Iron

Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types

 Psalm 2:9 (b) This evidently refers to the severe judgment that the Lord Jesus will execute against all His enemies.

 Ecclesiastes 10:10 (c) We understand by this that if the mind is not acute, and the spirit of man is not alert, and if the understanding is not clear, then more effort must be put into the work that is being done. It probably has a direct reference to the fact that those who teach and preach must know the subject well, must; be enthused in the matter, must have original thoughts, and must know how to present the subject to others in an effective way.

 Isaiah 10:34 (b) This picture represents the irresistible power of GOD to destroy all wicked leaders and evildoers.

 Isaiah 45:2 (b) By this we understand that GOD will destroy every opponent and remove every hindrance to His will.

 Isaiah 48:4 (a) This type represents the hard, stiff, unbending attitude of Israel toward GOD in that they refused to obey Him, and to walk in His ways.

 Jeremiah 1:18 (a) GOD promised the prophet that he would be able to stand and to withstand all the opposition of the enemies of GOD in Israel.

 Jeremiah 15:12 (b) This question refers to the fact that Israel as iron would be able to conquer and destroy two northern kingdoms which would be very strong in themselves. These two kingdoms may be the Syrians and the Chaldonians.

 Jeremiah 28:13 (b) As wood is easily broken, but iron cannot be broken, so the oppression of former invaders would not be as severe and difficult as the oppression brought by Nebuchadnezzar.

 Ezekiel 4:3 (b) This strange passage may have several meanings. It may refer to the fact that the kingdom which shall come to besiege Jerusalem will be hard and irresistible. Or, it may mean that the prophet's message would not reach the hearts of the people in Jerusalem because of the hardness of their hearts, and their resistance to the things of GOD.

 Daniel 2:33 (b) This represents the strength that will characterize the world empires.

 Daniel 7:7 (b) This is a picture of the fierceness and power that will characterize the revived Roman Empire.

 Amos 1:3 (a) The type in this passage represents the power and strength of the invaders from Damascus.

 Micah 4:13 (b) By this figure is described the victorious power of the conquering armies of Israel.

 1 Timothy 4:2 (a) As heat destroys the feeling in any part that is burned, so sinning dulls the conscience about GOD and His Word.

 Revelation 2:27 (b) This indicates the stern force that our Lord JESUS will use in conquering the rebellious nations of earth. (See also  Psalm 2:9;  Revelation 12:5;  19:15).

Holman Bible Dictionary

 Deuteronomy 8:9 Deuteronomy 3:11 Joshua 6:19

In early forging techniques iron was not much harder than other known metals and, unlike bronze and copper, it had to be worked while hot. As improved metalworking techniques became known, however, iron gradually became the preferred metal for tools such as plows, axes, and picks as well as for weapons such as spears and daggers. Iron chariots were a sign of great power in warfare ( Joshua 17:18;  Judges 1:19;  Judges 4:3 ).

Older scholars taught that the Philistines held an iron monopoly over Israel. Increased availability of iron corresponds to the period of Philistia's collapse, and 1Samuel records that the Philistines prevented smiths from working in Israel ( 1 Samuel 13:19-21 ). However, excavations in Philistia have uncovered no more iron implements than in Israelite cities. This suggests that the prohibition of smiths in Israel may refer to workers in bronze rather than iron or that for a period of history the Philistines had an economic and perhaps technological advantage, being able to control the iron industry.

Most likely, iron became common throughout the region due to disruption of sources of other metals and to increased trading to the north and over the sea. After 1000 B.C. iron became widely used. David emphasized the importance of taking metals as spoils of war, and he later used stockpiles of iron and bronze in preparation for building the Temple ( 1 Chronicles 22:3 ).

