Work

Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology

For contemporary humanity the meaning and character of work have been divorced from religion, being largely shaped by secular ideologies associated with Marxism and capitalism. This is radically different from the biblical concept of work, which is laden with theological significance. The expenditure of physical and mental energy to produce sustenance and culture, the activity that engages most of humanity's population and time (Augustine), has a profoundly religious inspiration and direction in both Testaments. The biblical evidence indicates that human beings must be guided by God's will in their work. Without this guidance, work will ultimately be useless.

The Old Testament. Creation . All human work is based on the analogy of God's work in creating the natural world as classically described in  Genesis 1-2 . God is depicted as effortlessly expending energy to create a world of exquisite beauty from nothing. Material, temporal, and spatial reality are made in a sequence of six days. The text climaxes with a poetic depiction of the creation of humanity, made in the image and likeness of God ( Genesis 1:27 ). This poetic climax, as well as God's survey of his completed creation (1:31), captures something of the ecstatic joy in the Creator's mind evoked by the splendor of his work. On the seventh day, God rests from his work, celebrating his accomplishments.

In this creation text human beings are given a mandate to work, which is intimately related to their identity as the image of God ( Genesis 1:26 ). As image bearers, the human race is to work by ruling and serving the creation. As God has shown his transcendence to the created order through his work, human beings replicate the divine likeness by having dominion over the creation ( Genesis 1:26-28 ). Work has therefore an extremely wide scope, but the theological point is central: human beings are called to imitatio dei (imitation of God) through work. It is not to be drudgery but glory. The assumption, of course, is that work will be done in response to the divine will.

Whereas the first creation narrative presents a comprehensive vision of God's activity, the second (2:4-25) focuses on the creation of humanity, God's supreme work. The Creator is depicted as a potter and a builder crafting the human race. A poetic climax also concludes this account, when woman is created ( Genesis 2:23 ). One of the prime tasks God gives Adam and Eve is the cultivation of the earth and the classification of the species of wildlife ( Genesis 2:5,15,20 ).

The creation texts confer a sanctity on work. God is involved in work, being its raison d'etre. Human beings have the responsibility and privilege of virtually replicating the works of God. The human race co-creates and co-rules with God as it replenishes the earth and exercises dominion over the universe. This attitude is fundamentally different from that found in the ancient Near East. In creation texts associated with Israel's neighbors, the divine work is not something to be admired, as creation emerged from either a struggle between the gods (Mesopotamia) or an act of defilement (Egypt—but cf. the Memphite theology). Work was regarded as a dreary burden. In fact, the gods made the human race as slaves to provide relief from the labor of running the universe (Mesopotamia). Although human beings are regarded as the divine image in some Egyptian texts, they are essentially "the cattle of the god" (Merikare).

The Fall . Sin transformed human work. The judgment of God affects the material world: Adam's efforts to extract a living from it is met by its resistance and his sweat ( Genesis 3:17-19 ). The perspective of humanity has also been altered. The first couple's eyes have been opened to the reality of evil ( Genesis 3:7 ) and closed to the reality of God's works and God's will. That is why they attempt to hide in creation from the Creator; it also explains how their firstborn son, Cain, can destroy God's climactic work, the image of God in the face of his brother ( Genesis 4:8 ).

In the subsequent chapters of Genesis some scholars detect a critique of the first builders of civilization. This analysis is false. Both Cain and Abel have dominion over the earth as farmer and shepherd respectively. God does not prefer one occupation to another; the issue is obedience. Furthermore, the descendants of Cain may be known for their accomplishments in the field of human endeavoragriculture, metallurgy, music, and artbut that is all they are known for. They have lost themselves in their work, having defined themselves by their achievements. The Cainite genealogy concludes with the dark portrait of Lamech singing his "song of the sword" ( Genesis 4:23-24 ). Early technological skills developed without reference to God produce instruments of death (cf.  Isaiah 2:4 ). In the absence of the knowledge of God's works, human effort is directed toward death instead of life.

The main predeluvian human activity is social violence ( Genesis 6:11,13 ). The creation that had been declared repeatedly "good" at the beginning is now full of corruption and strife. That which once evoked ecstatic joy in the heart of God now wounds him with grief ( Genesis 6:6 ).

At the same time, the Sethite genealogy (chap. 5) concludes with Noah, who is chosen by God to use human effort for the divine purpose. This work must have seemed absurd to his contemporaries, but it provided redemption for creation. Human work, placed not at the service of self but at the service of God, saves. Noah the humble, obedient servant of God contrasts sharply with the heroic warriors of that time.

After the flood, human beings are again given dominion over their natural environment, but the effects of the fall into sin remain. Noah becomes intoxicated with the products of his viticulture, which leads to sexual sin. As a result, slavery is imposed as a curse on the descendants of Ham. The human race uses its capacities and energies to build a huge towera monument to human pride and ambition ( Genesis 11:1-9 ). Babelhuman work at the service of selfbecomes a symbol for chaos and judgment as God sends linguistic confusion to thwart this collective, autonomous venture.

The Patriarchs . God's gracious work in calling Abraham occurs against the backdrop of the failure of human work to achieve salvation ( Genesis 12:1-3 ). Abraham and Sarah represent the beginning of God's new saving work in history, designed to bring a blessing on the entire universe through their seed. Abraham's work is simply to believe and obey, to accept as gifts the new relationship with God as well as the promises of land and descendants. Instead of building a tower to heaven, Abraham and his family are constantly building altars, thereby demonstrating God's dominion over the new land ( Genesis 12:7-8;  21:33;  26:25;  28:18 ).

Egypt . The story of Joseph ( Genesis 37-50 ) describes Israel's entry into Egypt. Devoted to God, Joseph is blessed in everything he does, whether living at home, serving in slavery, or working in prison. This blessing eventually elevates him to the top administrative position in Egypt whereby he is able to use his skill to save not only the Egyptians but many peoples from natural disaster. Joseph is certainly a paradigm for a person who is devoted to God. Primarily a servant of God, he has success in various "callings."

