Crucifixion Cross

Holman Bible Dictionary

 Romans 12:1 Mark 8:34

Historical Development Originally a cross was a wooden pointed stake used to build a wall or to erect fortifications around a town. Beginning with the Assyrians and Persians, it began to be used to display the heads of captured foes or of particularly heinous criminals on the palisades above the gateway into a city. Later crucifixion developed into a form of capital punishment, as enemies of the state were impaled on the stake itself. The Greeks and Romans at first reserved the punishment only for slaves, saying it was too barbaric for freeborn or citizens. By the first century, however, it was used for any enemy of the state, though citizens could only be crucified by direct edict of Caesar. As time went on, the Romans began to use crucifixion more and more as a deterrent to criminal activity, so that by Jesus' time it was a common sight.

The eastern form of crucifixion was practiced in the Old Testament. Saul was decapitated and his body displayed on a wall by the Philistines ( 1 Samuel 31:9-10 ), and the “hanging” of  Esther 2:23;  Esther 5:14 may mean impalement (compare   Ezra 6:11 ). According to Jewish law ( Deuteronomy 21:22-23 ) the offenders were “hung on a tree,” which meant they were “accursed of God” and outside the covenant people. Such criminals were to be removed from the cross before nightfall lest they “defile the land.” During the intertestamental period the western form was borrowed when Alexander Janneus crucified 800 Pharisees (76 B.C.), but on the whole the Jews condemned and seldom used the method. Even Herod the Great refused to crucify his enemies. The practice was abolished after the “conversion” of the emperor of Constantine to Christianity.

A person crucified in Jesus' day was first of all scourged (beaten with a whip consisting of thongs with pieces of metal or bone attached to the end) or at least flogged until the blood flowed. This was not just done out of cruelty but was designed to hasten death and lessen the terrible ordeal. After the beating, the victim was forced to bear the crossbeam to the execution site in order to signify that life was already over and to break the will to live. A tablet detailing the crime(s) was often placed around the criminal's neck and then fastened to the cross. At the site the prisoner was often tied (the normal method) or nailed (if a quicker death was desired) to the crossbeam. The nail would be driven through the wrist rather than the palm, since the smaller bones of the hand could not support the weight of the body. The beam with the body was then lifted and tied to the already affixed upright pole. Pins or a small wooden block were placed halfway up to provide a seat for the body lest the nails tear open the wounds or the ropes force the arms from their sockets. Finally the feet were tied or nailed to the post. Death was caused by the loss of blood circulation and coronary failure. Especially if the victims were tied, it could take days of hideous pain as the extremities turned slowly gangrenous; so often the soldiers would break the victims legs with a club, causing massive shock and a quick death. Such deaths were usually done in public places, and the body was left to rot for days, with carrion birds allowed to degrade the corpse further.

Four types of crosses were used: 1) The Latin cross has the crossbeam about two-thirds of the way up the upright pole; 2) St. Anthony's cross (probably due to its similarity to his famous crutch) had the beam at the top of the upright pole like a T. 3) St. Andrew's cross (supposedly the form used to crucify Andrew) had the shape of the letter X; 4) the Greek cross has both beams equal in the shape of a plus sign.

The Crucifixion of Jesus Jesus predicted His coming crucifixion many times. The Synoptic Gospels list at least three ( Mark 8:31;  Mark 9:31;  Mark 10:33-34 and parallels), while John records three others (  Mark 3:14;  Mark 8:28;  Mark 12:32-33 ). Several aspects of Jesus' passion are predicted; 1) it occurred by divine necessity (“must” in  Mark 8:31 );  2 ) both Jews (“delivered”) and Romans (“killed”) were guilty ( Mark 9:31 );  3 ) Jesus would be vindicated by being raised from the dead; 4) the death itself entailed glory (seen in the “lifted up” sayings which imply exaltation in  John 3:14;  John 8:28;  John 12:32-33 ).

The narration of Jesus' crucifixion in the Gospels emphasized Jewish guilt, but all four carefully separated the leaders from the common people, who supported Jesus all along and were led astray by the leaders at the last. Yet Roman guilt is also obvious. The Sanhedrin was no longer allowed to initiate capital punishment; only the Romans could do so. Furthermore, only Roman soldiers could carry it out. Roman customs were followed in the scourging, mock enthronement, bearing the crossbeam, and the crucifixion itself. The site on a hill and the size of the cross (the use of the hyssop reed shows it was seven to nine feet high) showed their desire for a public display of a “criminal.” The Jewish elements in the crucifixion of Jesus were the wine mixed with myrrh ( Mark 15:23 ), the hyssop reed with vinegar ( Mark 15:36 ), and the removal of Jesus' body from the cross before sunset ( John 19:31 ).

