Woman

Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology

In an age of women's liberation, modern Bible readers have understandably scrutinized Scripture for its teachings on gender. Assessments have alternately found it hopelessly patriarchal and gloriously redemptive. A brief survey can do no more than scratch the surface of key issues and perspectives.

Creation . In the first creation account, God fashions man and woman as fully equal bearers of his image. They jointly receive his blessing and commission to rule the earth ( Genesis 1:26-31 ). In the second account, it is specified that God created the man first, and that he created the woman from the man's rib only after all the animals proved inadequate companions ( Genesis 2:18-23 ). The controversial words, "suitable helper" in verse 18 have traditionally been taken to imply a functional subordination of the woman to the man as part of God's design in creation, but this interpretation is increasingly being rejected. Certainly, the emphasis of Adam's outburst, "bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh" (v. 23) highlights the similarity rather than any differences between these first two human beings.

The Fall . The utter goodness of this primeval human pair ( Genesis 1:31 ) quickly turns into rebellion. The serpent coaxes the woman to eat forbidden fruit, and her husband, in apparently more conscious disobedience ( 1 Timothy 2:14 ), follows suit. As a result, God utters a three-part curse on the triad of rebels. To the woman he promises increased pain in childbearing and then adds, "your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you" ( Genesis 3:16 ). For those who see hierarchy in  Genesis 2 , what was intended to be fully harmonious will now deteriorate into seduction and tyranny. For others, here is where relationships of authority and submission first appear. "To love and to cherish" has degenerated into "to desire and to dominate."

Old Testament Culture . Old Testament culture was overwhelmingly patriarchal. Women were valued most for their roles as wives and mothers, as bearers and rearers of children. Because of the importance of having children to preserve the family line and inheritance, barren women were particularly disgraced. On several key occasions, God miraculously intervened to overcome such barrenness (as with Sarah— Genesis 16; and Hannah 1 Samuel 1 ). Although never condoned, this same desire for progeny could lead to illicit sexual relationships (e.g., Lot's daughters with their father  Genesis 19:30-38; Tamar with Judah  Genesis 38 ).

Old Testament wives can function as windows to their husband's career and character. David's first wife, Michal, aids his escape from Saul ( 1 Samuel 19:9-17 ). Abigail stands out for her intelligence and good judgment ( 1 Samuel 25:3,33 ) and comes to the fore during David's ascendancy to the kingship. Bathsheba, as the victim of David's seduction and adultery ( 2 Samuel 11 ), portends the decline of David's family and fortunes.

Yet despite all these androcentric illustrations, the ideal woman of Old Testament times can seem surprisingly modern. The wife of noble character ( Proverbs 31:10-31 ) works industriously not only in traditional domestic spheres but in running a business out of her house, purchasing property, making investments, speaking wisely, and ruling her household. Men should value such a prudent wife far above property and wealth ( Proverbs 19:14;  18:22 ).

The Old Testament consistently commends women to monogamous marriage and sexual fidelity, based on God's creation ordinance ( Genesis 2:24; endorsed again by both Jesus [  Matthew 19:5 ] and Paul [  Ephesians 5:31 ]). Song of Songs celebrates the erotic bliss of newlyweds, often from the woman's perspective and initiative. Subsequent faithfulness remains equally crucial ( Ecclesiastes 9:9;  Malachi 2:14-16 ). The ordeal for a suspected adulteress seems harsh today ( Numbers 5:11-31 ), as does Ezra's edict for the Israelites to divorce their newly but illegally married foreign wives ( Ezra 9-10 ). But the positive side of each of these episodes is the high value placed on sexual and spiritual fidelity. The notion that polygamy was common or condoned in ancient Israel is seriously misguided. Polygamy remained the exception rather than the rule; in twelve of the thirteen Old Testament instances in which it occurred, the husbands were men of great wealthkings and aristocrats. Few others could afford such luxury! Solomon's many wives clearly led to his ruin ( 1 Kings 11:1-13 ); concubines often played more a political than a romantic role ( 2 Samuel 16 ).

As in all ages of human history, the Old Testament shows women who were victimized by abuse, rape, and even murder: Dinah ( Genesis 34 ), Tamar ( 2 Samuel 13:1-22 ), Jephthah's daughter ( Judges 11:29-30 ), and the Levite's concubine ( Judges 19 ). The latter two atrocities illustrate the depravity of a society in near-anarchy; the former two are each avenged by kinsmen. In other instances, women seduce men (Delilah and Samson  Judges 16 ) or unjustly accuse them (Potiphar's wife and Joseph  Genesis 39 ). God never condones such behavior, but, like evil in general, he often permits it. An overriding and encouraging message of the Old Testament is God's sovereign outworking of his plans in spite of his people's failures.

In the same vein, the queens of God's own people may prove murderous and idolatrous, leading them to ruin (Athaliah  2 Kings 11; Jezebel  1 Kings 21 ). Or God may use the compassion of pagan royalty to preserve and nurture the savior of his own people (Pharaoh's daughter and Moses Exe 2:1-10). Perhaps the paradigm of God's sovereignty through the grace of unlikely heroines is the story of Rahab, the Canaanite prostitute, who believes in the God of the Israelites, protects their spies from her own officials ( Joshua 2 ), and becomes one of the great persons of faith praised in  Hebrews 11 (v. 31). Similarly, Ruth the Moabitess epitomizes the foreigner who attaches herself to Israel. Her devotion to her mother-in-law Naomi leads to her covenant-faithfulness to Yahweh and to a surprising proposal of marriage to her redeemer-kinsman Boaz (  Ruth 3:9 ).

Old Testament Legislation . Old Testament laws also send mixed signals. In some places, women are clearly prized as equals to men. Both father and mother deserve equal honor from their children ( Exodus 20:12 ) and share in the trial of a rebellious child ( Deuteronomy 21:18-19 ). In cases of alleged rape, if unable to summon help, the woman is given the benefit of the doubt ( Deuteronomy 22:23-27 ). But women consistently remain under the control of their fathers or husbands ( Exodus 21:7;  Numbers 30:3-15 ), although in the (unusual) absence of such men may be granted equal rights with them ( Numbers 27:1-11 ). Various laws seem to value women less than men. They incur greater uncleanness for menstruation than do men for seminal emissions ( Leviticus 15:16-33 ) and for giving birth to female children than for males ( Leviticus 12:1-5 ). Male slaves command a higher price than do females ( Leviticus 27:1-8 ); the more important sacrifices require male animals only ( Numbers 15:22-29 ). In other cases, certain laws simply did not apply to women ( Exodus 23:17 ). Some of these injunctions may be seen as accommodations to the prevailing cultures, but it is hard to explain them all in this fashion.

Widows are consistently presented as a paradigm of the dispossessed. Because they came under no specific man's care, they became the responsibility of the whole community ( Exodus 22:22-24 ).

Old Testament Leadership . Although women were not permitted to be priests, they did on occasion hold other offices or leadership roles in Israel. Deborah was a judge (the "political" leader of her day) and, like Miriam ( Exodus 15:20-21 ) and Huldah ( 2 Kings 22:11-20 ), a prophetess ( Judges 4 ). Jael ( Judges 4 ) and the anonymous woman of  Judges 9:53 proved timely and valiant in battle. Although Athaliah was a wicked queen, Esther, who came to power in Persia under most unusual circumstances, used her position to save her Jewish kinsfolk. The wise women of Tekoa (  2 Samuel 14 ) and of Abel Beth Maacah ( 2 Samuel 20:14-22 ) probably were the heads of city councils. Although each of these examples of women in leadership were exceptions and not norms, there is no evidence to support the claim that God used women only when there were no available or willing men.

Jesus and Women . The first-century Jewish world shared many of the cultural assumptions of the Old Testament concerning women. In the Hellenistic world, women at times gained greater wealth, freedom, or privilege. Against these prevailing cultures, Jesus' own teachings and practices stand out as radically liberating. God highly favored Mary with the privilege of bearing and rearing his Son; the most detailed accounts of Christ's birth seem to reflect Mary's (and Elizabeth's) perspective and may well have been transmitted by her ( Luke 1-2 ). Several of the recipients of Jesus' healing were women (Jairus's daughter  Matthew 9:23-26; and the crippled woman  Luke 13:10-17 ). In two instances their faith is particularly praised (the hemmorhaging woman  Matthew 9:22 ), even when one is not a Jew but a Syrophoenician ( Matthew 15:21-28 anticipating the church's ministry to Gentiles ). In another episode, the woman healed was Jewish but still illustrates Jesus' ministry of compassion to the outcasts of society (Simon's mother-in-law [   Matthew 8:14-15 ]), as the third in a series of such miracles (cf.  Matthew 8:1-4,5-13 ). In the same spirit, Jesus forgives a notoriously sinful woman who demonstrates her repentance through her love, even when she expresses it in culturally suspect ways ( Luke 7:36-50 ). The later, similar actions of Mary of Bethany elicit Jesus' praise in language evocative of the memorializing of Jesus himself in the Lord's Supper ( Mark 14:9 )!

Women play an important role among Jesus' followers. An unspecified number forms part of the larger company of disciples that regularly follows him on the road and forms his "support team" ( Luke 8:1-3; cf.  Acts 1:14-15 ). Jesus specifically praises Mary of Bethany for choosing to "sit at his feet" and learn from him ( Luke 10:38-42 )a quasi-technical reference to a disciple being trained by a rabbi and a practice usually denied to women in Jewish circles. Martha's traditional preoccupation for domestic chores receives only censure! Jesus chooses women as the first witnesses to his resurrection ( Luke 24:1-12 ), even though their testimony would have been thrown out of a legal court, and Mary Magdalene becomes the "apostle to the ( male ) apostles" ( John 20:1-2,18 ). No woman appears among the company of the Twelve; but it is not clear if this reflects any timeless principle besides a commitment to present the gospel to a given culture in ways which will most likely speed its acceptance.

Jesus' ethics preserve and intensify the strong Old Testament emphasis on sexual propriety ( Matthew 5:27-30;  19:1-12 ), but for the first time make clear that women and men will be judged by identical standards ( Matthew 5:32;  Mark 10:11-12 ). Luke frequently pairs episodes in which men and women function in identical ways. Both Elizabeth and Zechariah praise under the Spirit's inspiration ( Luke 1:41-45,67-79 ). Both Simeon and Anna prophesy that in Christ they have seen Israel's salvation (2:25-38). Male and female cripples receive identical healings (13:10-17; 14:1-6). The parables of the mustard seed and leaven (like the lost sheep and coin), each make the same point but alternate between male and female protagonists (13:18-21; 15:1-10). Clearly Luke wants to highlight God's care for both genders and Jesus' concern to relate to both. The story of Jesus meeting the Samaritan woman perhaps epitomizes his commitment to revolutionizing the lot of the disenfranchised of his day. Despite strong cultural taboos against any social exchange between a Jewish holy man and a sexually promiscuous Samaritan woman, Jesus speaks to this woman in private, affirms her personhood and leads her to faith in himself and to service as an evangelist ( John 4:1-42 ).