After a significant period of time, the Israelites are oppressed by the Egyptians ( Exodus 1-3 ), who teach them the harsh meaning of slavery as they are forced to build earthly cities for the Pharaoh. Work has been transformed into something demonic, as Israel groans under the backbreaking burden of manual labor. No human effort can provide relief. In such an oppressive situation, Israel experiences liberation through the works of God alone.

Sinai . At Mount Sinai Israel becomes a nation and is given a constitution and law ( Exodus 19-24 ). The divine intent expressed in the Law demonstrates Israel's attitude toward work. Slaves were to be treated with respect and Israelite slaves were to be freed every seven years ( Exodus 21:1-11,26-27 ). Runaway slaves would be given refuge ( Deuteronomy 23:15-16 ). Property would return to its original owner every fifty years ( Leviticus 25:8-13 ). The poor were not to be overlooked in the increase of wealth ( Deuteronomy 24:17-22 ). Wages were to paid equitably and promptly ( Deuteronomy 24:14-15 ). Interest was not to be charged on loans made to Israelites ( Exodus 22:25;  Deuteronomy 23:19-20 ). Moreover, collateral for loans had to be returned to poverty-stricken individuals at the end of the day, if this meant deprivation of clothing during the cool night ( Exodus 22:26-27 ).

The major presuppositions for this concern are found in the Decalogue. Exodus states that the Sabbath command is based on the pattern of divine work and rest in Genesis ( Exodus 20:8-11 ). The Israelites are thus to image God in their alternation of work and rest. The parallel command in the Decalogue of Deuteronomy gives a different reason for the observance of the seventh day ( Deuteronomy 5:12-15 ). Israel is to observe the Sabbath by specifically remembering the oppressive Egyptian experience where she was "worked to death." The stress is more on rest as redemption from the tyranny of work. As God delivered Israel from labor with his redemptive work, Israel is to do the same for those who live in her borders every week. Even animals and the land are to experience rest from work.

Sabbatical cycles are not only weekly but yearly. The seventh year is to be a time of rest for the land and release of Israelite slaves ( Exodus 23:10-12 ). A cycle of seven sabbatical years ends in the year of Jubilee, not only a time of rest and liberty, but a time of debt cancellation and the return of property to its original owners ( Leviticus 25 ). The divine will clearly places a limit on work, which can easily become harsh and oppressive in a fallen world. While human achievement is important, it must serve the divine purpose. Israel is to be reminded constantly that God is the Lord of people, time, land, and work. When Israel places work under divine lordship, human beings again begin to exercise dominion of the creation as God intended for them.

The results of work are clearly brought within the religious sphere. The law of the tithe is a recognition that the strength to work comes from God alone, as do the rewards of working the land. Moreover, it is also a recognition that the fruits of work must be shared with the less fortunate, particularly the foreigner, the widow, and the orphan ( Deuteronomy 14:22-29;  26:12-15 ).

Israel constructs a tabernacle for the divine presence, to bring as it were, heaven to earth ( Exodus 25-40 ). This symbol of God at the center of life is crucial for human work. When Israel is on the verge of entering the promised land, she is reminded through the Shema ( Deuteronomy 6:4-9 ) to keep God at the center of her existence in all that she does. God's love is not only to be placed between the eyes (i.e., to dominate vision); it is also to be placed on the hands (i.e., to motivate action). The options for possible vocations are unlimited, given these theological principles.

The gift of the land will mean many blessings to the nation, but primarily they will be the ability to build houses, plant vineyards, plow fields, and mine for ore. With God at the center, the work of Israel's hands will overflow with blessing. As well as the blessing, however, there is also the constant dangerto idolize the results of work, prosperity, and consequently assume that human strength alone or the fertility gods of the pagan neighbors are responsible for the abundance ( Deuteronomy 8:17;  32:15 ). This view is fatal for if the doxological center is lost, all of Israel's work will be futile: all their hard work would do you no good, because their land will not produce crops and the trees will not bear their fruit ( Leviticus 26:20;  Deuteronomy 28:33 ).

Conquest and Kingdom . The promised land is recognized as God's gift to Israel, yet she must work for it. If the nation does not cooperate with God in taking the land, death in the wilderness is the result ( Numbers 13-14 ). A generation later, the conquest of Jericho is a dramatic example of trust in God's work ( Joshua 6-7 ). The city is taken on the Sabbath, when Israel encircles it seven times. The walls of the city come crashing down as a result of the divine action. Israel fights but God also fights for her. The entire conquest is a result of God working for Israel ( Joshua 11:22 ). She takes cities that she did not build, vineyards that she did not plant, fields that she did not plow ( Joshua 24:13 ). Israel's response is to use the gift as God's steward. Israel is like a new Adam and Eve entering the paradisical garden.

Psalms . The community at worship also has a vision of human work. Humanity is assigned the task of work by the Creator (104:23). This means taking God-like dominion over the natural order (8). But work that is done without a focus on God is like building a house in vain or guarding a city uselessly (127:1-2). The strength of the strong and mighty is useless without trust in Yahweh (20:7-8; 33:16-19; 147:10-11). Given the transience and impermanence of human life, God must be implored to make any human achievement last (90:12,16-17).

Wisdom Literature . The primary presupposition of the Wisdom books is that God has made the world according to a certain pattern. Work and the attitude toward work are important themes. Laziness leads to poverty and even death ( Proverbs 10:4;  21:25 ). Diligence, on the other hand, results in life ( Proverbs 13:4;  12:11 ). The life of crime, a shortcut to prosperity, is condemned as moral suicide ( Proverbs 1:9-20;  16:8 ). In everything it is to be remembered that it is the Lord's blessing that produces true wealth; hard work cannot make a person any richer ( Proverbs 10:22 ).

While Proverbs presents a positive perspective on work, Ecclesiastes has a more negative outlook. As a result of God's curse on human life, it is virtually impossible to detect God's work. Therefore human work can be characterized as toil. Death introduces an element of futility into human life, even making work seem useless (2:18-20). What can be gained from work if death erases one's accomplishments (3:9)? In spite of all our work, there is nothing we can take with us. We labor trying to take the wind, and what do we get? Grief (5:15). It is also observed that envy and greed supply the motivation for the work of many (4:4; 6:7). If one has a more noble religious inspiration, there can be a certain amount of pleasure: "nothing is better for a man under the sun than to eat and drink and be glad. Then joy will accompany him in his work all the days of the life God has given him under the sun" (8:15).