Iron is frequently used symbolically in the Bible. Related to the hardness of iron it is used as a threat of judgment ( Psalm 2:9;  Revelation 2:27 ) or as a sign of strength ( Isaiah 48:4;  Daniel 2:40 ). The imagery includes other aspects of ironworking: the furnace was a symbol of oppression ( 1 Kings 8:51 ), and the cauterizing effect of hot iron was used by Paul to describe those with no conscience ( 1 Timothy 4:2 ). See Arms And Armor; Minerals And Metals; Mining; Philistines.

Tim Turnham

Webster's Dictionary

(1): ( v. t.) To furnish or arm with iron; as, to iron a wagon.

(2): ( n.) Fetters; chains; handcuffs; manacles.

(3): ( n.) Inflexible; unrelenting; as, an iron will.

(4): ( v. t.) To smooth with an instrument of iron; especially, to smooth, as cloth, with a heated flatiron; - sometimes used with out.

(5): ( v. t.) To shackle with irons; to fetter or handcuff.

(6): ( n.) Not to be broken; holding or binding fast; tenacious.

(7): ( n.) Firm; robust; enduring; as, an iron constitution.

(8): ( n.) The most common and most useful metallic element, being of almost universal occurrence, usually in the form of an oxide (as hematite, magnetite, etc.), or a hydrous oxide (as limonite, turgite, etc.). It is reduced on an enormous scale in three principal forms; viz., cast iron, steel, and wrought iron. Iron usually appears dark brown, from oxidation or impurity, but when pure, or on a fresh surface, is a gray or white metal. It is easily oxidized (rusted) by moisture, and is attacked by many corrosive agents. Symbol Fe (Latin Ferrum). Atomic weight 55.9. Specific gravity, pure iron, 7.86; cast iron, 7.1. In magnetic properties, it is superior to all other substances.

(9): ( n.) Resembling iron in color; as, iron blackness.

(10): ( n.) An instrument or utensil made of iron; - chiefly in composition; as, a flatiron, a smoothing iron, etc.

(11): ( n.) Strength; power; firmness; inflexibility; as, to rule with a rod of iron.

(12): ( n.) Like iron in hardness, strength, impenetrability, power of endurance, insensibility, etc.;

(13): ( n.) Rude; hard; harsh; severe.

(14): ( n.) Of, or made of iron; consisting of iron; as, an iron bar, dust.

(15): ( n.) An iron-headed club with a deep face, chiefly used in making approaches, lifting a ball over hazards, etc.

Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary

ברזל ; occurs first in  Genesis 4:22 , and afterward frequently; and the Chaldee פרזל , in  Daniel 2:33;  Daniel 2:41 , and elsewhere often in that book; σιδηρος ,  Revelation 18:12 , and the adjectives,  Acts 12:10;  Revelation 2:27;  Revelation 9:9;  Revelation 12:5;  Revelation 19:15; a well known and very serviceable metal. The knowledge of working it was very ancient, as appears from  Genesis 4:22 . We do not, however, find that Moses made use of iron in the fabric of the tabernacle in the wilderness, or Solomon in any part of the temple at Jerusalem. Yet, from the manner in which the Jewish legislator speaks of iron, the metal, it appears, must have been in use in Egypt before his time. He celebrates the great hardness of it,  Leviticus 26:19;  Deuteronomy 28:23;  Deuteronomy 28:48; takes notice that the bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was of iron,  Deuteronomy 3:11; he speaks of mines of iron,  Deuteronomy 8:9; and he compares the severity of the servitude of the Israelites in Egypt to the heat of a furnace for melting iron,  Deuteronomy 4:20 . We find, also, that swords,  Numbers 35:16 , axes,  Deuteronomy 19:5 , and tools for cutting stones,  Deuteronomy 27:5 , were made of iron. By the "northern iron,"

 Jeremiah 15:12 , we may probably understand the hardened iron, called in Greek χαλυψ , from the Chalybes, a people bordering on the Euxine sea, and consequently lying on the north of Judea, by whom the art of tempering steel is said to have been discovered. Strabo speaks of this people by the name of Chalybes, but afterward Chaldaei; and mentions their iron mines. These, however, were a different people from the Chaldeans, who were united with the Babylonians.

Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament

(σίδηρος; adj. σιδήρεος)

Iron, the commonest, cheapest, and most useful of heavy metals, is mentioned ( Revelation 18:12) among the merchandise of ‘Babylon’ (= Rome). The Iron Age of civilization succeeded the Ages of Copper and Bronze. ‘In Egypt, Chaldaea, Assyria, China, it reaches far back, to perhaps 4000 years before the Christian era. Homer represents Greece as beginning her Iron Age twelve hundred years before our era’ ( Encyclopaedia Britannica 11 xiv. [1910] 800). Rome was supplied with iron from India, the shores of the Black Sea, Spain, Elba, and the province of Noricum. The apocalyptic Messiah is to rule the nations with a rod of iron ( Revelation 2:27;  Revelation 12:5;  Revelation 19:15), a symbol of inflexible justice (cf. Psalms 29). The iron gate leading from the fortress of Antonia into the city of Jerusalem opened to St. Peter and the angel of its own accord (αὐτομάτη,  Acts 12:10); cf. Homer’s αὐτόμαται δὲ πύλαι μύκον οὐρανοῦ, ἂς ἔχον Ὡραι ( Il . v. 749), and Virgil, aen . vi. 81f.

James Strahan.

Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words

A — 1: σίδηρος (Strong'S #4604 — Noun Masculine — sideros — sid'-ay-ros )

"iron," occurs in  Revelation 18:12 .

B — 1: σιδήρεος (Strong'S #4603 — Adjective — sidereos — sid-ay'-reh-os )

"of iron," occurs in  Acts 12:10 , of an iron gate; "of iron,"  Revelation 2:27;  9:9;  12:5;  19:15 .

Smith's Bible Dictionary

I'ron. (Pious).

1. One of the cities of Naphtali,  Joshua 19:38, hitherto totally unknown.

2. Iron is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals.  Genesis 4:22. The natural wealth in iron of the soil of Canaan is indicated by describing it as "a land whose stones are iron."  Deuteronomy 8:9. (Recent explorations have shown that iron ore is abundant in the northern part of Palestine. - Editor).

The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Sheet-iron was used for cooking utensils.  Ezekiel 4:3. Compare  Leviticus 7:9.

That it was plentiful in the time of David appears from  1 Chronicles 22:3.

The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of by Dan and Javan.  Ezekiel 27:19.

The Chalybes of the Pontus were celebrated as workers in iron in very ancient times. The product of their labor is supposed to be alluded to in  Jeremiah 16:12 as being of superior quality.

Specimens of Assyrian iron-work overlaid with bronze were discovered by Mr. Layard, and are now in the British Museum.

Iron weapons of various kinds were found at Nimroud, but fell to pieces on exposure to the air.

American Tract Society Bible Dictionary

Was early known and wrought,  Genesis 4:22 . Moses often alludes to it. He compares the bondage in Egypt to a furnace for smelting iron, and speaks of the iron ore of Canaan,  Deuteronomy 3:11   4:20   8:9 . Many different articles and tools were anciently made of it. Immense quantities were provided for the building of the temple,  1 Chronicles 29:2,7 . "Iron" is used to illustrated slavery, strength, obstinacy, fortitude, affliction, etc.,  Deuteronomy 28:48   Job 40:18   Isaiah 48:4   Jeremiah 1:18   Ezekiel 22:18,20   Daniel 2:33 . "Iron sharpeneth iron," that is, the presence of a friend gives us more confidence and assurance. God threatens his ungrateful and perfidious people that he will make the heaven brass and the earth iron; that is, make the earth barren, and the heaven to produce no rain. Chariots of iron are chariots armed with iron spikes and scythes. See Chariots .