Acts . With the arrival of Pentecost comes the fulfillment of Joel's prediction about the egalitarian outpouring of the Spirit ( Acts 2:17-21 ). Women as well as men prophesy. Apart from the ministry of the New Testament writers, Christian prophecy does not supplement or contradict the canon but applies spiritual truth to specific contexts in the lives of God's people. To the extent that contemporary preaching involves this spiritual gift, gifted women must be encouraged to preach. Acts also describes a significant Christian woman teacher, Priscilla, who with her husband Aquila enabled Apollos to learn and disseminate correct doctrine (18:26). Inasmuch as her name more often than not appears before her husband's (cf. vv. 18,19), she may well have been the more prominent.

Women in Acts continue to receive other spiritual blessings. As in the Gospels, they benefit from miraculous healings (the slave girl 16:16-18) and resurrections (slave Tabitha 9:36-42). Lydia is the first-mentioned European convert (17:11-15); Paul's willingness to preach to a group of God-fearing women without any men present itself carries on Jesus' tradition of boundary breaking. Damaris, a woman, is among the few to respond favorably to Paul's Areopagus address (17:34).

The Epistles . Just as in the Old Testament women enjoyed many prominent roles save one, the rest of the New Testament reveals women in all positions of spiritual leadership save that of elder or overseer. But their participation in these roles was much more common and accepted than in Old Testament times. Paul calls Phoebe a diakonos [Διάκονος] (probably "deacon") and prostatis [Προστάτις Παραστάτις] (most likely "patron") of the church in Cenchreae. First Timothy 3:11 is best understood as containing injunctions for women deacons rather than deacons' wives (it would be incongruous for Paul to be concerned about deacons' wives but not overseers' wives!). Junia(s) in  Romans 16:7 is most likely a woman, and she is called "an apostle." This will be in Paul's broader sense of the term as a missionary or church planter.

Chloe in Corinth ( 1 Corinthians 1:11 ) and Nympha in Colossae ( Colossians 4:15 ) are women whose households figure prominently (and the fact that the households are attributed to these women suggest that no male heads are present). The elect ladies of  2 John 1,13 almost certainly refer to house-churches, although quite possibly hosted by individual Christian women (as more clearly with Nympha). Paul calls Euodia and Syntyche his fellow workers (  Philippians 4:2-3 ) and frequently praises women as co-laborers in ministry ( Romans 16:6,12 ). First Timothy 5:2 commands respect for older Christian women. The term used here, presbytera, is the feminine form of "elder" ( presbyteros [Πρεσβύτερος]), but the context and parallel passage in  Titus 2:3 , which uses a more unambiguous term for "old woman" ( presbytis [Πρεσβῦτις]), suggests a nontechnical sense.  Titus 2:4-5 also insists that older women train younger women in godliness, which includes being good "home-workers."

In the domestic sphere, wives must remain submissive to their husbands, who are the heads of the family ( Ephesians 5:22-24;  Colossians 3:18 ). Attempts to interpret "head" ( kephale [   1 Peter 3:7 ) probably has nothing to do with physical or emotional weakness but rather refers to a voluntarily adopted position of greater "vulnerability."

Two passages in the epistles that do not directly refer to women doing anything nevertheless have far-reaching implications. First Corinthians 12:7,11, makes clear that God's Spirit dispenses his spiritual gifts as he wills, which surely implies "irrespective of gender." This means that Paul envisioned women not only as apostles, prophets, and teachers but speaking in tongues, working miracles, ministering as evangelists, and pastors/shepherds (11:5; 12:8-10;  Ephesians 4:11 ), indeed, exercising every other spiritual gift that God may choose to give them.  Galatians 3:28 proves even more programmatic, declaring that in Christ, "there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female." It cannot be demonstrated from this statement that Paul thereby imagined no timeless role differentiation among women and men; clearly patriarchal rabbinic sources could nevertheless make quite similar claims. But the baptismal context (v. 27) does suggest that Paul had more in mind than merely equal access to salvation. As an initiation rite that included women (unlike Jewish circumcision), baptism publicly affirmed the equal value of women and men in a way that suggests that the church should continue to seek outward, visible forms for demonstrating this equality.

Restrictions on Leadership . Notwithstanding the overwhelming emphasis on liberation, privilege, freedom, and equality for women that characterizes most of the New Testament teaching, three passages stand out as implying certain limits on women in church leadership, perhaps analogous to the relationship of wife and husband in the family. At least they have traditionally been so taken, throughout almost all of church history, corresponding to the general lack of women in the highest or most authoritative positions of ecclesial office (even as women's roles in all other positions of leadership have been more plentiful than the average textbook of church history discloses). Today, however, Christian feminists have seriously challenged the traditional interpretations of all three of these passages.

In  1 Corinthians 11:3-16 , Paul commands women to cover their heads (with either veils or long hair) as a sign of respect to their spiritual headstheir husbands. The cultural impropriety of women either unveiled or with short hair (often involving sexually misleading connotations) probably lay behind these commands. But a timeless principle appears as well: "man did not come from woman but woman from man; neither was man created for woman, but woman for man" (vv. 8-9). These observations are immediately qualified with reminders of the mutual interdependence of the genders in Christ (vv. 11-12), but it is not obvious that these verses imply the reversibility of the statements in verses 8-9. Although not immediately germane to the question of church office, the reminder of the relevance of the structure of the family for church life probably provides a foundation for Paul's teaching in the next two passages below.

In  1 Corinthians 14:33b-38 Paul enjoins women to be silent in church. In view of 11:5, this cannot be an absolute prohibition. Many have taken it to be entirely time-bound (due, e.g., to gossiping or noisy or uneducated women), but Paul bases his rationale in the law (v. 34) and says nothing of these cultural phenomena. Others take verses 33b-35 to be a Corinthian slogan that Paul refutes in verses 36-38, but this relatively new interpretation ignores the quite different length, style, and content of all other Corinthian slogans (e.g., 6:12-13; 7:1; 8:1). Inasmuch as twenty of the other twenty-one references to "speak" ( laleo [Λαλέω Ἀπολαλέω]) in  1 Corinthians 14 refer to tongues, their interpretation, prophecy, or evaluation, it is probably better to see one of these forms of speech in view. Given that the first three of these are spiritual gifts that the immediate context is one of the proper response to prophecy (vv. 29-33a), and that the ultimate responsibility of reevaluating prophecy would have fallen to the (presumably) all male leadership of the Corinthian congregation, it is best to limit Paul's prohibition to speech in the context of the church's authoritative response to prophecy.

The text which is most hotly debated of all is  1 Timothy 2:8-15 . Here Paul forbids women "to teach or to have authority over a man" (v. 12) in church (3:15). Again this prohibition cannot be absolute (recall  Acts 18:26 ), and in view of Paul's penchant for hendiadys, or pairs of largely synonymous expressions in  1 Timothy 2 (cf. vv. 1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3,4, 5,7a, 7b, etc.), it is probable that "teach" and "have authority" are mutually interdefiningPaul is prohibiting "authoritative teaching." In view of the distinction between (apparently) all male overseers and both male and female deacons in 3:1-13, a plausible interpretation of 2:12 is that women may not hold the highest office in a given ecclesial context (perhaps roughly analogous to modern-day senior pastors in congregationally governed churches). Again, egalitarians have regularly proposed some historical background (most notably the presence of heresy in Ephesus   1 Timothy 1:3-7 ) as the rationale for Paul's mandate, which is then seen as culturally limited in application. But Paul's own explanation appeals instead to the order of creation ( 1 Timothy 2:13 ); the explicit evidence of women's roles in the Ephesian heresy elsewhere in the Pastorals is entirely limited to their roles as victims rather than propagators ( 2 Timothy 3:6-7 ).

Conclusion . Christianity will doubtless be divided for the foreseeable future over women's roles in the contemporary home and church. The scriptural evidence is sufficiently ambiguous that room must be given for both complementarian and egalitarian perspectives. Charges that one or the other are heretical are unfounded and destructive. Church history does not inspire much confidence that Christian consensus will ultimately be based on exegesis rather than the trends of secular society. But Bible-believing Christians should stand against this tide and seek to ground their views on the best understandings of Scripture possible. Perhaps team-ministry remains the most appropriate model, in which team leaders remain male but in which women are warmly encouraged to participate and exercise pastoral gifts. So too, in the home, if husbands do retain any unique authority, they must exercise it entirely in seeking the well-being of their wives.

Craig L. Blomberg

See also Eve; Family Life And Relations; Headship Head; Marriage; Personhood Person; Human Sexuality; Widow

Bibliography . A. Berlin, Poetics and Interpretation of Biblical Narrative  ; G. Bilezikian, Beyond Sex Roles  ; E. Cantarella, Pandora's Daughters  ; D. Dockery, CTR 1 (1987): 363-86; R. B. Edwards, The Case for Women's Ministry  ; E. S. Fiorenza, In Memory of Her  ; M. Hayter, The New Eve in Christ  ; J. B. Hurley, Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective  ; ISBE, 4:1089-97; W. C. Kaiser, Jr., Toward Old Testament Ethics  ; R. C. and C. C. Kroeger, I Suffer Not a Woman  ; A. Mickelsen, ed., Women, Authority and the Bible  ; J. Piper and W. Grudem, eds., Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood  ; A. B. Spencer, Beyond the Curse  ; J. Stott, Issues Facing Christians Today  ; L. Swidler, Biblical Affirmations of Woman  ; P. Trible, Texts of Terror  ; R. A. Tucker and W. Liefeld, Daughters of the Church  ; L. Wilshire, NTS 34 (1988): 120-34; B. Witherington, NTS 27 (1981): 593-604.

Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament

The position of woman in any section or period of society is a recognized test of the contemporary level of morality and general enlightenment. Apostolic Christianity need not fear this test. In fact, the exaltation of womanhood is justly claimed as one of the best examples of what Christianity has done for the world. Doubtless this feature of its influence has often been exaggerated, either by painting too darkly the vices of paganism or by neglecting the actual Limitations of historical Christianity. We must certainly beware lest we take the sixth Satire of Juvenal as descriptive of the character and conduct of women in general in the 1st cent. of the Roman Empire. ‘At the worst, these vices infected only a comparatively small class, idle, luxurious, enervated by the slave system, depraved by the example of a vicious court.… Both the literature and the inscriptions of that age make us acquainted with a very different kind of woman’ (S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius2, p. 87). Nor must we forget that the just rights of married women were much more fully recognized by Roman law than by the ecclesiastical law which replaced it: ‘it is by the tendency of their doctrines to keep alive and consolidate the former [proprietary disabilities of married females], that the expositors of the Canon Law have deeply injured civilisation’ (H. S. Maine, Ancient Law, new ed., 1907, p. 163; cf. EBr 11 xxviii. 783). J. Donaldson (one of the editors of the Ante-Nicene Christian Library) indeed went so far as to say that ‘in the first three centuries I have not been able to see that Christianity had any favourable effect on the position of women, but, on the contrary, that it tended to lower their character and contract the range of their activity’ (CR lvi. [1889] 433). So far as this somewhat questionable judgment is sound, it relates to the asceticism of the Church subsequent to the Apostolic Age. The Pauline ‘asceticism’ springs from a different source, i.e. the expectation of a rapidly approaching end to all earthly things. This is an important fact to remember, for the attitude of apostolic Christianity to woman is largely due to the interaction of two distinct principles-the fundamental Christian assertion of the intrinsic worth of human personality, and the eschatological foreshortening of the time, which could not fail to hinder the social application of the former principle.