The Prophets . The prophets possessed great social consciousness. The consequences of selfishness and idolatry are always human oppression, as the powerless become trampled in the mad stampede for wealth. Amos describes the affluent in his days as crushing the poor (2:7), and anxiously waiting for the Sabbath to finish so that they can overcharge their poor customers (8:5). Micah (2:2) characterizes the rich as seizing fields and homes whenever they want. But God is not a passive onlooker. The prophets announce his judgment, his "strange work" in history ( Isaiah 28:21 ). As a result all human effort and work without him as the focus ends up being wasted.

After the exile, the Israelites who returned soon forgot the importance of God. They became preoccupied with their own work and neglected the building of the temple. Consequently their labors suffered ( Haggai 1:2-11 ), as they were not able to provide for themselves (cf.  Malachi 3:6-12 ). After the completion of the temple, Israel became prosperous until the religious focus was lost again (Malachi).

This vision of God's work at the center of human life, and the blessing of human work that results, is magnificently illustrated in the prophets' eschatological vision. At the end of time the temple will be the focus of life as all the nations will travel to Jerusalem. There they will be instructed from Yahweh's Torah and the consequence will be the transformation of human work. Instruments one used for destructive purposes such as war will be changed into ones used for productive purposes like agriculture ( Isaiah 2:1-4;  Micah 4:1-6 ). There will be universal shalom and the river of God's life will flow from the temple and heal all the nations ( Ezekiel 47 ).

This clearly indicates that the important point in the Old Testament about work is not a particular vocation; any human work is a life-enhancing blessing when it is controlled by God.

The New Testament . John the Baptist was sent to prepare the way for Jesus. In light of God's coming great work to judge and to save, John called people to repentance. This meant that everyone had to change his or her action in the light of the imminent divine action. Those whose professions were notorious for graft and extortion were not told to leave their Jobs, but to change their behavior ( Luke 3:12-14 ). The problem was not with the profession but with the human heart.

Jesus is equipped for his work with the power of the Holy Spirit. As the new Adam he is also tested by Satan, where the issues of allegiance and work are repeatedly stressed ( Matthew 4:1-11 ). Will Jesus use his power to make bread from stones in order to satisfy his own hunger? Will he push God to the test to be recognized as his unique messenger? Will he seek power illegitimately to accomplish his mission? The answers are negative. Jesus will only do his Father's will. As such, Jesus, the new Adamthe divine image restoredsets the standard for any human activity. Work must be done in obedience to God's will. If it is not, it becomes quickly corrupted by selfishness (v. 3), the desire for human recognition (v. 6), and power (vv. 8-9).

In order for human beings to be restored to their rightful place as masters of the universe instead of its prisoners, individuals must trust in Jesus Christ, God's work, and not in themselves. Some must leave their professions to become apostles ( Mark 1:14-20;  2:13-17 ). All must abandon an old mode of existence in which the divine will was not central. This means a totally new attitude toward work. All labor must be motivated by love of God and neighbor. Only then will human work be free from anxiety, idolatry, laziness, and lethargy.

Human existence is fraught with anxiety as a result of the competitive struggle to make a living. The disciples of Jesus are to learn from the created order: birds do not have storehouses and grass does not toil, yet God lavishly provides for such creatures not made in his image! Consequently how much more should disciples work without anxiety, knowing that their loving Father will provide also for them. But this means a radical reorienting of priorities. The focus must be placed on doing God's will above everything else ( Matthew 6:33 ). Martha in her frantic preoccupation with domestic preparations has lost the focus; her sister, Mary, has not ( Luke 10:38-42 ).

If anxiety characterizes much of human work, so does idolatry. Work and its products become the end and not the means. Jesus condemns this in unequivocal terms with such statements as, "You cannot serve both God and Money" ( Matthew 6:24 ). This means that if one's work inhibits one from doing the will of God, it must goit is an idol. Prospective disciples who use their work as an excuse for following Christ are condemned ( Luke 14:15-24 ). Moreover, others who ignore the demands of Christ while accumulating possessions are rich fools. They, too, are doomed ( Luke 12:13-21 ).

Laziness and lethargy are also possible responses to work. Jesus' parable of the talents implies that refusal to use one's gifts and talents for God is an unacceptable response to his grace ( Matthew 25:14-30 ). Discipleship is implied to be a work in itself. Those who abandon Jesus have started plowing and then have looked back ( Luke 9:62 ); they have begun to build a tower and not been able to finish ( Luke 14:28-30 ). Industry, diligence, and foresight are required.

Jesus announces his message of salvation in terms drawn from the work-a-day world. A sower begins to plant seed ( Matthew 13:1-9 ). A merchant discovers a valuable pearl ( Matthew 13:45-46 ). A woman mixes yeast with a bushel of flour ( Matthew 13:33 ). Fishermen cast out their nets and draw them in ( Matthew 13:47-50 ). But most important, God has a Job for everyone to do: he is in the business of hiring the unemployedeven at the last hour! Yet everyone is paid the same wage. To be hired is grace, to work is grace, the wage is grace ( Matthew 20:1-16 ). The labor of the law is a back-breaking burden as opposed to the work that Jesus offers ( Matthew 11:28-30 ).

The work that is required of the disciples is to do the will of God. If Jesus did divine works, his disciples can do the same as long as they rely on their master ( John 14:12;  15:5 ). They begin to do these works in the Book of Acts when the church is born. As Jesus was baptized by the Spirit and sent forth as the new Adam, the church is similarly immersed and called forth as a new humanity to do the works of God. Pentecost reverses the curse of Babel. There, as people sang the praises of their own achievements in defiance of God, they could not understand one another as God sent linguistic confusion, which ultimately destroyed their work. At Pentecost, as the Holy Spirit descends, all linguistic barriers are broken down as people hear the mighty works of God in their own languages ( Acts 2:11 ). The result is the building of the city of God, a new society whose members meet each other's material as well as spiritual needs ( Acts 2:43-47 ). Or, to use a different metaphor, this new community is understood to be the actual body of Christ whose function is to do the will of its head (Christ) on the earth through the power of the Holy Spirit ( 1 Corinthians 12-14 ). As the different body parts work together in harmony, love is demonstrated and the greatest work of God is accomplished ( 1 Corinthians 13 ).