Easton's Bible Dictionary

 Genesis 4:22 1 Chronicles 22:3 29:7 Ezekiel 27:19 Deuteronomy 27:5 19:5 Joshua 17:16,18 1 Samuel 17:7 2 Samuel 12:31 2 Kings 6:5,6 1 Chronicles 22:3 Isaiah 10:34

Figuratively, a yoke of iron ( Deuteronomy 28:48 ) denotes hard service; a rod of iron ( Psalm 2:9 ), a stern government; a pillar of iron ( Jeremiah 1:18 ), a strong support; a furnace of iron ( Deuteronomy 4:20 ), severe labour; a bar of iron ( Job 40:18 ), strength; fetters of iron ( Psalm 107:10 ), affliction; giving silver for iron ( Isaiah 60:17 ), prosperity.

Morrish Bible Dictionary

This metal is mentioned as early as  Genesis 4:22 , when it was used by artificers; and Job speaks of it as dug out of the earth.  Job 28:2 . It was in use in Palestine before the Israelites entered, for they found that the Canaanites had chariots of iron.  Joshua 17:16,18 . Og king of Bashan had a bedstead of iron, and iron was used for spear heads, threshing instruments, and other such purposes. Iron is used as a symbol of hardness. Israel is described as obstinate; their neck was like an iron sinew and their brow as brass.  Isaiah 48:4 . The Lord Jesus will rule the nations with a rod of iron.  Revelation 12:5;  Revelation 19:15 . Iron also characterised the kingdom of Rome. When represented as a beast, it had great iron teeth.  Daniel 7:7,19; and in the great image the character of the various kingdoms had depreciated from gold to silver, then to brass, thence to iron and clay, that would not unite, the traces of which are seen around us in the national governments of the present day.  Daniel 2:33-45 .

King James Dictionary

IRON, n. or L. ferrum, for herrum. The radical elements of this word are not easily ascertained.

1. A metal, the hardest, most common and most useful of all the metals of a livid whitish color inclined to gray, internally composed, to appearance, of small facets, and susceptible of a fine polish. It is so hard and elastic as to be capable of destroying the aggregation of any other metal. Next to tin, it is the lightest of all metallic substances, and next to gold, the most tenacious. It may be hammered into plates,but not into leaves. Its ductility is more considerable. It has the property of magnetism it is attracted by the lodestone, and will acquire its properties. It is found rarely in native masses, but in ores, mineralized by different substances, it abounds in every part of the earth. Its medicinal qualities are valuable. 2. An instrument or utensil made of iron as a flat-iron, a smoothing-iron.

Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons?  Job 41

3. Figuratively, strength power as a rod of iron.  Daniel 2 4. Irons, plu. fetters chains manacles handcuffs.  Psalms 105

People's Dictionary of the Bible

Iron is mentioned with brass as the earliest of known metals.  Genesis 4:22. The natural wealth in iron of the soil of Canaan is indicated by describing it as "a land whose stones are iron."  Deuteronomy 8:9. The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Sheet-iron was used for cooking utensils.  Ezekiel 4:8; cf.  Leviticus 7:9. That it was plentiful in the time of David appears from  1 Chronicles 22:3. The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan.  Ezekiel 27:19. Iron ore is now abundant in northern Palestine.

Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible

IRON. 1. A city of Naphtali, in the mountains,   Joshua 19:38 . It is probably the modern Yârûn . 2. See Mining and Metals.

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

(בִּרְזֶל , Barzel'; Chald. פִּרְזֶל, parzel'; Gr. σίδηρος, Lat. Ferrum). There is not much room to doubt the identity of the metal denoted by the above terms. Tubal-Cain is The First-Mentioned smith, "a forger of every instrument of iron" ( Genesis 4:22). As this metal is rarely found in its native state, but generally in combination with oxygen, the knowledge of the art of forging it, which is attributed to Tubal-Cain, argues an acquaintance with the difficulties that attend the smelting of this metal. Iron melts at a temperature of about 3000° Fahrenheit, and to produce this heat large furnaces supplied by a strong blast of air are necessary. But, however difficult it may be to imagine a knowledge of such appliances at so early a period, it is perfectly certain that the use of iron is of extreme antiquity, and that therefore some means of overcoming the obstacles in question must have been discovered.

