The kings noticed are those of [[Madon]] ( <i> '''''Madı̂n''''' </i> ), [[Shimron]] ( <i> '''''Semmunieh''''' </i> ), Dor (possibly <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''Thorah''''' </i> ), "on the west," and of [[Hazor]] ( <i> '''''Ḥazzûr''''' </i> ), all in Lower Galilee. The pursuit was along the coast toward Sidon (Joshua 11:8 ); and Merom may be identical with Shimron-meron (Joshua 12:20 ), now <i> '''''Semmunieh''''' </i> , in which case the "waters" were those of the perennial stream in <i> '''''Wâdy''''' </i> <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Melek''''' </i> , 3 miles to the North, which flow West to join the lower part of the Kishon. Shimron-meron was one of the 31 royal cities of Palestine West of the Jordan (Josh 12:9-24). </p> <p> The regions left unconquered by Joshua (Joshua 13:2-6 ) were those afterward conquered by David and Solomon, including the Philistine plains, and the [[Sidonian]] coast from [[Mearah]] ( <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Mogheirı̂yeh''''' </i> ) northward to [[Aphek]] ( <i> '''''Afḳa''''' </i> ) in Lebanon, on the border of the Amorite country which lay South of the "land of the Hittites" (Joshua 1:4 ). Southern Lebanon, from [[Gebal]] ( <i> '''''Jubeil''''' </i> ) and the "entering into Hamath" (the [[Eleutherus]] Valley) on the West, to Baal-gad (probably at <i> '''''‛Ain''''' </i> <i> '''''Judeideh''''' </i> on the northwestern slope of Hermon) was also included in the "land" by David (2 Samuel 8:6-10 ). But the whole of Eastern Palestine (Josh 13:7-32), and of Western Palestine, except the shore plains, was allotted to the 12 tribes. Judah and Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), being the strongest, appear to have occupied the mountains and the <i> '''''shephēlāh''''' </i> , as far North as Lower Galilee, before the final allotment. </p> <p> Thus, the lot of Simeon was within that inherited by Judah (Joshua 19:1 ), and that of Dan seems to have been partly taken from Ephraim, since Joseph's lot originally reached to Gezer (Joshua 16:3 ); but Benjamin appears to have received its portion early (compare Joshua 15:5-11; Joshua 16:1 , Joshua 16:2; 18:11-28). This lot was larger than that of Ephraim, and Benjamin was not then the "smallest of the tribes of Israel" (1 Samuel 9:21 ), since the destruction of the tribe did not occur till after the death of Joshua and [[Eleazar]] (Judges 20:28 ). </p> <p> The twelve tribes were distributed in various regions which may here briefly be described. [[Reuben]] held the Moab plateau to the Arnon ( <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Môjub ''''' </i> ) on the South, and to the "river of Gad" ( <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Nā'aûr ''''' </i> ) on the North, thus including part of the Jordan valley close to the Dead Sea. [[Gad]] held all the West of Gilead, being separated from the [[Ammonites]] by the upper course of the Jabbok. All the rest of the Jordan valley East of the river was included in this lot. Manasseh held Bashan, but the conquest was not completed till later. Simeon had the <i> ''''' neghebh ''''' </i> plateau South of Beersheba. Judah occupied the mountains South of Jerusalem, with the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> to their West, and claimed Philistia South of Ekron. Benjamin had the Jericho plains and the mountains between Jerusalem and Bethel. The border ran South of Jerusalem to Rachel's tomb ( 1 Samuel 10:2 ), and thence West to Kiriath-jearim ('Erma) and Ekron. Dan occupied the lower hills West of Benjamin and Ephraim, and claimed the plain from [[Ekron]] to [[Rakkon]] ( <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''er''''' </i> <i> '''''Raḳḳeit''''' </i> ) North of Joppa. Manasseh had a large region, corresponding to Samaria, and including Carmel, Sharon and half the Jordan valley, with the mountains North of Shechem; but