The dynamic of love for God and each other shapes the church's perspective on its members' occupations and social positions. Everything is evaluated in terms of God's actions in Christ. Criminal behavior is totally unacceptable. Former thieves must start working in order to earn an honest living and help the poor ( Ephesians 4:28 ). Similarly, laziness is inadmissible for a Christian ( 1 Thessalonians 4:11-12;  2 Thessalonians 3:6-13 ). All employees must serve God in their Jobs, not just their human employers; and the latter must serve God in the way they treat their employees ( Ephesians 6:5-9 ). Slaves and their masters can even be called "brothers" in Christ ( Galatians 3:28; Phl 15-16 ). The new relationship with each other transforms perceptions of occupations and motives for work. Believers can even be said to be slaves, whose tools are the wash basin and towel ( John 13 ). Hostility and alienation between labor and management are dealt a death blow with the cross ( Ephesians 2:16 ). Human beings are being restored to the divine image in order to exercise dominion over the creation ( Ephesians 4:23-24 ). Since death has been defeated, no work is done in vain ( 1 Corinthians 15:58 ).

The New Testament concludes with an unparalleled vision of God alive and active in history, bringing the historical process to consummation. In the Book of Revelation God's deeds are repeatedly celebrated. The cheap imitations of the satanic anti-Trinity (Satan, the beast, and the false prophet) are deceptive and destructive. Babylon, the creation of the latter, where people marked by the image of the beast work for selfish profit, perishes from the earth ( Revelation 18 ). Jerusalem, the creation of God, where people work for their Redeemer and Savior, lasts for eternity. A return to Eden has finally been accomplished, where the new Adams and Eves, crowned with glory and honor, are restored finally to their rightful positions as kings and queens of the new creation, God's resplendent images, who will exercise dominion through service and love (22:1-5).

Stephen G. Dempster

See also Money; Reward; Wages; Wealth

Bibliography . J.-M. Aubert, Theology Digest 30 (1980): 7-11; B. Birch, What Does the Lord Require? The Old Testament Call to Social Witness  ; J. Ellul, Cross Currents 35 (1985): 43-48; G. Goosen, A Theology of Work  ; H.-C. Hahn and F. Thiele, NIDNTT 3:1147-59; G. Mendenhall, Biblical Archaeologist Reader, pp. 3-24; J. Murray, Principles of Conduct  ; E. Nash, Modern Churchman 29 (1986): 23-27; I. G. Nicol, Scottish Journal of Theology 33 (1980): 361-73; R. T. Osborn, Quarterly Review 5 (1985): 28-43; J. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament  ; G. von Rad, Wisdom in Israel  ; H. C. Shank, WTJ 37 (1974): 57-73; J. H. Stek, Calvin Theological Journal 13 (1978): 133-65; V. Westhelle, Word and World 6 (1986): 194-206; R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel  ; H. W. Wolff, Anthropology of the Old Testament  ; M. H. Woudstra, New Perspectives on the Old Testament, pp. 88-103; C. J. H. Wright, An Eye for an Eye: The Place of Old Testament Ethics Today .

Bridgeway Bible Dictionary

In the original languages of the Bible, the word ‘work’ had a broad meaning. It was often used of action or behaviour in general ( Psalms 9:16;  Amos 8:7;  Ephesians 2:8-9;  2 Timothy 1:9; see Good Works ). Its specific usages may be grouped into three main categories, namely, ordinary physical work, particular service for God, and the works of God himself.

Physical work

From the beginning God intended people to work. In so doing, they would develop their physical and mental abilities and at the same time learn how to benefit from the created world that God had given them ( Genesis 1:28;  Genesis 2:15). It is not work that is the result of sin, but the pain and suffering that result from work in a world dominated by sin. As a result of sin, people lost the spiritual power that God originally gave, so that the physical creation, which was intended for their enjoyment, became the means of their torment. Work, instead of bringing physical pleasure, brought pain and hardship ( Genesis 3:16-19;  Ecclesiastes 2:22-23).

Work is part of God’s plan for the proper functioning of human life. God desires that people find dignity and enjoyment in the work they do. This applies not just to work that earns money, but to unpaid work such as household and community tasks ( Ecclesiastes 2:24;  Ecclesiastes 9:10; cf.  Psalms 104:19-24).

Christians have additional reasons for taking interest in whatever they do, as their aim is to please Christ, their unseen master. They will work honestly whether or not someone is watching, and will find satisfaction in doing all tasks well, whether or not those tasks are enjoyable ( Colossians 3:23;  Ephesians 6:6-8;  1 Peter 2:18). The Christian who works solely for the purpose of getting income is not serving Christ ( Matthew 6:24).

Although diligence in work is necessary if a person is to earn a living honestly ( 1 Thessalonians 2:9;  2 Thessalonians 3:8), it should not be used as an excuse for selfish ambition. Work becomes a god when a person’s chief concern is to get rich ( Matthew 19:21-22;  Luke 12:16-21;  James 3:16;  James 4:13-17;  James 5:1-6; see Wealth ). It also becomes a god when a person does not know how to cease from it. Rest and recreation, both physical and mental, are part of the weekly work cycle that the Creator intended for his creatures ( Genesis 2:3;  Exodus 20:8-11; cf.  Mark 6:31;  Luke 10:38-41; see Sabbath ).

God is not pleased with those who are lazy or who refuse to work ( Proverbs 13:4;  Proverbs 18:9;  Proverbs 21:25;  Ecclesiastes 10:18;  2 Thessalonians 3:6;  2 Thessalonians 3:10-12). But he is sympathetic to people who, for various reasons, are not able to work, and he expects others to help them ( Deuteronomy 15:7-11;  Proverbs 17:5;  Isaiah 58:7;  Luke 14:12-14;  Luke 16:19-26;  Romans 12:13;  Ephesians 4:28).