1. The religious equality of woman with man before God is clearly asserted by Paul: ‘as many of you as were baptized into Christ did put on Christ. There can be neither Jew nor Greek, there can be neither bond nor free, there can be no male and female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus’ ( Galatians 3:27-28). The mutual dependence of man and woman, and their common origin in God, teach that the male has no exclusive place ‘in the Lord’ ( 1 Corinthians 11:11-12). This result of the evangelical evaluation of human nature (see art. Man) lifts the Christian idea of woman clearly above that of the contemporary Judaism, which in several noticeable ways differentiated woman religiously from man (cf. Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums2’, p. 490 f.). The morning service of Judaism still retains the ancient thanksgiving: ‘Blessed art thou, O Lord our God, King of the universe, who hast not made me a woman’ (Authorised Daily Prayer Book, p. 6). We naturally think of the ‘Court of the Women’ in the Temple, beyond which no woman might pass. ‘Her work is to send her children to be taught in the synagogue: to attend to domestic concerns, and leave her husband free to study in the schools: to keep house for him till he returns’ (C. Taylor, Sayings of the Jewish Fathers2. Cambridge, 1897, p. 15). If such significant limitations as these are found in contemporary Judaism, notwithstanding the general humanity of its relationships and the intensity of the national religion, it need not surprise us to find no effective assertion of the religious equality of woman emanating from Roman patriotism or Greek philosophy. Plato, it is true, had argued that the differentiae of sex ought not to constitute any barrier to the exercise of a woman’s personal powers: ‘None of the occupations which comprehend the ordering of a state belong to woman as woman, nor yet to man us man; but natural gifts are to be found here and there, in both sexes alike; and, so far as her nature is concerned, the woman is admissible to all pursuits as well as the man; though in all of them the woman is weaker than the man’ (Republic, 455, Eng. tr. 3 by J. Ll. Davies and D. J. Vaughan, London, 1906, p. 161 f.). But this theoretical judgment relates to social, not religious, equality. Probably the nearest parallel to the welcome given to woman in Christian worship could be found in the cults of Isis and Magna Mater, which became so popular in the early Christian centuries (not to be found in Mithraism; cf. F. Cumont, Les Mystères de Mithra3, Brussels, 1913, p. 183). To the welcome which those cults gave to woman they owed no small measure of their success; by its deeper satisfaction of woman’s needs Christianity was helped to win its victory over them. That there is much in the gospel of the Cross to appeal to the peculiar nature and temperament of woman needs no argument. There is some measure of truth in the assertion that ‘the change from the heroic to the saintly ideal, from the ideal of Paganism to the ideal of Christianity, was a change from a type which was essentially male to one which was essentially feminine’ (Lecky, History of European Morals8, vol. ii. p. 362). But the full truth is seen rather in the perfect humanity of Christ; as F. W. Robertson has well said (Sermons, 2nd ser., London, 1875, p. 231): ‘His heart had in it the blended qualities of both sexes. Our humanity is a whole made up of two opposite poles of character-the manly and the feminine.’

2. A larger life of social fellowship and service was thrown open to women by apostolic Christianity. The story of the primitive Church significantly begins with the inclusion of women in the apostolic meetings for prayer ( Acts 1:14). Their presence and activity are clearly illustrated by the references to Tabitha (9:36), Mary the mother of John Mark (12:12), Lydia (16:14), Damaris (17:34), Priscilla (18:2). The story of Sapphira (5:7f.) implies the comparatively independent membership and responsibility of women within the Christian community. Priscilla illustrates their active evangelism (18:26). Attention is expressly called to the ‘multitudes’ of women converts added to the Church (5:14). The story of Thekla (Acts of Paul and Thekla, in F. C. Conybeare’s Monuments of Early Christianity2, London, 1896, pp. 61-88) doubtless rests on some historic basis. ‘Thekla became the type of the female Christian teacher, preacher, and baptiser, and her story was quoted as early as the second century as a justification of the right of women to teach and to baptise’ (W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire, London, 1893, p. 375). Clement of Rome, at the end of the century, refers to the sufferings endured by women under the Neronian persecution (Ep. ad Cor. i. 6). The spread of Christianity amongst women of high rank is probably exemplified in Pomponia Graecina (Tacitus, Annals, xiii. 32), the wife of Plautius, the conqueror of Britain. Another probable example is supplied by Domitilla (banished in a.d. 96), the niece of the Emperor Domitian (Dio Cassius, lxvii. 14).

The details of Church life which we gather from the Pauline Epistles, particularly as to the Church at Corinth, amply confirm what has been said (e.g.  Philippians 4:2-3,  1 Corinthians 1:11; the numerous salutations to women in Romans 16). Paul speaks of Phœbe as a ‘deaconess’ of the Church at Cenchreae ( Romans 16:1), in terms that suggest her ability and will to give generous help to poorer Christians. The deaconesses of whom Pliny speaks, early in the 2nd cent. (Ep. x. 96), were slave girls. It is clear that women equally with men could be regarded as the organs of the prophetic spirit in the Corinthian Church (cf. Priscilla and Maximilla among the Montanists), since Paul desires that every woman praying or prophesying shall have her head veiled ( 1 Corinthians 11:5). This is a corollary from the admission of women into the Church, since Christian fellowship is essentially constituted by the gift of the Spirit ( Romans 8:14). To this proof of woman’s religious equality with man there seems to be no necessary contradiction in the fact that Paul a little later ( 1 Corinthians 14:34) forbids women to speak (λαλεῖν) in the churches (see, however, the Commentaries on this disputed passage); the contrast simply shows that the Spirit could over-ride ordinary social conventions (cf. the prophesying of the four daughters of Philip the evangelist,  Acts 21:9; the virginity of these, as of the daughters named in  1 Corinthians 7:36, does not yet constitute an ‘order’). In the Pastoral Epistles we find a regular roll of ‘widows’ (see art. Widows), who have provision made for them by the Church ( 1 Timothy 5:3 f.; cf.  Acts 6:1;  Acts 9:39;  Acts 9:41). Thus Christianity met the physical needs of a class specially likely to suffer (cf. E. Renan, Les Apôtres, Paris, 1866, p. 122), as it met the spiritual needs of women in general.

3. The place of women in marriage gained a higher interpretation. The Greek world is characterized by the practical absence of family life in the best sense; the Greek wife lived in seclusion and ignorance. ‘The courtesan was the one free woman of Athens’ (Lecky, op. cit., ii. 293). The Roman matron had indeed held a high place in the ancient Roman home, though she passed into the absolute legal power of her husband by the older type of religions marriage. Under the early Roman Empire, the position of married women was often one of social and legal independence (Friedländer, Roman Life and Manners, Eng. tr. , i. 236), but this was the outcome of the newer type of marriage as a civil contract; its laxity of divorce and the break-up of the older family life show its peculiar perils. Roman morality, in fact, broke down, here as elsewhere, because it had not found its reinforcement and transfiguration in religion (cf. W. Warde Fowler, The Religious Experience of the Roman People, London, 1911, p. 466). It was in the identification of morality and religion that the strength of Judaism lay. The Jewish wife, it is true, held a legal position decidedly inferior to that of the husband. But the relationship was redeemed by the quality of the humanity which was so typical a product of the OT religion. Consequently, the family life of the Hebrew-Jewish people, in some measure, prepared for the applications of the principle of woman’s religions equality made by apostolic Christianity (cf. the fine portrait of the ‘virtuous woman’ in  Proverbs 31:10 f.). What these were may be seen from Paul’s statement of the mutual relationship of husband and wife ( Ephesians 5:22-33). Not only is the spirit of that relationship to be the new law of love, but the relationship itself is made sacramental by its comparison with that existing between Christ and the Church. We can hardly exaggerate the gulf that separates this idea of marriage from that in which the relationship is primarily physical. Indeed, the religious disabilities of women seem to rest, at least in part, on primitive sexual tabus (cf. W., Robertson Smith, The Religion of the Semites2, London, 1894, pp. 299 n. , 379 n.; A. E, Crawley, The Mystic Rose, London, 1902, p. 52). Christianity, in principle, if not always in practice, has lifted woman above the sexual level, at which her chief raison d’être is the gratification of man’s passions, and has joined her personality to his, as contributory to a common social life. Marriage is to be held in honour among all ( Hebrews 13:4; cf.  1 Timothy 4:3). Paul, indeed, prefers celibacy because of the peculiar conditions of the time (i.e. on eschatological grounds). But he recognizes both the innocence of the sexual tie and the equal claims of the man and the woman in regard to it ( 1 Corinthians 7:3 f.)-surely a disproof of any ‘asceticism’ in the ordinary sense of the word. The emphasis on chastity (6:13f.,  Ephesians 5:3), so characteristic of early Christian ethics, is based on the principle that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit ( 1 Corinthians 6:19); the condemnation of extramarital sexual relationships is the natural complement of the attitude to marriage itself ( 1 Thessalonians 4:4). The moral tie that unites the Christian even to an unbelieving partner is fully recognized ( 1 Corinthians 7:12 f.); the unbelieving husband may be won by the conduct of the Christian wife ( 1 Peter 3:1), which is a better adornment than that of outward apparel (v. 3f.; cf.  1 Timothy 2:9). The ideals of Christianity in the 1st cent. in regard to womanly conduct are well summarized in the exhortation of Clement of Rome: ‘Let us guide our women toward that which is good: let them show forth their lovely disposition of purity; let them prove their sincere affection of gentleness; let them make manifest the moderation of their tongue through their silence; let them show their love, not in factious preferences but without partiality towards all them that fear God, in holiness’ (ad Cor. xxi. 7, The Apostolic Fathers, tr. J. B. Lightfoot, London, 1891; cf.  Titus 2:3 f.).