The four Gospels look at Jesus' crucifixion from four different vantage points and highlight diverse aspects of the significance of His death. Mark and Matthew centered upon the horror of putting the Son of God Himself to death. Mark emphasized the messianic meaning, using the taunts of the crowds to “save yourself” ( Mark 15:30-31 ) as an unconscious prophecy pointing to the resurrection. Matthew took Mark even further, pointing to Jesus as the royal Messiah who faced His destiny in complete control of the situation. Jesus' vindication was found not only in the rending of the veil and the centurion's testimony ( Matthew 27:51 ,Matthew 27:51, 27:54 paralleling Mark) but in the remarkable raising of the Old Testament saints (  Matthew 27:52-53 ) which links the cross and the open tomb. For Matthew the cross inaugurated the last days when the power of death is broken, and salvation is poured out upon all people.

Luke has perhaps the most unique portrayal, with two emphases: Jesus as the archetypal righteous Martyr who forgave His enemies and the crucifixion as an awesome scene of reverence and worship. Luke omitted the negative aspects of the crucifixion (earthquakes, wine with myrrh, cry of dereliction) and overturned the taunts when the crowd “returned home beating their breasts” ( Luke 23:48 RSV). Luke included three sayings of Jesus which relate to prayer (found only in Luke): “Father, forgive them” (  Luke 23:34 , contrasted with the mockery); “today you will be with me in paradise” ( Luke 23:43 , in response to the criminal's prayer); and “Father into thy hands I commend my spirit” ( Luke 23:46 ). A wondrous sense of stillness and worship color Luke's portrayal.

John's narration is perhaps the most dramatic. Even moreso than Luke, all the negative elements disappear (the darkness and taunts as well as those missing also in Luke), and an atmosphere of calm characterizes the scene. At the core is Jesus' sovereign control of the whole scene. The cross becomes His throne. John noted that the inscription on the cross (“JESUS OF NAZARETH, THE KING OF THE JEWS”) was written in Aramaic, Latin, and Greek ( John 19:19-20 ), thereby changing it into a universal proclamation of Jesus' royal status. Throughout the account to the final cry, “It is finished” ( John 19:30 ), Jesus was in complete control.

One cannot understand Jesus' crucifixion until all four Gospels are taken into account. All the emphases—the messianic thrust, Jesus as Son of God and as the righteous Martyr, the sacrificial nature of His death, the cross as His throne—are necessary emphases of the total picture of the significance of His crucifixion.

Theological Meaning While a theology of the cross is found primarily in Paul, it clearly predates him, as can be demonstrated in the “creeds” (statements of belief/teaching) Paul quoted. For instance,  1 Corinthians 15:3-5 says Paul had “received” and then “delivered” to the Corinthians the truth that Jesus “died for our sins according to the Scriptures.” Three major themes are interwoven in this and other creeds (  Romans 4:25;  Romans 6:1-8;  Romans 8:32;  Colossians 2:11-12;  1 Timothy 3:16;  Hebrews 1:3-4;  1 Peter 1:21;  1 Peter 3:18-22 ): Jesus death as our substitute (from  Isaiah 53:5; compare  Mark 10:45;  Mark 14:24 ); Jesus' death and resurrection as fulfilling Scripture; and Jesus' vindication and exaltation by God.

For Paul the “word of the cross” ( 1 Corinthians 1:18 NAS) is the heart of the gospel, and the preaching of the cross is the soul of the church's mission. “Christ crucified” (  1 Corinthians 1:23; compare  1 Corinthians 2:2;  Galatians 3:1 ) is more than the basis of our salvation; the cross was the central event in history, the one moment which demonstrated God's control of and involvement in human history. In  1 Corinthians 1:17-2:16 Paul contrasted the “foolishness” of the “preaching of the cross” with human “wisdom” (  1 Corinthians 1:17-18 ), for only in the cross can salvation be found and only in the foolish “preaching of the cross” and “weakness” can the “power of God” be seen (1Corinthians 1:21, 1 Corinthians 1:25 ). Jesus as the lowly One achieved His glory by virtue of His suffering—only the crucified One could become the risen One ( 1 Corinthians 1:26-30 ). Such a message certainly was viewed as foolish in the first century; Roman historians like Tacitus and Suetonius looked upon the idea of a “crucified God” with contempt.