All workers, whether employers or employees, are entitled to a just reward for their work. This includes the right to honest profits and fair wages ( Leviticus 19:13;  Proverbs 14:23;  Proverbs 31:16-24;  Ecclesiastes 5:18-19;  Ecclesiastes 11:1;  Ecclesiastes 11:4;  Ecclesiastes 11:6;  Luke 10:7;  Luke 19:13-17;  Colossians 4:1). The Bible consistently condemns an over-concern with income, especially when it produces dishonesty, violence and exploitation ( Deuteronomy 24:14-15;  Proverbs 20:17;  Proverbs 21:6;  Jeremiah 22:13;  Jeremiah 22:17;  Amos 8:4-6;  Luke 3:10-14;  1 Timothy 6:9;  James 5:4). All Christians, employers and employees alike, are answerable to a heavenly master who favours no one on the basis of social class ( Ephesians 6:5;  Ephesians 6:9). He expects all his people to trust in him and to put the interests of his kingdom before their own ( Matthew 6:25-33).

Particular service for God

Though God’s people must carry out all work as if it is his work, they recognize that certain activities are in a special sense God’s work. Such activities are those that concern the preaching of the gospel, the planting of churches and the building up of God’s people. All Christians are, to some extent, involved in this work, for all have been given tasks according to their God-given abilities ( 1 Corinthians 12:4-7; see Gifts Of The Spirit ). Therefore, all Christians will one day have their work assessed, as a result of which they will either receive a reward or suffer loss ( 1 Corinthians 3:10-15; see Reward ).

God may set apart certain people for specific kinds of work ( Acts 13:2;  Acts 14:26;  Ephesians 4:11-13;  1 Timothy 1:18;  1 Timothy 3:1). Such people should do their work with perseverance, honesty and joy, even though the work may at times bring them suffering and distress ( Romans 15:17-20;  1 Corinthians 15:58;  2 Corinthians 11:24-29;  Philippians 2:30). Christians respect their fellow believers who endure faithfully for the sake of Christ ( 1 Corinthians 16:10;  1 Thessalonians 5:13;  1 Timothy 4:15-16).

Nevertheless, true workers for God do not seek praise for themselves. They are not like hawkers trying to sell goods for their own gain. They work from pure motives, avoid any suggestion of deceit or dishonesty, and are concerned only for the glory of God and the well-being of others ( 2 Corinthians 2:17;  2 Corinthians 4:1-2;  2 Corinthians 4:5;  2 Corinthians 4:15;  Galatians 1:10;  1 Thessalonians 2:3-8; see Servant ; Steward ).

If people spend their whole time in the service of the church, they have the right to be supported financially by those who benefit from their work. They might also receive support from those who receive no direct benefit from their work ( 1 Corinthians 9:4-7;  2 Corinthians 11:8-9;  Galatians 6:6;  Galatians 6:10;  Philippians 4:15-16;  1 Timothy 5:17-18). Some, however, may choose at times to earn their living by doing secular work, to avoid creating misunderstanding or financial hardship in a particular church ( Acts 18:3;  1 Corinthians 9:12-15;  1 Thessalonians 2:9;  2 Thessalonians 3:8-9).

The works of God

The Bible speaks of the works of God as evidence of his power, love, faithfulness, righteousness, majesty and almost all other aspects of the divine character ( Psalms 111:2-8). Always God’s works are a cause for people everywhere to worship and praise him ( Psalms 92:5;  Psalms 103:22).

Frequently the Bible refers to God’s works in relation to creation ( Genesis 2:2;  Psalms 8:3;  Psalms 19:1;  Psalms 104:24;  Hebrews 1:10) and the control of history ( Psalms 46:8-9;  Psalms 66:3;  Psalms 107:24;  Psalms 111:6;  Isaiah 26:11-13;  Isaiah 28:21;  Revelation 15:2-4). In particular, it speaks of God’s works with reference to his miracles ( Deuteronomy 11:3-7;  Judges 2:7;  John 9:1-7; see Miracles ). But no matter in what context it speaks of the works of God, those works are usually concerned with two main themes, judgment and salvation ( Psalms 77:11-15;  Psalms 111:6-9;  Isaiah 28:21;  Acts 13:41;  Philippians 1:6; see God ).

With the coming of Jesus, God’s works were in a special sense done through him. Those works were clear evidence, particularly to the Jews, that Jesus had been sent by the Father ( John 5:36) and that through Jesus people could come to the Father ( John 14:6;  John 14:10-11). But most of the Jews rejected the evidence ( John 5:37-38;  John 10:25-26;  John 10:37-38). They were stubbornly resistant to Jesus’ claims ( John 10:32-33), and his miraculous works only roused them to greater opposition ( John 10:20;  John 10:31;  John 10:39).

Jesus, however, did not turn back from his task. He continued to do his Father’s work till that work was finished ( John 4:34;  John 5:17;  John 9:4;  John 15:24;  John 17:4;  John 19:30). Through faith in him and his finished work, people can have forgiveness of sins and eternal life ( John 6:28-29;  John 20:30-31; see Jesus Christ ).

Vine's Expository Dictionary of OT Words

A. Verbs.

Pâ‛al ( פָּעַל , Strong'S #6466), “to do, work.” Common to both ancient and modern Hebrew, this word is used in modern Hebrew in the sense of “to work, to act, to function.” Found only 57 times in the Hebrew Old Testament, it is used primarily as a poetic synonym for the much more common verb ‘ashah , “to do, to make.” Thus, almost half the occurrences of this verb are in the Book of Psalms. Pâ‛al is used for the first time in the Old Testament in the Song of Moses: “… The place, O Lord, which thou hast made for thee to dwell in …” (Exod. 15:17). There is no distinction in the use of this verb, whether God or man is its subject. In Ps. 15:2 man is the subject: “He that walketh uprightly and worketh righteousness, and speaketh the truth in his heart.”