4. The limitations of apostolic Christianity in regard to women were such as were inevitable from its historical origin and eschatological outlook. The Jewish training of Paul, for example, accounts for much in his attitude, such as the argument that women should be veiled ‘because of the angels’ ( 1 Corinthians 11:10). The expectation of a speedy end largely explains his preference of celibacy to marriage ( 1 Corinthians 7:7; cf.  Revelation 14:4), which is certainly not due to his Judaism (cf. Bousset, op. cit., p. 493). The asceticism of Paul must be ascribed to a cause different from and more innocent than the dualistic (Greek) asceticism of the later Church. Naturally, some of the premisses in the NT arguments for woman’s subjection to man no longer appeal to us, even if the conclusion does (e.g.  1 Timothy 2:12 f.). Westermarck’s criticism of this ultimately Jewish emphasis on woman’s subjection to man, as being ‘agreeable to the selfishness of men’ (Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. 654), ignores the atmosphere which redeems it, i.e. its moral and religious interpretation in the Christianity of the NT. We should rather recognize, as Dobschütz does (Christian Life in the Primitive Church, p. 377) in regard to Paul’s asceticism, that ‘Christ triumphs in him over the spirit of the age.’

Literature-L. Friedländer, Sittengeschichte Roms8, Leipzig, 1910, Roman Life and Manners, Eng. tr. of 7th ed., 3 vols., London, 1908-09, vol. i. ch. v.; W. E. H. Lecky, History of European Morals8, 2 vols., do., 1888, ii. 275-372; C. L. Brace, Gesta Christi, do., 1882, bk. i. chs. iii., iv.; R. S. Storrs, The Divine Origin of Christianity, do., 1885, pp. 146 f., 466f.; C. von Weizsäcker, Das apostolische Zeitalter der christlichen kirche, Freiburg i. B., 1886. Eng. tr. , The Apostolic Age, 2 vols., London, 1895, bk. v. ch. iii. § 7; J. Donaldson. ‘The Position of Women among the Early Christians,’ CR lvi. [1889] 433; J. Gottschick, ‘Ehe, christliche’, in PRE 3 v. 182f.; W. F. Adeney, art. ‘Woman,’ In HDB lv. 933-936; E. von Dobschütz. Die urchristliehe Gemeinde, Leipzig, 1902, Eng. tr. , Christian Life in the Primitive Church, London, 1904; A. Harnack, Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums2, Leipzig, 1906, Eng. tr. , The Mission and Expansion of Christianity2, 2 vols., London, 1908, vol. ii. ch. ii. § 4 (best survey of the data); S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius2, do., 1905; J. McCabe, The Religion of Woman, do., 1905 (attacks the Christian claims); W. Bousset, Die Religion des Judentums im neutest. Zeitalter2, Berlin, 1906; E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. [London, 1906] ch. xxvi., ii. [do., 1908] ch. xl.; T. G. Tucker, Life in the Roman World of Nero and St. Paul, do., 1910, ch. xvi.; A. Robertson and A Plummer, ICC , ‘1 Corinthians,’ Edinburgh, 1911, pp. 130-162, 230-236, 324-328; C. Clemen, Primitive Christianity and its Non-Jewish Sources, Edinburgh. 1912, Index, s.v. ‘Woman’; W. M. Ramsay, The Teaching of Paul in Terms of the Present Day, London, 1913, sect. xlv., ‘The Family in the Teaching of Paul.’

H. Wheeler Robinson.

Holman Bible Dictionary

Woman in Bible times lived in a patriarchal society. Both the Old and New Testament worlds normally restricted the role of woman primarily to the sphere of home and family, although a few strong women emerged as leaders. In religious life she was subordinate to man. Father and then husband or other male relatives gave protection and direction to woman. Jesus raised the window for women. He paid attention to them. His manner was inclusive and acknowledged their place in the kingdom He proclaimed. By what He did and what He said He elevated the status of woman. Paul also caught Jesus' vision. Although Paul faced the need to preserve order in the early church, he exclaimed in  Galatians 3:28 : “There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for ye are all one in Christ Jesus.” The final barrier preventing woman from fully participating in the kingdom of God toppled under Jesus' influence.

What the Old Testament Teaches About Woman The Old Testament shows woman in at least two lights. The predominant view is one of woman in subjection to man. However, at times, woman is also the object of adoration and admiration. The creation narratives in Genesis foreshadow two different perspectives regarding woman. In the account in  Genesis 1:26-30 , man and woman are created simultaneously ( Genesis 1:27 ). Woman, like man, is made in the image of God. Together, man and woman reflect the image of God. Woman is not in an inferior place in creation. In  Genesis 2:7-25 , man is created before woman. In this second account woman is viewed as being created for man as his helper. This account is often cited as supportive of the view that woman should remain subject to man since she has a subordinate position in creation, but the narrative describes woman as a “suitable partner” ( Genesis 2:20 REB) for whom man leaves his family.

The subordination of woman appears more clearly in a close reading the Ten Commandments. The Commandments are addressed to men, a fact evidenced by the use of masculine pronouns. A major of evidence of women's subordination is the reference to man not coveting any of his neighbor's property. His wife is included in the list of possessions ( Exodus 20:17 ). Marriage and divorce are areas in which woman's rights were subordinate to those of man. If a woman about to be married was suspected of not being a virgin, she was required to submit to a test. If her virginity was not established, she could be stoned to death at her father's door ( Deuteronomy 22:13-21 ). No such requirement was made for a man. Adultery was seen as a crime against a husband's rights. Both male and female caught in the act of adultery were stoned, but it was the husband's rights which were being vindicated ( Deuteronomy 22:22 ). A husband who was jealous of his wife and had some fears about her faithfulness could take her to the priest and have her submit to an intricate test to determine her innocence or guilt ( Numbers 5:11-31 ). No such avenue was open for a woman who suspected her husband of being unfaithful.

Divorce was also slanted toward the husband. He could obtain a divorce from his wife “because he finds something objectionable about her” ( Deuteronomy 24:1 NRSV). The phrase “something objectionable” was variously interpreted by the Jews and ran the gamut from adultery to burned toast!

Inequity between boy and girl babies existed from the very beginning of life. A mother who bore a girl baby was considered unclean for twice as long as a mother who bore a male child. During her “purifying” time after the birth of a baby, a mother was not to “touch any holy thing, or come into the sanctuary, until the days of her purification are completed” ( Leviticus 12:2-5 ).

Aside from specific inequities in the way men and women were treated, the Old Testament, particularly the Book of Proverbs, warned of tempting, “loose” ( Leviticus 2:16 NRSV), “loud,” “ignorant” (  Leviticus 9:13 NRSV), and “contentious” (  Leviticus 21:9 NRSV) women. Women were also seen as fearful (  Isaiah 19:16 ).  Proverbs 31:1 also pictured the hardworking, praiseworthy, “virtuous” woman.

Woman's most positive image was wife and mother. Against the predominant pattern of women in subordinate roles, several positive images of women emerged from the Old Testament. Undoubtedly, woman was venerated in her role as wife and mother. The Ten Commandments cite a son's duty to honor both his father and mother ( Exodus 20:12 ). The ideal woman, eulogized in  Proverbs 31:1 , is a wife and mother who fulfills well both roles in addition to engaging profitably in the business world.

The birth of children was a sign of God's favor bestowed upon a good woman. A particular sign of God's favor was the birth of male children ( Genesis 29:31-30:24 ). The story of Ruth is a good example of a traditional woman who was admired for her role as a good daughter-in-law. Ruth and Naomi, whose husbands died, were women of worth whom God aided by sending Boaz as their protector ( Ruth 1-4 ).

A thread which crosses the dominant pattern of the subjection of women is one which depicts women positively. Wisdom, which held high value for the Hebrew people, was personified as “she” ( Proverbs 1:20;  Proverbs 7:4 ). The prophet Isaiah used a mother's love for her child as a model for God's love for His people. ( Isaiah 49:15 :  Isaiah 66:13 ). Several women—including Miriam, Deborah, Huldah, and Esther—earned the respect and admiration of the Israelite nation by playing a significant role in times of national crisis. See Deborah; Esther; Huldah; Miriam .

What the New Testament Teaches About Woman Jesus was able to retain the best in the Hebrew tradition and yet cut away some of the rigid structure that restricted it. He was able to do the same for woman. Without radically changing her roles, Jesus enlarged and transformed women's possibilities for a full life. His manner and teachings elevated her status and gave her an identity and a cause. Jesus' manner in His interactions with women is at least as significant as His teachings about woman. At the risk of censure from a male-oriented society, Jesus talked to women, responded to their touch, healed them, received their emotional and financial support, and used them as main characters in His stories. Jesus saw women as persons. Martha wanted Jesus to make Mary help with the serving duties, but Jesus affirmed Mary's choice to learn as a disciple. Women of that day could not be disciples of rabbis, but Jesus recognized women's potential for intelligent thought and commitment ( Luke 10:38-42 ).

On another occasion, Jesus welcomed a woman's anointing His head as indicative of her understanding of His real mission. Instead of rejecting her public display or chiding her for extravagance, He commended her for her act of love. He treated her as a person of insight and feeling ( Mark 14:3-9 ). The woman at the well in Samaria is another example of Jesus seeing women as persons. Jesus would not have talked theology to her if He had related to her primarily as a woman or as a Samaritan. However, He saw her as a person, so He was not restricted in His interaction by her sex or race ( John 4:1-42 ). The woman caught in adultery was treated as a person. Her action was not condoned by Jesus, but neither did He allow her to be subjected to a double standard by her male accusers. Jesus offered her new possibilities of living with His directive: “Neither do I condemn you. Go your way, and from now on do not sin again” ( John 7:53-8:11 NRSV).

Besides seeing women as persons, Jesus involved them in His earthly ministry. Luke mentioned a group of women who traveled with Jesus as He journeyed from town to town ( Luke 8:1-3 ). Among them were Mary of Magdala, Joanna, and Susanna. These women provided financial support for Jesus and the twelve apostles. Women also proclaimed the gospel. In His encounter with the Samaritan woman, Jesus revealed Himself as the Messiah. She immediately left and began telling people, “He told me everything I have ever done” ( John 4:39 NRSV). Many Samaritans believed in Jesus because of the woman's testimony.

Women were the first at the tomb after the resurrection; and, as such, they were the first to broadcast His victory over death ( Luke 23:55-24:11 ). Matthew, Mark, and Luke all called attention to the loyal women who participated in Jesus' Galilean ministry and followed Him all the way to the cross and the grave. They shared the greatest news: “He is not here, but has risen” ( Luke 24:5 NRSV).

As a master teacher, Jesus used parables to teach about the kingdom of God. He reached out to the women in His audience by telling stories about their life experiences. By capturing their attention and commitment through parables, He offered them a place in the kingdom.

God's seeking activity is the theme of two parables, the lost sheep begins, “What man of you” and the parable of the lost coin, “What woman.” The woman looking for the lost coin represented God's activity in seeking the lost, just as the man represented God's seeking activity. Jesus appealed to women through their housekeeping experiences. He elevated their experiences by likening them to God's activity.