What the process may have been is left entirely to conjecture; a method is employed by the natives of India, extremely simple and of great antiquity, which, though rude, is very effective, and suggests the possibility of similar knowledge in an early stage of civilization (Ure, Dict. Arts and Sciences, s.v. Steel). The smelting furnaces of AEthalia, described by Diodorus (5, 13), remains of which still exist in that country, correspond roughly with the modern bloomeries (Napier, Metallurgy of the Bible p. 140). Malleable iron was in common use, but it is doubtful whether the ancients were acquainted with cast-iron. (See Metal).

The mineral wealth of Canaan is indicated by describing it as "a land whose stones are iron" ( Deuteronomy 8:9), a passage from which it would seem that in ancient times it was a plentiful production of that vicinity (compare  Job 28:2), as it is still in Syria, especially in the region of Lebanon (Volney's Tray. 1, 233). There appear to have been furnaces for smelting at an early period in Egypt ( Deuteronomy 4:20; comp. Hengstenberg, Mois. U. Aeq. p. 19). Winer, indeed (Realo. s.v. Eisen), understands that the basalt which predominates in the Hauran (Burckhardt, 2, 637) is the material of which Og's bedstead ( Deuteronomy 3:11) was made, as it contains a large percentage of iron. But this is doubtful. Pliny (36, 11), who is quoted as an authority, says, indeed, that basalt is "ferrei coloris atque duritise," but does not hint that iron was ever extracted from it. The book of Job contains passages which indicate that iron was a metal well known. Of the manner of procuring it, we learn that "iron is taken from dust" (38, 2). Iron was prepared in abundance by David for the building of the Temple ( 1 Chronicles 22:3), to the amount of one hundred thousand talents ( 1 Chronicles 29:7), or, rather, ‘ without weight" ( 1 Chronicles 22:14). Working in iron was considered a calling ( 2 Chronicles 2:7). (See Smith).

In  Sirach 38:28, we have a picture of the interior of an iron-smith's ( Isaiah 44:12) workshop: the smith, parched with the smoke and heat of the furnace, sitting beside his anvil, and contemplating the unwrought iron, his ears deafened with' the din of the heavy hammer, his eyes fixed on his model, and never sleeping till he has accomplished his task. The superior hardness and strength of iron above all other substances is alluded to in  Daniel 2:40; its exceeding utility, in  Sirach 39:31. It was found among the Midianites ( Numbers 31:22), and was part of the wealth distributed among the tribes at their location in the land ( Joshua 22:8).

The market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished- iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan ( Ezekiel 27:19). Some, as the Sept. and Vulg., render this "wrought iron" so De Wette " geschmiedetes Eisen." The Targum has "bars of iron," which would correspond with the stricture of Pliny (34, 41). But Kimchi (Lex. s.v.) expounds עָשׁוֹת, ‘ Ashoth, as "pure and polished" (= Span. Acero, steel), in which he is supported by R. Sol. Parchon, and by Ben-Zeb, who gives "glanzend" as the equivalent (comp. the Homeric αῖΟωᾷ οαιλποτ, ΙΙ . 7, 473). If the Javan alluded to were Greece, and not, as Bochart (Phaleg, 2, 21) seems to think, some place in Arabia, there might be reference to the iron mines of Macedonia, spoken of in the decree of AEmilius Paulus (Livy, 45, 29); but Bochart urges, as a very strong argument in support of his theory, that, at the time of Ezekiel's prophecy, the Tyrians did not depend upon Greece for a supply of cassia and cinnamon, which are associated with iron in the merchandise of Dan and Javan, but that rather the contrary was the case. Pliny (34, 41) awards the palm to the iron of Serica, that of Parthia being next in excellence. The Chalybes of the Pontus were celebrated as workers in iron in very ancient times (AEsch. Prom. 733). They were identified by Strabo with the Chaldee of his day (12, 549), and the miles which they worked were in the mountains skirting the seacoast. The produce of their labor is supposed to be alluded to in  Jeremiah 15:12, as being of superior quality. Iron mines are still in existence on the same coast, and the ore is found "in small nodular masses in a dark yellow clay which overlies a limestone rock" (Smith's Dict. of Class. Geog. s.v. Chalybes).