‛Âśâh ( עָשָׂה , Strong'S #6213), “to make, do, create.” This root also occurs in Moabite and Phoenician (only in a proper name). It occurs in early extra-biblical Hebrew, Hebrew, and about 2,625 times in the Bible (in all periods). It should be distinguished from the second sense of ‛âśâh , “to squeeze.”

In its primary sense this verb represents the production of various objects. This includes making images and idols: “Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image …” (Exod. 20:4). The verb can mean to make something into something: “And the residue thereof he maketh a god, even his graven image …” (Isa. 44:17). In an extended use this verb means to prepare a meal, a banquet, or even an offering: “And he [Abraham] took butter, and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them [his three guests] …” (Gen. 18:8).

In Gen. 12:5 ‛âśâh means “to acquire” (as it often does): “And Abram took Sarai his wife, and Lot his brother’s son, and all their substance that they had gathered, and the souls that they had gotten in Haran.…” The “souls that they had gotten” probably were slaves.

Used in association with “Sabbath” or the name of other holy days, this word signifies “keeping” or “celebrating”: “All the congregation of Israel shall keep it [the Passover]” (Exod. 12:47). In a related sense the word means “to spend” a day: “For who knoweth what is good for man in this life, all the days of his vain life which he spendeth as a shadow?” (Eccl. 6:12).

Depending upon its object, ‛âśâh has several other nuances within the general concept of producing some product. For example, with the object “book” the verb means “to write”: “… Of making many books there is no end …” (Eccl. 12:12). The Bible also uses this word of the process of war: “These made war with Bera king of Sodom …” (Gen. 14:2). Sometimes the word represents an action: “And Joshua made peace with them, and made a league with them …” (Josh. 9:15). “To make a mourning” is to observe it: “… And he [Joseph] made a mourning for his father seven days” (Gen. 50:10). With “name” the verb means “to gain prominence and fame”: “Go to, let us build us a city and a tower, whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name …” (Gen. 11:4). With the word “workmanship” the word signifies “to work”: “And I have filled him with the spirit of God … , and in all manner of workmanship, … to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass” (Exod. 31:3-4).

‛Âśâh may represent the relationship of an individual to another in his action or behavior, in the sense of what one does. So Pharaoh asks Abram: “What is this that thou hast done unto me?” (Gen. 12:18). Israel pledged: “All that the Lord hath said will we do, and be obedient” (Exod. 24:7). With the particle le —the verb signifies inflicting upon another some act or behavior: “Then Abimelech called Abraham, and said unto him, What hast thou done unto us?” (Gen. 20:9). With the particle ’im —the word may mean “to show,” or “to practice” something toward someone. The emphasis here is on an ongoing mutual relationship between two parties obligating them to a reciprocal act: “O Lord God of my master Abraham, I pray thee, send me good speed this day, and show kindness unto my master Abraham” (Gen. 24:12). In Gen. 26:29 ‛âśâh appears twice in the sense “to practice toward”: “That thou wilt do us no harm, as we have not touched thee, and as we have done unto thee nothing but good.…”

Used absolutely this verb sometimes means “to take action”: “Let Pharaoh do this, and let him appoint officers over the land …” (Gen. 41:34). In the Hebrew ‛âśâh has no object in this passage—it is used absolutely. Used in this manner it may also signify “to be active”: “She seeketh wool, and flax, and worketh willingly with her hands” (Prov. 31:13). In 1 Chron. 28:10 the verb (used absolutely) means “to go to work,” to go about doing a task: “Take heed now; for the Lord hath chosen thee to build a house for the sanctuary: be strong, and do it.”

This verb used of plants signifies “bringing forth.” In Gen. 1:11 it means “to bear” fruit: “… And the fruit tree [bearing] fruit after his kind.…” In another nuance this verb represents what a plant does in producing grain: “… It hath no stalk: the bud shall yield no meal …” (Hos. 8:7). The word signifies the production of branches, too: “It was planted in a good soil by great waters, that it might bring forth branches, and that it might bear fruit, that it might be a goodly vine” (Ezek. 17:8).

‛Âśâh is used theologically of man’s response to divine commands. God commanded Noah: “Make thee an ark of gopher wood …” (Gen. 6:14). Similarly Israel was commanded “to construct” a sanctuary for God (Exod. 25:8). The manipulation of the blood of the sacrifice is what the priest is to do (Lev. 4:20). The entire cultic activity is described by ‛âśâh: “As he hath done this day, so the Lord hath commanded to do …” (Lev. 8:34). Thus in his acts a man demonstrates his inward commitment and, therefore, his relationship to God (Deut. 4:13). Doing God’s commands brings life upon a man (Lev. 18:5).

This verb is also applied specifically to all aspects of divine acts and actions. In the general sense of His actions toward His people Israel, the word first occurs in Gen. 12:2, where God promises “to make” Abram a great nation. * is also the most general Old Testament expression for divine creating. Every aspect of this activity is described by this word: “For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth …” (Exod. 20:11). This is its meaning in its first biblical occurrence: “And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament …” (Gen. 1:7). This word is used of God’s acts effecting the entire created world and individual men (Exod. 20:6). God’s acts and words perfectly correspond, so that what He says He does, and what He does is what He has said (Gen. 21:1; Ps. 115:3).

B. Noun.

Ma‛ăśeh ( מַעֲשֶׂה , 4639), “work; deed; labor; behavior.” This noun is used 235 times in biblical Hebrew. Lamech, Noah’s father, in expressing his hope for a new world, used the noun for the first time in the Old Testament: “And he called his name Noah, saying, This same shall comfort us concerning our work and toil of our hands, because of the ground which the Lord hath cursed” (Gen. 5:29). The word is scattered throughout the Old Testament and all types of literature.