The twin parables in  Luke 13:18-20 point to the way the kingdom of God grows. Again Jesus used the life experience of woman to illuminate an eternal truth. Jesus meant for women to identify with His mission. He meant to involve them in spreading the gospel. His parables taught that both women and men would be involved in the kingdom work.

Jesus spoke directly to the matter of treating a woman as a sex object. In the Sermon on the Mount, He redefined adultery to include a lustful look ( Matthew 5:28 ). While making religion a matter of the heart instead of the law, Jesus elevated women to the level of full personhood, from the level of sexual exploitation. Marriage and divorce were issues of great importance to women, since their lives were lived mainly in the roles of wife and mother. Their emotional, social, and financial security was dependent on their marriages. Jesus said that divorce is a testimony to the hardness of the human heart, not God's will ( Matthew 19:1-9 ). To those who were casually divorcing their wives, Jesus stated plainly that they were committing adultery. Responsive to the plight of women, He offset the male bias toward divorce and strengthened marriage as a permanent union. (See  Matthew 5:31-32;  Matthew 19:1-12;  Mark 10:1-12;  Luke 16:18 .)

Jesus' parable of the ten maidens, five foolish and five wise, hints at the way Jesus saw and dealt with woman ( Matthew 25:1-13 ). He saw women as neither inferior nor superior, but simply as persons. He saw their potential, their sinfulness, their strengths and weaknesses, and He dealt with them directly. As a group, He elevated their status and strengthened their participation and influence in their world. But as individuals, He treated them as friends and disciples.

Paul's theological vision ( Galatians 3:28 ) was that there was no partiality among persons with God. Yet Paul felt the tension of maintaining order in the New Testament church. He often fell back on Jewish social customs of the day to ensure that the fledgling church would not be seen unfavorably by the rest of the world. A man of his time, he still had a vision toward which he strove.

Paul moved ahead of his Jewish background when he called for mutual submission between husbands and wives ( Ephesians 5:21-33 ). The prevailing custom was for wives to be submissive. However, Paul reflected Jesus' concern that all relationships reflect the grace extended by God.—Responsibilities of both husbands and wives to love each other follow the initial exhortation to submit to each other in love. In other passages Paul implied a hierarchy of submission from God, to Christ, to man, to woman, to child as the sequence. However, the tone of this hierarchy was not military, but voluntary and self-sacrificing. Here again was a concession to order and not the ideal ( 1 Corinthians 11:2-16;  1 Corinthians 14:33-40;  1 Timothy 2:8-15 ).

Paul wrote in response to problems in churches. Paul was concerned that the Christians should “give no offense to Jews or to Greeks or to the church of God” ( 1 Corinthians 10:32 NRSV). Therefore, he wrote responses to the way specific problems should be handled in different churches. Some of his remarks do not have direct relevance to our day. For example, he spoke of meat offered to idols (  Romans 14:1 ), and women wearing jewelry and braiding their hair ( 1 Timothy 2:8-12 ). In contrast to these specific problems, Paul espoused basic principles which have relevance to every age: (1) A Christian should take into account how his or her actions may influence others ( 1 Corinthians 8:13 ) and (2) A Christian should do all things to the glory of God ( 1 Corinthians 10:31 ).

Of equal weight with what Paul said regarding women is how he related to them. Paul welcomed women as colaborers in the churches and commended them for their gifts and faithfulness ( Romans 16:1 ,Romans 16:1, 16:3-5 ). Phoebe, Prisca, Lydia, and others were seen as partners in the gospel. To the Roman church Paul said, “I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deacon of the church at Cenchreae” ( Romans 16:1 NRSV). He called Phoebe a “benefactor of many and of myself as well” (  Romans 16:2 NRSV). Evidently Paul relied on women to exercise their gifts (  1 Corinthians 12:1 ) as a part of the body of Christ. See Deacon; Offices; Phoebe; Prisca .

Summary Woman is the subject of many questions and controversies in the church today. Is she equal to man? Can she exercise the same spiritual gifts as man in the church? Should she be subject to her husband in all matters? As Christians turn to the Bible for guidance in responding to these questions, they must be careful not to focus on one verse or passage. The total impact and message of the Bible should become the guiding spirit in answering these and other questions.

The Old Testament clearly subjected woman to the will and protection of her husband. She was extolled for performing her important roles as wife and mother. On occasion she rose above those roles and led the Jewish nation in times of crisis.

The New Testament brings a different picture of woman into focus. Jesus, and later Paul, elevated the status of woman so that she could be a full participant in the kingdom of God. However, she is urged to use her responsibility as well as her freedom to find her place in the body of Christ. The spirit of freedom and love in Christ is woman's as well as man's. See Divorce; Family; Marriage; Sex, Teaching on.

Kay W. Shurden

Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible

Woman

1. In OT ( ’ishshâh , ‘woman,’ ‘wife’; nÄ•qçbâh [  Leviticus 15:33 ,   Numbers 31:15 ,   Jeremiah 31:22 ], ‘female’) woman’s position is one of inferiority and subjection to man (  Genesis 3:13 ); and yet, in keeping with the view that ideally she is his companion and ‘help meet’ (  Genesis 2:18-24 ), she never sinks into a mere drudge or plaything. In patriarchal times, Sarah, Rebekah, and Rachel stand side by side with their husbands. In the era of the deliverance from Egypt, Miriam is ranked with Moses and Aaron (cf.   Micah 6:4 ). In the days of the judges, Deborah is not only a prophetess (wh. see), as other women in Israel were, but is herself a judge (  Judges 4:4 ). Under the monarchy, Jezebel in the Northern Kingdom and Athaliah in the Southern, afford illustrations of the political power and influence that a woman might wield. In religious matters, we find women attending the Feasts along with men (  1 Samuel 1:1 ff. etc.), taking part with them in acts of sacrifice (  Judges 13:20;   Judges 13:23 etc.), combined with them in the choral service of the Temple (  Ezra 2:65 etc.). And though in the Deut. code woman’s position is one of complete subordination, her rights are recognized and safeguarded in a way that prepares the soil for the growth of those higher conceptions which find utterance in Malachi’s declaration that divorce is hateful to Jehovah (  Ezra 2:16 ), and in the picture of the virtuous wife with which the Book of Proverbs concludes (ch. 31). See, further, Family, Marriage.

2. In NT ( gynç , ‘woman,’ ‘wife’; thçleia [  Romans 1:26-27 ], ‘female’; gynaikarion [dimin. fr. gynç ,   2 Timothy 3:6 ], EV [Note: English Version.] ‘silly women’). Owing to the influence of Rabbinism, Jewish women had lost some of their earlier freedom (ct. [Note: t. contrast.] with the scene at the well of Haran [  Genesis 24:10 ff.] the surprise of the disciples by the well of Sychar when they found Jesus ‘speaking with a woman’ [  John 4:27 ]). But Jesus wrought a wonderful change. He did this not only by His teaching about adultery (  Matthew 5:27 f.) and marriage and divorce (  Matthew 5:31 f.,   Matthew 19:3 ff.), but still more by His personal attitude to women, whether good and pure like His own mother (there is nothing harsh or discourteous in the ‘Woman’ of   John 2:4; cf.   John 19:26 ) and the sisters of Bethany, or sinful and outcast as some women of the Gospels were (  Luke 7:37 ff;   Luke 8:2 ,   John 4:1-54 ). The work of emancipation was continued in the Apostolic Church. Women formed an integral part of the earliest Christian community (  Acts 1:14 ), shared in the gifts of Pentecost (  Acts 2:1 ff., cf.   Acts 2:17 ), engaged in tasks of unofficial ministry (  Romans 16:1 f.,   Philippians 4:2 f.), and by and by appear (  1 Timothy 3:11 ) as holding the office of the deaconess (wh. see), and possibly (  1 Timothy 5:3 ) that of the ‘ widow ’ (wh. see, and cf. Timothy [Epp. to], § 5 ). St. Paul’s conception of woman and of man’s relation to her is difficult (  1 Corinthians 7:1-40 ), but may be explained partly by his expectation of the Parousia (  1 Corinthians 7:29-31 ), and partly by the exigencies of an era of persecution (  1 Corinthians 7:26 ). In a later Pauline Epistle marriage becomes a type of the union between Christ and the Church (  Ephesians 5:22-33 ). And if by his injunction as to the silence of women in the Church (  1 Corinthians 14:34 ff.) the Apostle appears to limit the prophetic freedom of the first Christian days (  Acts 2:4;   Acts 2:17 ), we must remember that he is writing to a Church set in the midst of a dissolute Greek city, where Christian women had special reasons for caution in the exercise of their new privileges. Elsewhere he announces the far-reaching principle that in Christ Jesus ‘there can be no male and female’ (  Galatians 3:28 ).

J. C. Lambert.

Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words

1: Γυνή (Strong'S #1135 — Noun Feminine — gune — goo-nay' )

for which see also Wife , is used of a "woman" unmarried or married, e.g.,  Matthew 11:11;  14:21;  Luke 4:26 , of a "widow;"  Romans 7:2; in the vocative case, used in addressing a "woman," it is a term not of reproof or severity, but of endearment or respect,  Matthew 15:28;  John 2:4 , where the Lord's words to His mother at the wedding in Cana, are neither rebuff nor rebuke. The question is, lit., "What to Me and to thee?" and the word "woman," the term of endearment, follows this. The meaning is "There is no obligation on Me or you, but love will supply the need." She confides in Him, He responds to her faith. There was lovingkindness in both hearts. His next words about "His hour" suit this; they were not unfamiliar to her. Cana is in the path to Calvary; Calvary was not yet, but it made the beginning of signs possible. See also  John 4:21;  19:26 .

 Galatians 4:4

2: Γυναικάριον (Strong'S #1133 — Noun Neuter — gunaikarion — goo-nahee-kar'-ee-on )

a diminutive of No. 1, a "little woman," is used contemptuously in  2—Timothy 3:6 , "a silly woman."

3: Πρεσβύτερος (Strong'S #4245 — Adjective — presbuteros — pres-boo'-ter-os )

"elder, older," in the feminine plural, denotes "elder women" in  1—Timothy 5:2 . See Elder , A, No. 1

4: Πρεσβῦτις (Strong'S #4247 — Noun Feminine — presbutis — pres-boo'-tis )

the feminine of presbutes, "aged," is used in the plural and translated "aged women" in  Titus 2:3 .

5: Θῆλυς (Strong'S #2338 — Adjective — theleia — thay'-loos )

the feminine of the adjective thelus, denotes "female," and is used as a noun,  Romans 1:26,27 . See Female.