From the earliest times we meet with manufactures in iron of the utmost variety (some articles of which' seem to be anticipations of what are commonly supposed to be modern inventions). Thus iron was used for chisels ( Deuteronomy 27:5), or something of the kind; for axes ( Deuteronomy 19:5;  2 Kings 6:5-6;  Isaiah 10:34; comp. Homer, Ii. 4: 485); for harrows and saws ( 2 Samuel 12:31;  1 Chronicles 20:3); for nails ( 1 Chronicles 22:3), and the fastenings of the Temple; for weapons of war ( 1 Samuel 17:7;  Job 20:24), and for war chariots ( Joshua 17:16;  Joshua 17:18;  Judges 1:19;  Judges 4:3;  Judges 4:13). The latter were plated or studded with it, or perhaps armed with iron scythes at the axles, like the Currus Falcati of the ancient Romans. Its usage in defensive armor is implied in  2 Samuel 23:7 (compare  Revelation 9:9), and as a safeguard in peace it appears in fetters ( Psalms 105:18), prison gates. ( Acts 12:10), and bars of gates or doors ( Psalms 107:16;  Isaiah 45:2), as well as for surgical purposes ( 1 Timothy 4:2). Sheet-iron was used for cooking utensils ( Ezekiel 4:3; compare  Leviticus 7:9), and bars of hammered iron are mentioned in  Job 40:18 (though here the Sept. perversely renders σίδηρος χυτός, "cast-iron"). We have also mention of iron instruments ( Numbers 35:7); barbed irons, used in hunting ( Job 41:7); An Iron Bedstead ( Deuteronomy 3:11); iron weights (shekels) ( 1 Samuel 17:7); iron tools ( 1 Kings 6:7 :  2 Kings 6:5); horns (for symbolical use,  1 Kings 22:11); trees bound with iron ( Daniel 4:15); gods of iron ( Daniel 5:4), etc.

It was used by Solomon, according to Josephus, to clamp the large rocks with which he built up the Temple mount (Ant. 15: 11, 3), and by Hezekiah's workmen to hew out the conduits of Gihon ( Sirach 48:17). Images were fastened in their niches in later times by iron brackets or clamps ( Wisdom of Solomon 13:15). Agricultural implements were early made of the same material. In the treaty made by Porsena was inserted a condition like that imposed on the Hebrews by the Philistines, that no iron should be used except for agricultural purposes (Pliny, 34:39). It does not follow from  Job 19:24, that it was used for a writing implement, though such may have been the case (comp.  Isaiah 17:1), any more than that adamant was employed for the same purpose ( Jeremiah 17:1), or that shoes were shod with iron and brass ( Deuteronomy 33:25). Indeed, iron so frequently occurs in poetic figures that it is difficult to discriminate between its literal and metaphorical sense. In such passages as the following, in which a "yoke of iron" ( Deuteronomy 28:48) denotes hard service; "a Rod of iron" ( Psalms 2:9), a stern government; "a pillar of iron" ( Jeremiah 1:18), a strong support; "and Threshing Instruments of iron" ( Amos 1:3), the means of cruel oppression: the hardness and heaviness ( Sirach 22:15) of iron are so clearly the prominent ideas, that, though it may have been used for the instruments in question, such usage is not of necessity indicated. "The furnace of iron" ( Deuteronomy 4:28;  1 Kings 8:51) is a figure which vividly expresses hard bondage, as represented by the severe labor which attended the operation of smelting.