The basic meaning of ma‛ăśeh is “work.” Lamech used the word to signify agricultural labor (Gen. 5:29). The Israelites were commanded to celebrate the Festival of the Firstfruits, as it signified the blessing of God upon their “labors” (Exod. 23:16). It is not to be limited to this. As the word is the most general word for “work,” it may be used to refer to the “work” of a skillful craftsman (Exod. 26:1), a weaver (26:36), a jeweler (28:11), and a perfumer (30:25). The finished product of the worker is also known as ma‛ăśeh: —“And in the uppermost basket there was of all manner of bakemeats [literally, “work of a baker”] for Pharaoh.…” (Gen. 40:17); “And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of them, even all wrought jewels” [literally, “articles of work”] (Num. 31:51). The artisan plied his craft during the work week, known in Hebrew as “the days of work,” and rested on the Sabbath: “Thus saith the Lord God; The gate of the inner court that looketh toward the east shall be shut the six working days; but on the sabbath it shall be opened, and in the day of the new moon it shall be opened” (Ezek. 46:1; cf. Exod. 23:12).

The phrase “work of one’s hands” signifies the worthlessness of the idols fashioned by human hands: “Asshur shall not save us; we will not ride upon horses: neither will we say any more to the work of our hands, Ye are our gods: for in thee the fatherless findeth mercy” (Hos. 14:3). However, the prayer of the psalmist includes the request that the “works” of God’s people might be established: “And let the beauty of the Lord our God be upon us: and establish thou the work of our hands upon us; yea, the work of our hands establish thou it” (Ps. 90:17). Since the righteous work out God’s work and are a cause of God’s rejoicing, “the glory of the Lord shall endure for ever: the Lord shall rejoice in his works” (Ps. 104:31).

In addition to “work,” ma‛ăśeh also denotes “deed,” “practice,” or “behavior.” Joseph asked his brothers, accused of having taken his cup of divination: “What deed is this that ye have done? wot ye not that such a man as I can certainly divine?” (Gen. 44:15). The Israelites were strongly commanded not to imitate the grossly immoral behavior of the Canaanites and the surrounding nations: “After the doings of the land of Egypt, wherein ye dwelt, shall ye not do: and after the doings of the land of Canaan, whither I bring you, shall ye not do: neither shall ye walk in their ordinances” (Lev. 18:3; cf. Exod. 23:24). However, the Israelites did not listen to the warning, and they “were mingled among the heathen, and learned their works.… Thus were they defiled with their own works, and went a whoring with their own inventions” (Ps. 106:35, 39).

Thus far, we have dealt with ma‛ăśeh from man’s perspective. The word may have a positive connotation (“work, deed”) as well as a negative (“corrupt practice”). The Old Testament also calls us to celebrate the “work” of God. The psalmist was overwhelmed with the majesty of the Lord, as he looked at God’s “work” of creation: “When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained” (Ps. 8:3; cf. 19:1; 102:25). The God of Israel demonstrated His love by His mighty acts of deliverance on behalf of Israel: “And Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that [out] lived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord, that he had done for Israel” (Josh. 24:31; cf. versions).

All of God’s “works” are characterized by faithfulness to His promises and covenant: “For the word of the Lord is right; and all his works are done in truth” (Ps. 33:4).

Ma‛ăśeh is translated in the Greek as ergon (“deed; action; manifestation”) and poiema (“what is made; work; creation”). English translations are work (Kjv, Rsv, Nasb, Niv ) “doing” (KJV and RSV), “practice” (Nasb, Niv )

Webster's Dictionary

(1): ( v. t.) To influence by acting upon; to prevail upon; to manage; to lead.

(2): ( n.) To act or operate on the stomach and bowels, as a cathartic.

(3): ( v. t.) To set in motion or action; to direct the action of; to keep at work; to govern; to manage; as, to work a machine.

(4): ( v. t.) To cause to ferment, as liquor.

(5): ( v. t.) To labor or operate upon; to give exertion and effort to; to prepare for use, or to utilize, by labor.

(6): ( v. t.) To form with a needle and thread or yarn; especially, to embroider; as, to work muslin.

(7): ( n.) To ferment, as a liquid.

(8): ( n.) To make one's way slowly and with difficulty; to move or penetrate laboriously; to proceed with effort; - with a following preposition, as down, out, into, up, through, and the like; as, scheme works out by degrees; to work into the earth.

(9): ( n.) To be in a state of severe exertion, or as if in such a state; to be tossed or agitated; to move heavily; to strain; to labor; as, a ship works in a heavy sea.

(10): ( n.) To carry on business; to be engaged or employed customarily; to perform the part of a laborer; to labor; to toil.

(11): ( n.) Hence, figuratively, to be effective; to have effect or influence; to conduce.

(12): ( v. t.) To produce or form by labor; to bring forth by exertion or toil; to accomplish; to originate; to effect; as, to work wood or iron into a form desired, or into a utensil; to work cotton or wool into cloth.

(13): ( n.) The causing of motion against a resisting force, measured by the product of the force into the component of the motion resolved along the direction of the force.

(14): ( n.) Break; twist.

(15): ( n.) Hence, in a general sense, to operate; to act; to perform; as, a machine works well.

(16): ( n.) To exert one's self for a purpose; to put forth effort for the attainment of an object; to labor; to be engaged in the performance of a task, a duty, or the like.

(17): ( v. t.) To produce by slow degrees, or as if laboriously; to bring gradually into any state by action or motion.

(18): ( n.) Ore before it is dressed.

(19): ( n.) The matter on which one is at work; that upon which one spends labor; material for working upon; subject of exertion; the thing occupying one; business; duty; as, to take up one's work; to drop one's work.

(20): ( n.) Performance of moral duties; righteous conduct.

(21): ( n.) Ore before it is dressed.

(22): ( n.) The causing of motion against a resisting force. The amount of work is proportioned to, and is measured by, the product of the force into the amount of motion along the direction of the force. See Conservation of energy, under Conservation, Unit of work, under Unit, also Foot pound, Horse power, Poundal, and Erg.

(23): ( n.) Manner of working; management; treatment; as, unskillful work spoiled the effect.

(24): ( n.) The moving parts of a mechanism; as, the works of a watch.

(25): ( n.) Structures in civil, military, or naval engineering, as docks, bridges, embankments, trenches, fortifications, and the like; also, the structures and grounds of a manufacturing establishment; as, iron works; locomotive works; gas works.