The cross is the basis of our salvation in Paul's epistles ( Romans 3:24-25;  Ephesians 2:16;  Colossians 1:20;  Colossians 2:14 ), while the resurrection is stressed as the core in the Book of Acts ( Acts 2:33-36;  Acts 3:19-21;  Acts 5:31 ).  Romans 4:25 makes both emphases. The reason for the distinct emphases is most likely seen in the fact that Acts chronicles the preaching of the early church (with the resurrection as the apologetic basis of our salvation) and the epistles the teaching of the early church (with the crucifixion the theological basis of our salvation). The three major terms are: “redemption,” stressing the “ransom payment” made by Jesus' blood in delivering us from sin (  Titus 2:14;  1 Peter 1:18 ); “propitiation,” which refers to Jesus' death as “satisfying” God's righteous wrath ( Romans 3:25;  Hebrews 2:17 ); and “justification,” picturing the results of the cross, the “acquittal” (“declaring righteous”) of our guilt ( Romans 3:24;  Romans 4:25;  Galatians 2:16-21;  Galatians 3:24 ).

The cross did even more than procure salvation. It forged a new unity between Jew and Gentile by breaking down “the dividing wall of hostility” and “made the two one” ( Ephesians 2:14-15 NIV), thereby producing “peace” by creating a new access to the Father (  Ephesians 2:18 ). In addition the cross “disarmed” the demonic “powers” and forged the final triumph over Satan and his hordes, forcing those spiritual forces to follow his train in a victory procession ( Colossians 2:15 NIV). The cross was Satan's great error. When Satan entered Judas in betraying Jesus, he undoubtedly did not realize that the cross would prove his greatest defeat. He could only respond with frustrated rage, knowing that “his time is short” (  Revelation 12:12 NIV). Satan participated in his own undoing!

The Symbolic Meaning Jesus Himself established the primary figurative interpretation of the cross as a call to complete surrender to God. He used it five times as a symbol of true discipleship in terms of self-denial, taking up one's cross, and following Jesus ( Mark 8:34;  Mark 10:38;  Matthew 16:24;  Luke 9:23;  Luke 14:27 ). Building upon the Roman practice of bearing the crossbeam to the place of execution, Jesus intended this in two directions: the death of self, involving the sacrifice of one's individuality for the purpose of following Jesus completely; and a willingness to imitate Jesus completely, even to the extent of martyrdom.

Closely connected to this is Paul's symbol of the crucified life. Conversion means the ego “no longer live(s)” but is replaced by Christ and faith in Him ( Galatians 2:20 ). Self-centered desires are nailed to the cross ( Galatians 5:24 ), and worldly interests are dead ( Galatians 6:14 ). In  Romans 6:1-8 we are “buried with him” (using the imagery of baptism) with the result that we are raised to “newness of life” (  Romans 6:4 ). This is taken further in  2 Corinthians 5:14-17 . The believer relives the death and resurrection by putting to death the old self and putting on the new. In one sense this is a past act, experienced at conversion. Yet according to  Ephesians 4:22 ,Ephesians 4:22, 4:24 this is also a present act, experienced in the corporate life of the church. In other words, both at conversion and in spiritual growth, the believer must relive the cross before experiencing the resurrection life. The Christian paradox is that death is the path to life! See Atonement; Christology; Justification; Passion; Propitiation; Redemption.

Grant Osborne

Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology

The importance of the cross as a theological motif in the New Testament is impossible to overestimate. It stands as the center of the New Testament theology of salvation and is the starting point for not only soteriology, but all of Christian theology. It is the means by which we finally and fully understand the work of Christ on our behalf. The Gospel of Mark indicates that it is at the cross that we recognize Jesus as God's divinely appointed Savior of the world (10:45; 15:39). While the larger notion of the death of Christ may carry a broader and even deeper significance in New Testament theology, the cross as a symbol of God's action in Christ and a motivator for us to follow is worthy of discussion.

The cross of Christ is the center of the work that God did in Christ, "reconciling the world to himself" ( 2 Corinthians 5:19 ). Paul emphasizes this work most notably in the early chapters of 1Corinthians. The emphasis there is on power; the cross is held up as the power of God, which is seen as weakness by men. The statement of 1:17 belongs with the passage before, and introduces the thought Paul develops in 1:18-2:5. He is concerned "to preach the gospel—not with words of human wisdom, lest the cross of Christ be emptied of its power, " and declares the message of the cross to be foolishness. However, this foolishness of God destroys the wisdom of the wise and is therefore central to the biblical notion of the salvation of God being a wise salvation because God is a wise God. The wise man, scholar, and philosopher of this age are dumbfounded by what appears to them to be foolishness.

The link of the cross with God's wisdom and power is intriguing, but perhaps most significant is the linking of the cross to Christ himself. Paul says that he preaches "Christ crucified: a stumbling block to Jews and foolishness to Gentiles, but to those whom God has called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God" ( 1 Corinthians 1:23-24 ). The structure of this sentence equates the "Christ crucified" with "Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God." Hence the cross is seen as a defining revelation of who Christ is: the messianic wisdom of God and the dynamic power of God predicted in the Old Testament.