American Tract Society Bible Dictionary

Is spoken of in Scripture as the beloved and honored companion and helpmeet, not the servant, of man,  Genesis 2:23,24 , created as the necessary completion of man,  Genesis 3:16   1 Corinthians 11:3,8,9   14:34,35   1 Timothy 2:11-14 , yet specially qualified for that sphere, and as necessary in it as man in his. Man and woman are indeed essentially one, the natural qualities of each so responding to those of the other as to lay the foundation of the most tender and abiding unity. The Bible thus raised the Jewish woman high above the woman of heathenism; and the Old Testament contains some of the finest portraitures of female character. But still greater is the contrast between the women of heathenism and those of Christianity: the former with mind and soul undeveloped, secluded, degraded, the mere toys and slaves of their husbands; the latter educated, refined, ennobled, cheering and blessing the world. Christianity forbids a man to have more than one wife, or to divorce her for any cause but one,  Matthew 5:32   19:3-9; declares that bond and free, male and female, are all one in Christ,  Galatians 3:28; and that in heaven they are no more given in marriage, but are as the angels of God,  Matthew 22:33 . If woman was first in the Fall, she was honored in the exclusive parentage of the Savior of mankind; and women were the truest friends of Christ while on earth. The primal curse falls with heaviest weight on woman; but the larger proportion of women in our churches may indicate that it was the purpose of God to make his grace to man "yet more abound" to her who was the first in sinning and suffering.

In the East, women have always lived in comparative seclusion, not appearing in public unless closely veiled, not mingling in general society, nor seen the men who visit their husbands and brothers, nor even taking their meals with the men of their own family. Their seclusion was less in the rural districts than in towns, and among the Jews than among most to her nations. They were chiefly engaged in domestic duties,  Proverbs 31:1-31; among which were grinding flour, baking bread, making cloth, needle work, etc. The poor gleaned the remnants of the harvest; the daughters of he patriarchs joined in tending their fathers' flocks,  Genesis 29:9   Exodus 2:16; and females of all classes were accustomed to draw water for family use, bearing it in earthen pitchers on their shoulders often for a considerable distance,  Genesis 24:15-20   John 7:28 .

Vine's Expository Dictionary of OT Words

'Ishshâh ( אִשָּׁה , Strong'S #802), “woman; wife; betrothed one; bride; each.” This word has cognates in Akkadian, Ugaritic, Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic. It appears about 781 times in biblical Hebrew and in all periods of the language.

This noun connotes one who is a female human being regardless of her age or virginity. Therefore, it appears in correlation to “man” ( ish ): “… She shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man” (Gen. 2:23). This is its meaning in its first biblical usage: “And the rib, which the Lord God had taken from man [ ‘adam ], made he a woman, and brought her unto the man” (Gen. 2:22). The stress here is on identification of womanhood rather than a family role.

The stress on the family role of a “wife” appears in passages such as Gen. 8:16: “Go forth of the ark, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons’ wives with thee.”

In one special nuance the word connotes “wife” in the sense of a woman who is under a man’s authority and protection; the emphasis is on the family relationship considered as a legal and social entity: “And Abram took Sarai his wife and Lot his brother’s son, and all their substance that they had gathered …” (Gen. 12:5).

In Lam. 2:20 'ishshâh is a synonym for “mother”: “Shall the women eat their [offspring, the little ones who were born healthy]?” In Gen. 29:21 (cf. Deut. 22:24) it appears to connote “bride” or “betrothed one”: “And Jacob said unto Laban, Give me my wife, for my days are fulfilled, that I may go in unto her.” Eccl. 7:26 uses the word generically of “woman” conceived in general, or womanhood: “And I find more bitter than death the woman, whose heart is snares and nets …” (cf. Gen. 31:35).

This word is used only infrequently of animals: “Of every clean beast thou shalt take to thee by sevens, the male and his female: and of beasts that are not clean by two, the male and his female” (Gen. 7:2).

This word can also be used figuratively describing foreign warriors and/or heroes as “women,” in other words as weak, unmanly, and cowardly: “In that day shall Egypt be like unto women: and it shall be afraid and fear because of the shaking of the hand of the Lord of hosts …” (Isa. 19:16).

In a few passages 'ishshâh means “each” or “every”: “But every woman shall borrow of her neighbor, and of her that sojourneth in her house …” (Exod. 3:22; cf. Amos 4:3). A special use of this nuance ouurs in passages such as Jer. 9:20, where in conjunction with re’ut (“neighbor”) it means “one” (female): “Yet hear the word of the Lord, O ye women, and let your ear receive the word of his mouth, and teach your daughters wailing, and every one her neighbor lamentation.”

Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types

 Lamentations 1:17 (a) The city where GOD had placed His name had become a vile, filthy community. That which emanated from this city was offensive to GOD, and shameful in every aspect. Her manners and her ways were repulsive to the holy GOD who had chosen her. (See also  Ezekiel 16:30;  Ezekiel 23:44;  Ezekiel 36:17).

 Zechariah 5:7 (b) This woman represents Israel from the commercial standpoint. The ephah, which was a measure, represents her business enterprises. It was the burden of the nation, as it still is. Their object in life was to make money, gain power, and rise to places of distinction.

 Matthew 13:33 (b) Here is a type of apostate Christendom, and false religions. They use much of the Word of GOD (the meal), but they mingle with it their false and evil explanations which poison the souls of those who partake of it. Every false religion, in so-called Christendom, uses much of the Bible in their writings and utterances. They poison these messages by interjecting their own explanation and false deductions which produce wrong conclusions. The result is that Christ Jesus is not honored and the Word of GOD is dishonored.

 Revelation 12:1 (b) This woman represents the nation of Israel with her twelve patriarchs (or tribes), and Jesus was the child born from Israel.

Easton's Bible Dictionary

 Genesis 2:23 1 Corinthians 11:3,8,9 1 Peter 3:7 Exodus 15:20 Judges 4:4,5 2 Kings 22:14 Nehemiah 6:14 Luke 2:36,37 Acts 21:8,9 1 Corinthians 14:34,35 1 Timothy 2:11,12 Genesis 18:6 2 Samuel 13:8 Exodus 35:26 Proverbs 31:19 1 Samuel 2:19 Proverbs 31:21 Genesis 24:15 1 Samuel 9:11 Genesis 29:6 Exodus 2:16

The word "woman," as used in  Matthew 15:28 ,  John 2:4,20:13,15 , implies tenderness and courtesy and not disrespect. Only where revelation is known has woman her due place of honour assigned to her.

Morrish Bible Dictionary

It is evident from scripture that women were anciently held in much more honour and esteem in Eastern countries than they are now. Solomon, speaking of women, said that such as his soul sought for he did not find one in a thousand.  Ecclesiastes 7:28 . This tells of fallen human nature; but the true thought of woman is that she is the glory of the man, his true helpmeet. This is fulfilled in the relationship of the church to Christ.

In the N.T. the true place of the woman in subjection to the man is plainly stated, as indicated in creation; and in the assembly the woman is to be silent, and not to teach. Her bearing and deportment are expressive of what she learns as taught of Christ.  1 Corinthians 11:3-15;  1 Corinthians 14:34,35;  1 Timothy 2:11 .  12 . Nevertheless women were greatly honoured in ministering to the Lord, and are accredited as helping on the work of the Lord in the gospel and among the saints.  Luke 8:2,3;  Luke 23:27,55,56;  Romans 16:1,3,6;  Philippians 4:2,3;  2 John 1,10 .

Webster's Dictionary

(1): ( v. t.) To act the part of a woman in; - with indefinite it.

(2): ( v. t.) To make effeminate or womanish.

(3): ( v. t.) To furnish with, or unite to, a woman.

(4): ( n.) A female attendant or servant.

(5): ( n.) The female part of the human race; womankind.

(6): ( n.) An adult female person; a grown-up female person, as distinguished from a man or a child; sometimes, any female person.

King James Dictionary

WOMAN, n. plu. women. a compound of womb and man.

1. The female of the human race, grown to adult years.

And the rib, which the Lord god had taken from the man, made he a woman.  Genesis 2 .

Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible.

We see every day women perish with infamy, by having been too willing to set their beauty to show.

I have observed among all nations that the women ornament themselves more tan the men that wherever found, they are the same kind, obliging, humane, tender beings, inclined to be gay and cheerful, timorous and modest.

2. A female attendant or servant.

WOMAN, To make pliant.

Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature

Fig. 345—Syro-Arabian costume, indoor dress

Like our own term Woman, the Hebrew word now so translated is used of married and unmarried females. The derivation of the word shows that according to the conception of the ancient Israelites woman was man in a modified form—one of the same race, the same genus, as man; a kind of female man. How slightly modified that form is, how little in original structure woman differs from man, physiology has made abundantly clear. Different in make as man and woman are, they differ still more in character; and yet the great features of their hearts and minds so closely resemble each other, that it requires no depth of vision to see that these twain are one. This most important fact is characteristically set forth in the Bible in the account given of the formation of woman out of one of Adam's ribs (). Those who have been pleased to make free with this simple narrative may well be required to show how a rude age could more effectually have been taught the essential unity of man and woman—a unity of nature which demands, and is perfected only in, a unity of soul. The conception of the Biblical writer goes beyond even this, but does not extend farther than science and experience unite to justify. There was solid reason why it was not good for Adam 'to be alone.' Without an help meet he would have been an imperfect being. The genus homo consists of man and woman. Both are necessary to the idea of man. The one supplements the qualities of the other. They are not two, but one flesh, and as one body so one, soul.

It will at once be seen that under the influence of a religion, at the bottom of which lay those ideas concerning the relations of the sexes one to another, slavery on the part of the woman was impossible. This fact is the more noticeable, and it speaks the more loudly in favor of the divine origin of the religion of the Bible, because the East has in all times, down to the present-day, kept woman everywhere, save in those places in which Judaism and Christianity have prevailed, in a state of low, even if in some cases gilded, bondage, making her the mere toy, plaything, and instrument of man.

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

woom´an ( אשּׁה , 'ishshāh , "a woman" (feminine of אישׁ , 'ı̄sh , "a man"; γυνή , gunḗ , "a woman" "wife"):

I. In The Creative Plan

II. In Old Testament Times

1. Prominence of Women

2. Social Equality

3. Marriage Laws

4. Inheritance

5. Domestic Duties

6. Dress and Ornaments

7. Religious Devotion and Service

(1) in Idolatry and False Religion

(2) in Spiritual Religion

III. Inter-Testamental Era

IV. In New Testament Times

1. Mary and Elisabeth

2. Jesus and Women

3. In the Early Church

4. Official Service

5. Widows

6. Deaconesses

V. Later Times

1. Changes in Character and Condition

2. Notable Examples of Christian Womanhood

3. Woman in the 20th Century

The generic term "man" includes woman. In the narrative of the creation ( Genesis 1:26 ,  Genesis 1:27 ) Adam is a collective term for mankind. It may signify human being, male or female, or humanity entire. "God said, Let us make man ... and let them" ( Genesis 1:26 ), the latter word "them" defining "man" in the former clause. So in  Genesis 1:27 , "in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them," "them" being synonymous with "him." See also Adam; Anthropology .