this tribe occupied only the hills, and was unable to drive the Cannanites out of the plains (Joshua 17:11 , Joshua 17:16 ) Ephraim also complained of the smallness of its lot (Joshua 17:15 ), which lay in rugged mountains between Bethel and Shechem, including however, the grain plateau East of the latter city. [[Issachar]] held the plains of Esdraelon and Dothan, with the Jordan valley to the East, but soon became subject to the Canaanites. Zebulun had the hills of Lower Galilee, and the coast from Carmel to Accho. [[Naphtali]] owned the mountains of Upper Galilee, and the rich plateau between Tabor and the Sea of Galilee. [[Asher]] had the low hills West of Naphtali, and the narrow shore plains from [[Accho]] to Tyre. Thus each tribe possessed a proportion of mountain land fit for cultivation of figs, olives and vines, and of arable land fit for corn. The areas allotted appear to correspond to the density of population that the various regions were fitted to support. </p> <p> The [[Levitical]] cities were fixed in the various tribes as centers for the teaching of Israel (Deuteronomy 33:10 ), but a [[Levite]] was not obliged to live in such a city, and was expected to go with his course annually to the sacred center, before they retreated to Jerusalem on the disruption of the kingdom (2 Chronicles 11:14 ). The 48 cities (Josh 21:13-42) include 13 in Judah and Benjamin for the priests, among which Beth-shemesh (1 Samuel 6:13 , 1 Samuel 6:15 ) and [[Anathoth]] (1 Kings 2:26 ) are early noticed as Levitical. The other tribes had 3 or 4 such cities each, divided among [[Kohathites]] (10), Gershonites (13), and [[Merarites]] (12). The six Cities of [[Refuge]] were included in the total, and were placed 3 each side of the Jordan in the South, in the center, and in the North, namely Hebron, Shechem and [[Kedesh]] on the West, and [[Bezer]] (unknown), [[Ramoth]] ( <i> '''''Reimûn''''' </i> ) and [[Golan]] (probably <i> '''''Saḥem''''' </i> <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Jaulân''''' </i> ) East of the river. Another less perfect list of these cities, with 4 omissions and 11 minor differences, mostly clerical, is given in 1 Ch 6:57-81. Each of these cities had "suburbs," or open spaces, extending (Numbers 35:4 ) about a quarter-mile beyond the wall, while the fields, to about half a mile distant, also belonged to the [[Levites]] (Leviticus 25:34 ). </p> <p> <b> 2. Book of Judges: </b> </p> (1) Early Wars. <p> In Judges, the stories of the heroes who successively arose to save Israel from the heathen carry us to every part of the country. "After the death of Joshua" (Judges 1:1 ) the Canaanites appear to have recovered power, and to have rebuilt some of the cities which he had ruined. Judah fought the [[Perizzites]] ("villagers") at Berek ( <i> '''''Berḳah''''' </i> ) in the lower hills West of Jerusalem, and even set fire to that city. [[Caleb]] attacked Debir (Jsg Joshua 1:12-15 ), which is described (compare Joshua 15:15-19 ) as lying in a "dry" (the King James Version "south") region, yet with springs not far away. The actual site ( <i> '''''edh''''' </i> <i> '''''Dhâherı̂yeh''''' </i> ) is a village with ancient tombs 12 miles Southwest of Hebron; it has no springs, but about 7 miles to the Northeast there is a perennial stream with "upper and lower springs." As regards the Philistine cities (Judges 1:18 ), the Septuagint reading seems preferable; for the Greek says that Judah "did not take Gaza" nor [[Ashkelon]] nor Ekron, which agrees with the failure in conquering the "valley" (Judges 1:19 ) due to the Canaanites having "chariots of iron." The Canaanite chariots are often mentioned about this time in the <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''el''''' </i> - <i> '''''Amarna''''' </i> Letters and Egyptian accounts speak of their being plated with metals. Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Asher and Naphtali, were equally powerless against cities in the plains (Judges 1:27-33 ); and Israel began to mingle with the Canaanites, while the tribe of Dan seems never to have really occupied its allotted region, and remained encamped in the borders of Judah till some, at least, of its warriors found a new home under Hermon (Judges 1:34; 18:1-30) in the time of Jonathan, the grandson of Moses. </p> (2) [[Defeat]] of Sisera. <p> The oppression of Israel by [[Jabin]] 2 of Hazor, in Lower Galilee, appears to have occurred in the time of Rameses II, who, in his 8th year, conquered Shalem ( <i> ''''' Sâlim ''''' </i> , North of Taanach), [[Anem]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Anı̂n ''''' </i> ), Dapur ( <i> ''''' Debûrieh ''''' </i> , at the foot of Tabor), with [[Bethanath]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Ainitha ''''' </i> ) in Upper Galilee (Brugsch, <i> History of Egypt </i> , II, 64). Sisera may have been an Egyptian resident at the court of Jabin ( Judges 4:2 ); his defeat occurred near the foot of Tabor (Judges 4:14 ) to which he advanced East from [[Harosheth]] ( <i> '''''el''''' </i> <i> '''''Ḥarathı̂yeh''''' </i> ) on the edge of the sea plain. His host "perished at Endor" (Psalm 83:9 ) and in the swampy Kishon (Judges 5:21 ). The site of the Kedesh in "the plain of swamps" (Judges 4:11 ) to which he fled is doubtful. Perhaps Kedesh of Issachar (1 Chronicles 6:72 ) is intended at <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''Ḳadeis''''' </i> , 3 miles North of Taanach, for the plain is here swampy in parts. The Canaanite league of petty kings fought from [[Taanach]] to Megiddo (Judges 5:19 ), but the old identification of the latter city with the Roman town of Legio ( <i> '''''Lejjûn''''' </i> ) was a mere guess which does not fit with Egyptian accounts placing Megiddo near the Jordan. The large site at <i> '''''Mugedd‛a''''' </i> , in the Valley of Jezreel seems to be more suitable for all the Old Testament as well as for the Egyptian accounts ( <i> SWP </i> , II, 90-99). </p> (3) Gideon's Victory. <p> The subsequent oppression by [[Midianites]] and others would seem to have coincided with the troubles which occurred in the 5th, year of Minepthah (see [[Exodus]] , The ). Gideon's home (Judges 6:11 ) at Ophrah, in Manasseh, is placed by Samaritan tradition at <i> '''''Fer‛ata''''' </i> , 6 miles West of Shechem, but his victory was won in the Valley of Jezreel (Jdg 7:1-22); the sites of Beth-shittah ( <i> '''''Shaṭṭa''''' </i> ) and Abel-meholah ( <i> '''''‛Ain''''' </i> <i> '''''Ḥelweh''''' </i> ) show how Midian fled down this valley and South along the Jordan plain, crossing the river near Succoth ( <i> '''''Tell''''' </i> <i> '''''Der‛ala''''' </i> ) and ascending the slopes of Gilead to [[Jogbehah]] ( <i> '''''Jubeiḥah''''' </i> ) and [[Nobah]] (Judges 8:4-11 ). But [[Oreb]] ("the raven") and [[Zeeb]] ("the wolf") perished at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's hollow" (compare Judges 7:25 ), West of the Jordan. It is remarkable (as pointed out by the present author in 1874) that, 3 miles North of Jericho, a sharp peak is now called "the raven's nest," and a ravine 4 miles farther North is named "the wolf's hollows." These sites are rather farther South than might be expected, unless the two chiefs were separated from the fugitives, who followed [[Zebah]] and [[Zalmunna]] to Gilead. In this episode "Mt. Gilead" (Judges 7:3 ) seems to be a clerical error for "Mt. Gilboa," unless the name survives in corrupt form at <i> '''''‛Aı̂n''''' </i> <i> '''''Jâlûd''''' </i> ("Goliath's spring"), which is a large pool, usually supposed to be the spring of [[Harod]] (Judges 7:1 ), where [[Gideon]] camped, East of Jezreel. </p> <p> The story of Abimelech takes us back to Shechem. He was made king by the "oak of the pillar" (Judges 9:6 ), which was no doubt Abraham's oak already noticed; it seems also to be called 'the enchant </p>