Iron is alluded to in the following instances: Under the same figure, chastisement is denoted ( Ezekiel 22:18;  Ezekiel 22:20;  Ezekiel 22:22); reducing the earth to total barrenness by turning it into iron ( Deuteronomy 28:23); strength, by a bar of it ( Job 40:18); affliction, by iron fetters ( Psalms 107:10); prosperity, by giving silver for iron ( Isaiah 60:17); political strength ( Daniel 2:33); obstinacy, by an iron sinew in the neck ( Isaiah 48:1); giving supernatural fortitude to a prophet, making him an iron pillar ( Jeremiah 1:18); destructive power of empires, by iron teeth ( Daniel 7:7); deterioration of character, by becoming iron ( Jeremiah 6:28;  Ezekiel 22:18), which resembles the idea of the iron age; a tiresome burden, by a mass of iron ( Sirach 22:15); the greatest obstacles, by walls of iron ( 2 Maccabees 11:9); the certainty With which a real enemy will ever show his hatred, by the rust returning upon iron ( Sirach 12:10). Iron seems used, as by the Hebrew poets, metonymicaliy for the sword ( Isaiah 10:34), and so the Sept. understands it μάχαιρα . The following is selected as a Beautiful comparison made to iron ( Proverbs 27:17), "Iron (literally) uniteth iron; so a man uniteth the countenance of his friend," gives stability to his appearance by his presence.

It was for a long time supposed that the Egyptians were ignorant of the use of iron, and that the allusion in the Pentateuch were anachronisms, as no traces of it have been found in their monuments; but in the sepulchers at Thebes butchers are represented as sharpening their knives on a round bar of metal attached to their aprons, which, from its blue color, is presumed to be steel. The steel weapons on the tomb of Rameses III are also painted blue; those of bronze being red (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 3, 247). One iron mine only has been discovered in Egypt, which was worked by the ancients. It is at Hammami, between the Nile and the Red Sea; the iron found by Mr. Burton was in the form of specular and red ore (ibid. 3:246). That no articles of iron should have been found is readily accounted for by the fact that it is easily destroyed by exposure to the air and moisture. According to Pliny (34, 43), it was preserved by a coating of white lead, gypsum, and liquid pitch. Bitumen was probably employed for the same purpose (35, 52).

The Egyptians obtained their iron almost exclusively from Assyria Proper in the form of bricks or pigs (Layard, Nineveh, 2, 415). Specimens of Assyrian ironwork overlaid with bronze were discovered by Mr. Layard, and are now in the British Museum (Nin. and Bab. p. 191). Iron weapons of various kinds were found at Nimrfid, but fell to pieces on exposure to the air. Some portions of shields and arrow-heads (ib. p. 194, 596) were rescued, and are now in England. A pick of the same metal (ib. p. 194) was also found, as well as part of a saw (p. 195), and the head of an axe (p. 357), and remains of scale-armor and helmets inlaid with copper (Nineveh, 1, 340). It was used by the Etruscans for offensive weapons, as bronze for defensive armor. The Assyrians had daggers and arrow-heads of copper mixed with iron, and hardened with an alloy of tin (Layard, Nineveh, 2, 418). So in the days of Homer war-clubs were shod with iron (I. 7, 141); arrows were tipped with it (II. 4, 123); it was used for the axles of chariots (II. 5, 723), for fetters (Od. 1, 204), for axes and bills (I1. 4, 485; Od. 21:3, 81). Adrastus (II. 6, 48) and Ulysses (Od. 21, 10) reckoned it among their treasures, the iron weapons being kept in a chest in the treasury with the gold and brass (Od. 21, 61). In Od. 1, 184, Mentes tells Telemachus that he is traveling from Taphos to Tamese to procure brass in exchange for iron, which Eustathius says was not obtained from the mines of the island, but was the produce of piratical excursions (Millin, Mineral. Hon. p. 115, 2nd ed.).