I. In the Creative Plan.

Whatever interpretation the latest scholarship may give to the story of woman's formation from the rib of man ( Genesis 2:21-24 ), the passage indicates, most profoundly, the inseparable unity and fellowship of her life with his. Far more than being a mere assistant, "helper" (עזר , ‛ēzer "help" "helper"  Genesis 2:18 ), she is man's complement, essential to the perfection of his being. Without her he is not man in the generic fullness of that term. Priority of creation may indicate headship, but not, as theologians have so uniformly affirmed, superiority. Dependence indicates difference of function, not inferiority. Human values are estimated in terms of the mental and spiritual. Man and woman are endowed for equality, and are mutually interdependent. Physical strength and prowess cannot be rated in the same category with moral courage and the capacity to endure ill-treatment, sorrow and pain; and in these latter qualities woman has always proved herself the superior. Man's historic treatment of woman, due to his conceit, ignorance or moral perversion, has taken her inferiority for granted, and has thus necessitated it by her enslavement and degradation. The narrative of the Fall (Gen 3) ascribes to woman supremacy of influence, for through her stronger personality man was led to disobedience of God's command. Her penalty for such ill-fated leadership was that her husband should "rule over" her (  Genesis 3:16 ), not because of any inherent superiority on his part, but because of her loss of prestige and power through sin. In that act she forfeited the respect and confidence which entitled her to equality of influence in family affairs. Her recovery from the curse of subjection was to come through the afflictive suffering of maternity, for, as Paul puts it, "she shall be saved (from the penalty of her transgression) through her child-bearing" ( 1 Timothy 2:15 ).

Sin, both in man and woman, has been universally the cause of woman's degradation. All history must be interpreted in the light of man's consequent mistaken estimate of her endowments, worth and rightful place. The ancient Hebrews never entirely lost the light of their original revelation, and, more than any other oriental race, held woman in high esteem, honor and affection. Christianity completed the work of her restoration to equality of opportunity and place. Wherever its teachings and spirit prevail, she is made the loved companion, confidante and adviser of her husband.

II. In Old Testament Times.

1. Prominence of Women:

Under the Hebrew system the position of woman was in marked contrast with her status in surrounding heathen nations. Her liberties were greater, her employments more varied and important, her social standing more respectful and commanding. The divine law given on Sinai ( Exodus 20:12 ) required children to honor the mother equally with the father. A similar esteem was accorded her in patriarchal times. Sarah held a position of favor and authority in Abraham's household. Rebekah was not less influential than Isaac, and was evidently the stronger personality. The "beautiful" Rachel (  Genesis 29:17 ) won from Jacob a love that accepted her as an equal in the companionship and counsels of family life. Many Hebrew women rose to eminence and national leadership. Miriam and Deborah were each a prophetess and a poetess. The former led bands of women in triumphant song and procession, celebrating the overthrow of enemies (  Exodus 15:20 ); the latter, through her dominating personality and prophetic power, became the virtual judge of the nation and led armies to victory. Her military general, Barak, refused to advance against Sisera without her presence and commanding influence ( Judges 4:8 ). Her ode of victory indicates the intellectual endowment and culture of her sex in that unsettled and formative era (Jdg 5). No person in Israel surpassed Hannah , the mother of Samuel, in intelligence, beauty and fervor of religious devotion. Her spiritual exaltation and poetic gift found expression in one of the choicest specimens of early Hebrew lyric poetry ( 1 Samuel 2:1-10 ). Other women eminent as prophetesses were: Huldah , whose counsel was sought by high priest and king ( 2 Chronicles 34:22; compare  2 Kings 22:14 ); Noadiah (  Nehemiah 6:14 ); Anna (  Luke 2:36 ). The power to which woman could attain in Israel is illustrated in the career of the wicked, merciless, murderous, idolatrous Jezebel , self-styled prophetess ( Revelation 2:20 ). Evidence of woman's eminence in the kingdoms of Judah and Israel is seen in the influence she exercised as queen mother ( 1 Kings 15:13 ) and queen ( 2 Kings 8:18 ); in the beautiful honor shown by King Solomon to his mother, Bath-sheba (  1 Kings 2:19 ); in the filial devotion of the prophet Elisha ( 1 Kings 19:20 ); in the constant mention of the mother's name in the biographies of successive kings, making it evident that she was considered the important and determining factor in the life of her royal sons. Her teaching and authority were sufficiently eminent to find recognition in the proverbs of the nation: "the law of thy mother" ( Proverbs 1:8;  Proverbs 6:20 ) was not to be forsaken, while contempt for the same merited the curse of God ( Proverbs 19:26;  Proverbs 20:20;  Proverbs 30:11 ,  Proverbs 30:17 ).

2. Social Equality:

Additional evidence of woman's social equality comes from the fact that men and women feasted together without restriction. Women shared in the sacred meals and great annual feasts ( Deuteronomy 16:11 ,  Deuteronomy 16:14 ); in wedding festivities ( John 2:1-3 ); in the fellowship of the family meal ( John 12:3 ). They could appear, as Sarah did in the court of Egypt, unveiled ( Genesis 12:11 ,  Genesis 12:14 ). Rebekah ( Genesis 24:16; compare  Genesis 24:65 ), Rachel ( Genesis 29:11 ), Hannah ( 1 Samuel 1:13 ) appeared in public and before suitors with uncovered faces. The secluding veil was introduced into Mohammedan and other oriental lands through the influence of the Koran. The custom was non-Jewish in origin, and the monuments make. It evident that it did not prevail, in early times, in Assyria and Egypt. Even Greece and Rome, at the time of their supreme culture, fell-far below the Hebrew conception of woman's preeminent worth. The greatest hellenic philosophers declared that it would radically disorganize the state for wives to claim equality with their husbands. Aristotle considered women inferior beings, intermediate between freemen and slaves. Socrates and Demosthenes held them in like depreciation. Plato advocated community of wives. Substantially the same views prevailed in Rome. Distinguished men, like Metullus and Care, advocated marriage only as a public duty. More honor was shown the courtesan than the wife. Chastity and modesty, the choice inheritance of Hebrew womanhood, were foreign to the Greek conception of morality, and disappeared from Rome when Greek culture and frivolity entered. The Greeks made the shameless Phryne the model of the goddess Aphrodite, and lifted their hands to public prostitutes when they prayed in their temples. Under pagan culture and heathen darkness woman was universally subject to inferior and degrading conditions. Every decline in her status in the Hebrew commonwealth was due to the incursion of foreign influence. The lapses of Hebrew morality, especially in the court of Solomon and of subsequent kings, occurred through the borrowing of idolatrous and heathen customs from surrounding nations ( 1 Kings 11:1-8 ).

3. Marriage Laws:

The Bible gives no sanction to dual or plural marriages. The narrative in  Genesis 2:18-24 indicates that monogamy was the divine ideal for man. The moral decline of the generations antedating the Flood seems to have been due, chiefly; to the growing disregard of the sanctity of marriage. Lamech's taking of two wives (  Genesis 4:19 ) is the first recorded infraction of the divine ideal. By Noah's time polygamy had degenerated into promiscuous inter-racial marriages of the most incestuous and illicit kind ( Genesis 6:1-4; see Sons Of God ). The subsequent record ascribes marital infidelity and corruption to sin, and affirms that the destruction of the race by the Flood and the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah were God's specific judgment on man's immorality. The dual marriages of the Patriarchs were due, chiefly, to the desire for children, and are not to be traced to divine consent or approval. The laws of Moses regarding chastity protected the sanctity of marriage (see Marriage ), and indicated a higher regard for woman than prevailed in Gentile or other Semitic races ( Leviticus 18:6-20 ). They sought to safeguard her from the sensual abominations prevalent among the Egyptians and Canaanites (Lev 18). Kings were forbidden to "multiply wives" ( Deuteronomy 17:17 ). Concubinage in Israel was an importation from heathenism.

Divorce was originally intended to protect the sanctity of wedlock by outlawing the offender and his moral offense. Its free extension to include any marital infelicity met the stern rebuke of Jesus, who declared that at the best it was a concession to human infirmity and hardness of heart, and should be granted only in case of adultery ( Matthew 5:32 ). See Divorce .

Hebrew women were granted a freedom in choosing a husband not known elsewhere in the East ( Genesis 24:58 ). Jewish tradition declares that a girl over 12 1/2 years of age had the right to give herself in marriage. Vows made by a daughter, while under age, could be annulled by the father ( Numbers 30:3-5 ) or by the husband ( Numbers 30:6-16 ). Whenever civil law made a concession to the customs of surrounding nations, as in granting the father power to sell a daughter into bondage, it sought to surround her with all possible protection ( Deuteronomy 22:16 ff).

4. Inheritance:

The Mosaic Law prescribed that the father's estate, in case there were no sons, should pass to the daughters ( Numbers 27:1-8 ). They were not permitted, however, to alienate the family inheritance by marrying outside their own tribe ( Numbers 36:6-9 ). Such alien marriages were permissible only when the husband took the wife's family name ( Nehemiah 7:63 ). Unmarried daughters, not provided for in the father's will, were to be cared for by the eldest son ( Genesis 31:14 ,  Genesis 31:15 ). The bride's dowry, at marriage, was intended as a substitute for her share in the family estate. In rabbinical law, a century or more before Christ, it took the form of a settlement upon the wife and was considered obligatory. Provision for woman under the ancient Mosaic Law was not inferior to her status under English law regarding landed estates.

5. Domestic Duties:

Among the Hebrews, woman administered the affairs of the home with a liberty and leadership unknown to other oriental peoples. Her domestic duties were more independent, varied and honorable. She was not the slave or menial of her husband. Her outdoor occupations were congenial, healthful, extensive. She often tended the flocks ( Genesis 29:6;  Exodus 2:16 ); spun the wool, and made the clothing of the family ( Exodus 35:26;  Proverbs 31:19;  1 Samuel 2:19 ); contributed by her weaving and needlework to its income and support ( Proverbs 31:14 ,  Proverbs 31:24 ), and to charity ( Acts 9:39 ). Women ground the grain ( Matthew 24:41 ); prepared the meals ( Genesis 18:6;  2 Samuel 13:8;  John 12:2 ); invited and received guests ( Judges 4:18;  1 Samuel 25:18 ff;   2 Kings 4:8-10 ); drew water for household use ( 1 Samuel 9:11;  John 4:7 ), for guests and even for their camels ( Genesis 24:15-20 ). Hebrew women enjoyed a freedom that corresponds favorably with the larger liberties granted them in the Christian era.