The cross is also seen as God's deliberate choice. He did not stumble onto it by accident but chose the weak and foolish things of the world in order deliberately to confound the wise and to shame the strong. Thus, a fourth element, and perhaps the most radical, of God's character is demonstrated in the cross: the love of God for the despised of the world. The cross is a symbol of shame in the Old Testament ( Deuteronomy 21:23; cf.  Galatians 3:13-14 ) and thereby serves not only to state the radical nature of Christ's humiliation, but by implication to judge the world and all its inhabitants as being "the despised" who must identify with a crucified messiah in order to receive God's salvation. Thus, the statement in 1Corinthians becomes not only a statement of theology but also a statement of anthropology.

Paul continues this theme in the statement about himself and his own weakness, which becomes a major theme of 1Corinthians. He claims to have not come to them with eloquence or superior wisdom, but as one who resolves to know nothing except "Jesus Christ and him crucified. I came to you in weakness and fear and with much trembling. My message and my preaching were not with wise and persuasive words, but with a demonstration of the spirit's power, so that your faith might not rest on men's wisdom but on God's power" (2:2-5). Hence the passage comes full circle back to the wisdom and power of the cross, which seems to be foolishness and weakness to men. The central focus now, though, is not Christ but Paul himself who, as a minister of Christ, must come only in weakness and foolishness. So now a third theological category is defined by the cross, that of ministry in the world. It is to be characterized by foolishness and weakness. Of course the background of the passage is the contrast of Greek wisdom, which looked only for eloquence and style, not substance, and a power that was emotional, and for the moment, not lasting. Hence Paul comes with the power of substantial argument that can "demolish strongholds" ( 2 Corinthians 10:4 ) and operates with a power that suffers and dies rather than victoriously triumphs.

While the cross is the means of the redemption of humankind and that fact is essential to any theology of the cross, the imagery used to discuss the cross has been highly disputed. The cross is displayed as a "sacrifice of atonement" in the well-known passage,  Romans 3:24 , which links it with the sacrificial death of the animals in the cultus of the Old Testament. The shedding of blood and the death of the sacrificed one are the two major links to this metaphor. The debate about this passage revolves around whether Christ's death merely obliterates the sin that caused the death to happen or assuages the wrath of God that is poured out upon humankind because of that sin. The link is clearly there with the wrath of God; the question seems to be how to understand that wrath. In any case, the wrath is not to be seen as the capricious anger of a malevolent God, but rather as the careful, considered fury of the Holy One of Israel against the evil that keeps man from his rightful place as God's highest and most prized possession.

Not only is the language of the cultus used in  Romans 3 , but also the language of justification (the law court) and redemption (the slave market). In this context the cross of Christ pays the penalty for the sins of humankind and therefore serves their sentence, freeing them from death, and pays the ransom needed to free the slaves from the power of sins and allow them to live.

Lastly, the cross of Christ speaks to the ongoing nature of the Christian life. In Galatians, Paul argues that those who have started so well need to come back to where they started, the cross of Christ. While crucifixion is not mentioned often in the book, two key places let us know that it is never far from Paul's mind. In 2:20 Paul speaks of being crucified with Christ, yet no longer living, but Christ lives in him, and the life he now lives in the body he lives by faith in the Son of God, who loved him and gave himself for him. This crucial verse describes the whole of Paul's attitude toward Christ, the Law, and grace in the book. The Galatians have gone back to observing the Law, when they started by being empowered by the Spirit through believing in the message of the cross (3:1). Thus, while Paul concentrates on faith versus observation of the Law as the mechanism for applying for the application of grace and the obtaining of righteousness, in the background is the means by which God has achieved this possibility for humankind: the cross.

The closing verses of the book show the centrality of the cross for Paul as well. Those who are compelling others to be circumcised are avoiding being persecuted "for the cross of Christ" (6:12), and Paul expressly declares that he will never boast in anything except "the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, through which the world has been crucified to me, and I to the world" (v. 14). Thus the cross is as central to living the Christian life as it is to entering into it.

Andrew H. Trotter, Jr.

See also Death Of Christ; Jesus Christ

Bibliography . E. Brandenburger, NIDNTT, 1:389-405; C. B. Cousar, A Theology of the Cross  ; E. M. Embry, NIDNTT, 3:865-70; J. B. Green, DJG, pp. 146-63; idem, DPL, pp. 197-99,201-9; M. Hengel, The Atonement: The Origins of the Doctrine in the New Testament  ; M. Hengel, Crucifixion, A. E. McGrath, DPL, pp. 192-97; L. Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross  ; idem, The Cross in the New Testament .