Pliny (34, 40) mentions iron as used symbolically for a statue of Hercules at Thebes (comp.  Daniel 2:33;  Daniel 5:4), and goblets of iron as among the offerings in the temple of Mars the Avenger, at Rome. Alyattes the Lydian dedicated to the oracle at Delphi a small goblet of iron, the workmanship of Glaucus of Chios, to whom the discovery of the art of soldering this metal is attributed (Herod. 1, 25). The goblet is described by Pausanias (10, 16). From the fact that such offerings were made to the temples, and that Achilles gave as a prize of contest a rudely-shaped mass of the same metal (Homer, II. 23, 826), it has been argued that in early times iron was so little known as to be greatly esteemed for its rarity. That this was not the case in the time of Lycurgus is evident, and Homer attaches to it no epithet which would denote its preciousness (Millin, p. 106). There is reason to suppose that the discovery of brass preceded that of iron (Lucret. 5, 1292), though little weight can be attached to the line of Hesiod often quoted as decisive on this point (Op. et Dies, 150). The Dactyli Idaei of Crete were supposed by the ancients to have the merit of being the first to discover the properties of iron (Pliny, 7:57; Diod. Sic. 5, 64), as the Cyclopes were said to have invented the ironsmith's forge (Pliny, 7:57). According to the Arundelian marble Iron was known B.C. 1370, while Larcher (Chronologie d'Herod. p. 570) assigns a still earlier date, B.C. 1537. (See Steel).

Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature

Tubal-Cain is the first-mentioned smith, 'a forger of every instrument of iron' . From that time we meet with manufactures in iron of the utmost variety (some articles of which seem to be anticipations of what are commonly supposed to be modern inventions); as iron weapons or instruments ; barbed irons, used in hunting an iron bedstead chariots of iron (, and elsewhere); iron weights (shekels, ); harrows of iron iron armor tools ; horns nails, hinges fetters bars iron bars used in fortifying the gates of towns ; a pen of iron ; a pillar yokes pan trees bound with iron gods of iron threshing-instruments and in later times, an iron gate the actual cautery breastplates .

The mineral origin of iron seems clearly alluded to in . It would seem that in ancient times it was a plentiful production of Palestine . There appear to have been furnaces for smelting at an early period in Egypt . The requirement that the altar should be made of 'whole stones over which no man had lift up any iron,' recorded in , does not imply any objection to iron as such, but seems to be merely a mode of directing that, in order to prevent idolatry, the stones must not undergo any preparation by art. Iron was prepared in abundance by David for the building of the temple , to the amount of one hundred thousand talents , or rather 'without weight' . Working in iron was considered a calling [SMITH]. Iron seems to have been better from some countries, or to have undergone some hardening preparation by the inhabitants of them, such as were the people called Chalybes, living near the Euxine Sea to have been imported from Tarshish to Tyre , and 'bright iron' from Dan and Javan . The superior hardness of iron above all other substances is alluded to in . It was found among the Midianites , and was part of the wealth distributed among the tribes at their location in the land .

Iron is metaphorically alluded to in the following instances:—affliction is signified by the furnace for smelting it under the same figure, chastisement(;; ); reducing the earth to total barrenness by turning it into iron slavery, by a yoke of iron strength, by a bar of it the extreme of hardness severity of government, by a rod of iron affliction, by iron fetters prosperity, by giving silver for iron political strength obstinacy, by an iron sinew in the neck giving supernatural fortitude to a prophet, making him an iron pillar destructive power of empires, by iron teeth deterioration of character, by becoming iron , which resembles the idea of the iron age; a tiresome burden, by a mass of iron the greatest obstacles, by walls of iron the certainty with which a real enemy will ever show his hatred, by the rust returning upon iron . Iron seems used, as by the Greek poets, metonymically for the sword . The following is selected as a beautiful comparison made to iron : 'Iron (literally) uniteth iron; so a man uniteth the countenance of his friend,' gives stability to his appearance by his presence. A most graphic description of a smith at work is found in .