(26): ( n.) Specifically: (a) That which is produced by mental labor; a composition; a book; as, a work, or the works, of Addison. (b) Flowers, figures, or the like, wrought with the needle; embroidery.

(27): ( n.) That which is produced as the result of labor; anything accomplished by exertion or toil; product; performance; fabric; manufacture; in a more general sense, act, deed, service, effect, result, achievement, feat.

(28): ( n.) Exertion of strength or faculties; physical or intellectual effort directed to an end; industrial activity; toil; employment; sometimes, specifically, physically labor.

King James Dictionary

Work, G Gr.

1. In a general sense, to move, or to move one way and the other to perform as in popular language it is said, a mill or machine works well. 2. To labor to be occupied in performing manual labor, whether severe or moderate. One man works better than another one man works hare another works lazily. 3. To be in action or motion as the working of the heart. 4. To act to carry on operations.

Our better part remains to work in close design.

5. To operate to carry on business to be customarily engaged or employed in. Some work in the mines, others in the loom, others at the anvil.

They that work in fine flax.  Isaiah 19 .

6. To ferment as, unfermented liquors work violently in hot weather. 7. To operate to produce effects by action or influence.

All things work together for good to them that love God. Roman 8.

This so wrought upon the child, that afterwards he desired to be taught.

8. To obtain by diligence. Little used. 9. To act or operate on the stomach and bowels as a cathartic. 10. To labor to strain to move heavily as, a ship works in a tempest. 11. To be tossed or agitated.

Confusd with working sands and rolling waves.

12. To enter by working as, to work into the earth.

To work on, to act on to influence.

To work up, to make way.

Body shall up to spirit work.

To work tot windward, among seamen, to sail or ply against the wind to beat.

WORK,

1. To move to stir and mix as, to work mortar. 2. To form by labor to mold, shape or manufacture as, to work wood or iron into a form desired, or into an utensil to work cotton or wool into cloth. 3. To bring into any state by action. A foul stream, or new wine or cider, works itself clear. 4. To influence by acting upon to manage to lead.

An work your royal father to his ruin.

5. To make by action, labor or violence. A stream works a passage or a new channel.

Sidelong he works his way.

6. To produce by action, labor or exertion.

We might work any effect--only by the unity of nature.

Each herb he knew, that works or good or

7. To embroider as, to work muslin. 8. To direct the movements of, by adapting the sails to the wind as, to work a ship. 9. To put to labor to exert.

Work every nerve.

10. To cause to ferment, as liquor.

To work out,

1. To effect by labor and exertion.

Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling.  Philippians 2 .

2. To expend in any work, as materials. They have worked up all the stock.

To work double tides, in the language of seamen, to perform the labor of three days in two a phrase taken from the practice f working by the night tide as well as by the day.

To work into, to make way, or to insinuate as, to work ones self into favor or confidence.

To work a passage, among seamen, to pay for a passage by doing duty on board of the ship.

WORK, n. G., Gr.

1. Labor employment exertion of strength particularly in man, manual labor. 2. State of labor as, to be at work. 3. Awkward performance. What work you make! 4. That which is made or done as good work, or bad work. 5. Embroidery flowers or figures wrought with the needle. 6. Any fabric or manufacture 7. The matter on which one is at work. In rising she dropped her work. 8. Action deed feat achievement as the works of bloody Mars. 9. Operation.

As to the composition or dissolution of mixed bodies, which is the chief work of elements--

10. Effect that which proceeds from agency.

Fancy wild work produces oft, and most in dreams.

11. Management treatment. 12. That which is produced by mental labor a composition a book as the works of Addison. 13. Works, in the plural, walls, trenches and the like, made for fortifications. 14. In theology, moral duties or external performances, as distinct from grace.

To set to work, To set on work, to employ to engage in any business.

Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament

This article deals with the special sense in which the word is employed in the NT of the office of the preacher of the gospel. (For other senses see Business, Labour.) Popular opinion tends to regard spiritual ministry as the spontaneous activity of a certain temperament requiring no particular effort. The teaching of the NT directly contradicts this notion. It declares that it is only by systematic and severe labour that we can win men for God. This is borne out by the terms used in the apostolic writings. In the Fourth Gospel we hear the Lord speaking of the fulfilling of the ‘work’ which He had been sent to accomplish ( John 17:4). This word (ἔργον) was taken up by the Church and applied to the task set before its evangelists. The mission entrusted to Saul and Barnabas is described as ‘the work’ to which they received a vocation from the Holy Spirit ( Acts 13:2;  Acts 14:26).

In the Pauline Epistles this work is said to be ‘the work of the Lord,’ i.e. the definite service which Christ lays upon believers of proclaiming the gospel. All the faithful are called to this. The special charismata of some are bestowed in order that they may be used for ‘the perfecting of the saints, unto the work of ministering’ ( Ephesians 4:12). Abundant activity in this office follows a firm belief in the Resurrection ( 1 Corinthians 15:58). In  1 Corinthians 3:10-17 the ‘work’ is likened to a building which must be built so as to stand the test of the fire of judgment. It is therefore natural to speak of the Christian minister as the ἐργάτης whose ideal is to produce nothing which will shame him ( 2 Timothy 2:15). The dignity of his vocation is expressed in the highest terms when he is named a ‘fellow-worker with God’ ( 1 Corinthians 3:9,  2 Corinthians 6:1; cf.  1 Thessalonians 3:2 RVm ). The spirit in which the work is to be done is denoted by another word, κόπος, which is ‘almost a technical word for Christian work’ (H. B. Swete, Apocalypse, London, 1907, p. 25), and signifies the weariness which attends the effort required of those who undertake this work. It suggests the idea of an athlete undergoing great fatigue (see J. B. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, London, 1891, p. 161). With its cognate verb St. Paul uses it in this connexion some twenty times. The leaders of the Church are distinguished by it ( 1 Thessalonians 5:12). It must be endured by those who would be teachers of the Word ( 1 Timothy 5:17). The Apostle himself had experienced it to the full ( 1 Corinthians 15:10,  2 Corinthians 11:23).

Literature.-A. W. Robinson, Co-operation with God, London, 1908.

C. T. Dimont.