6. Dress and Ornaments:

That women were fond of decorations and display in ancient as in modern times is clear from the reproof administered by the prophet for their haughtiness and excessive ornamentation ( Isaiah 3:16 ). He bids them "remove (the) veil, strip off the train," that they may be better able to "grind meal" and attend to the other womanly duties of the home ( Isaiah 47:2 ). These prophetic reproofs do not necessarily indicate general conditions, but exceptional tendencies to extravagance and excess. The ordinary dress of women was modest and simple, consisting of loose flowing robes, similar to those worn by men, and still in vogue among Orientals, chiefly the mantle, shawl and veil (Rth 3:15;  Isaiah 3:22 ,  Isaiah 3:23 ). The veil, however, was not worn for seclusion, as among the Moslems. The extensive wardrobe and jewelry of Hebrew women is suggested by the catalogue given in  Isaiah 3:18-24 : anklets, cauls, crescents, pendants, bracelets, mufflers, headtires, ankle chains, sashes, perfume-boxes, amulets, rings, nose-jewels, festival robes, mantles, shawls, satchels, hand-mirrors, fine linen, turbans, veils. The elaborateness of this ornamentation throws light on the apostle Peter's counsel to Christian women not to make their adornment external, e.g. the braiding of the hair, the wearing of jewels of gold, the putting on of showy apparel, but rather the apparel of a meek and quiet spirit (  1 Peter 3:3 ,  1 Peter 3:4 ).

7. Religious Devotion and Service:

The reflections cast upon woman for her leadership in the first transgression ( Genesis 3:6 ,  Genesis 3:13 ,  Genesis 3:16;  2 Corinthians 11:3;  1 Timothy 2:14 ) do not indicate her rightful and subsequent place in the religious life of mankind. As wife, mother, sister, she has been preeminently devout and spiritual. history records, however, sad and striking exceptions to this rule.

(1) In Idolatry and False Religion

Often woman's religious intensity found expression in idolatry and the gross cults of heathenism. That she everywhere participated freely in the religious rites and customs of her people is evident from the fact that women were often priestesses, and were often deified. The other Semitic religions had female deities corresponding to the goddesses of Greece and Rome. In the cult of Ishtar of Babylon, women were connected with the immoral rites of temple-worship. The women of heathen nations in the harem of Solomon ( 1 Kings 11:1 ) turned the heart of the wise king to unaccountable folly in the worship of the Sidonian goddess Ashtoreth, and of Chemosh and Molech, in turn the "abomination" of Moab and Ammon ( 1 Kings 11:5-8 ). The fatal speller Maacah morally blighted the reigns of her husband, son and grandson, until Asa the latter deposed her as queen and destroyed the obscene image of Asherah which she had set up ( 1 Kings 15:13 ). As "queen mother" ( gebhı̄rāh , "leader") she was equivalent to the Turkish Sultana Valide .

Baal-worship was introduced into Israel by Jezebel ( 1 Kings 16:31 ,  1 Kings 16:32;  1 Kings 18:19;  2 Kings 9:22 ), and into Judah by her daughter Athaliah ( 2 Chronicles 22:3;  2 Chronicles 24:7 ). The prominence of women in idolatry and in the abominations of foreign religions is indicated in the writings of the prophets ( Jeremiah 7:18;  Ezekiel 8:14 ). Their malign influence appeared in the sorceress and witch, condemned to death by the Mosaic Law ( Exodus 22:18 ); yet continuing through the nation's entire history. Even kings consulted them ( 1 Samuel 28:7-14 ). The decline and overthrow of Judah and Israel must be attributed, in large measure, to the deleterious effect of wicked, worldly, idolatrous women upon their religious life.

(2) In Spiritual Religion

The bright side of Hebrew history is an inspiring contrast to this dark picture. Prior to the Christian era no more luminous names adorn the pages of history than those of the devout and eminent Hebrew women. Jochebed , the mother of Moses, left upon him a religious impress so vital and enduring as to safeguard him through youth and early manhood from the fascinating corruptions of Pharaoh's Egyptian court (  Exodus 2:1-10;  Hebrews 11:23-26 ). In Ruth , the converted Moabitess, the royal ancestress of David and of Jesus, we have an unrivaled example of filial piety, moral beauty and self-sacrificing religious devotion (Rth 1:15-18). The prayers and piety of Hannah , taking effect in the spiritual power of her son Samuel, penetrated, purified and vitalized the religious life of the entire nation. Literature contains no finer tribute to the domestic virtues and spiritual qualities of woman than in the beautiful poem dedicated to his gifted mother by King Lemuel (Prov 31).

Women, as well as men, took upon themselves the self-renouncing vow of the Nazirite ( Numbers 6:2 ), and shared in offering sacrifices, as in the vow and sacrifice of Manoah's wife ( Judges 13:13 ,  Judges 13:14 ); were granted theophanies, e.g. Hagar ( Genesis 16:7;  Genesis 21:17 ), Sarah ( Genesis 18:9 ,  Genesis 18:10 ), Manoah's wife ( Judges 13:3-5 ,  Judges 13:9 ); were even permitted to "minister" at the door of the sanctuary ( Exodus 38:8;  1 Samuel 2:22 ); rendered conspicuous service in national religious songs and dances ( Exodus 15:20;  Judges 11:34;  1 Samuel 18:6 ,  1 Samuel 18:7 ); in the great choirs and choruses and processionals of the Temple ( Psalm 68:25;  Ezra 2:65;  Nehemiah 7:67 ); in religious mourning ( Jeremiah 9:17-20;  Mark 5:38 ). They shared equally with men in the great religious feasts, as is indicated by the law requiring their attendance ( Deuteronomy 12:18 ).

III. Inter-Testamental Era.

The women portrayed in the apocryphal literature of the Jews reveal all the varied characteristics of their sex so conspicuous in Old Testament history: devout piety, ardent patriotism, poetic fervor, political intrigue, worldly ambition, and sometimes a strange combination of these contradictory moral qualities. Whether fictitious, or rounded on fact, or historical, these portrayals are true to the feminine life of that era.

Anna is a beautiful example of wifely devotion. By her faith and hard toil she supported her husband, Tobit, after the loss of his property and in his blindness, until sight and prosperity were both restored (  Tobit 1:9;  2:1-14 ).

Edna , wife of Raguel of Ecbatana and mother of Sarah, made her maternal love and piety conspicuous in the blessing bestowed on Tobias on the occasion of his marriage to her daughter, who had hitherto been cursed on the night of wedlock by the death of seven successive husbands (  Tobit 7;  10:12 ).

Sarah , innocent of their death, which had been compassed by the evil spirit Asmodeus, at last had the reward of her faith in the joys of a happy marriage (  Tobit 10:10;  14:13 ).

Judith , a rich young widow, celebrated in Hebrew lore as the savior of her nation, was devoutly and ardently patriotic. When Nebuchadnezzar sent his general Holofernes with an army of 132,000 men to subjugate the Jews, she felt called of God to be their deliverer. Visiting holofernes, she so captivated him with her beauty and gifts that he made a banquet in her honor. While he was excessively drunk with the wine of his own bounty, she beheaded him in his tent. The Assyrians, paralyzed by the loss of their leader, easily fell a prey to the armies of Israel. Judith celebrates her triumph in a song, akin in its triumphant joy, patriotic fervor and religious zeal, to the ancient songs of Miriam and Deborah (  Judith 16:1-17 ).

Susanna typifies the ideal of womanly virtue. The daughter of righteous parents, well instructed in the sacred Law, the wife of a rich and honorable man, Joachim by name, she was richly blessed in position and person. Exceptionally modest, devout and withal very beautiful, she attracted the notice of two elders, who were also judges, and who took occasion frequently to visit Joachim's house. She spurned their advances and when falsely charged by them with the sin which she so successfully resisted, she escapes the judgment brought against her, by the subtle skill of Daniel. As a result, his fame and her innocence became widely known. See Susanna , History Of .

Cleopatra , full of inherited intrigue, is influential in the counsels of kings. She married successively for political power; murdered her eldest son Seleucus, by Demetrius, and at last dies by the poison which she intended for her younger son, Antiochus VIII. Her fatal influence is a striking example of the perverted use of woman's power (  1 Maccabees 10:58; Josephus, Ant. , Xiii , iv, 1; ix, 3).

IV. In New Testament Times.

1. Mary and Elisabeth:

A new era dawned for woman with the advent of Christianity. The honor conferred upon Mary , as mother of Jesus, lifted her from her "low estate," made after generations call her blessed (  Luke 1:48 ), and carried its benediction to the women of all subsequent times. Luke's narrative of the tivity (Lk 1; 2) has thrown about motherhood the halo of a new sanctity, given mankind a more exalted conception of woman's character and mission, and made the world's literature the vehicle of the same lofty reverence and regard. The two dispensations were brought together in the persons of Elisabeth and Mary: the former the mother of John the Baptist, the last of the old order of prophets; the latter the mother of the long-expected Messiah. Both are illustrious examples of Spirit-guided and Spirit-filled womanhood. The story of Mary's intellectual gifts, spiritual exaltation, purity and beauty of character, and her training of her divine child, has been an inestimable contribution to woman's world-wide emancipation, and to the uplift and ennoblement of family life. To her poetic inspiration, spiritual fervor and exalted thankfulness as expectant mother of the Messiah, the church universal is indebted for its earliest and most majestic hymn, the Magnificat . In her the religious teachings, prophetic hopes, and noblest ideals of her race were epitomized. Jesus' reverence for woman and the new respect for her begotten by his teaching were well grounded, on their human side, in the qualities of his own mother. The fact that he himself was born of woman has been cited to her praise in the ecumenical creeds of Christendom.

2. Jesus and Women:

From the first, women were responsive to his teachings and devoted to his person. The sisters of Lazarus, Mary and Martha , made their home at Bethany, his dearest earthly refuge and resting-place. Women of all ranks in society found in him a benefactor and friend, before unknown in all the history of their sex. They accompanied him, with the Twelve, in his preaching tours from city to city, some, like Mary Magdalene , grateful because healed of their moral infirmities (  Luke 8:2 ); others, like Joanna the wife of Chuzas, and Susanna , to minister to his needs ( Luke 8:3 ). Even those who were ostracized by society were recognized by him, on the basis of immortal values, and restored to a womanhood of virtue and Christian devotion ( Luke 7:37-50 ). Mothers had occasion to rejoice in his blessing their children ( Mark 10:13-16 ); and in his raising their dead ( Luke 7:12-15 ). Women followed him on his last journey from Galilee to Jerusalem; ministered to Him on the way to Calvary ( Matthew 27:55 ,  Matthew 27:56 ); witnessed his crucifixion ( Luke 23:49 ); accompanied his body to the sepulcher ( Matthew 27:61;  Luke 23:55 ); prepared spices and ointments for his burial ( Luke 23:56 ); were first at the tomb on the morning of his resurrection ( Matthew 28:1;  Mark 16:1;  Luke 24:1;  John 20:1 ); and were the first to whom the risen Lord appeared ( Matthew 28:9;  Mark 16:9;  John 20:14 ). Among those thus faithful and favored were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James and Joses, Salome (  Matthew 27:56 ), Joanna and other unnamed women ( Luke 24:10 ). Women had the honor of being the first to announce the fact of the resurrection to the chosen disciples ( Luke 24:9 ,  Luke 24:10 ,  Luke 24:22 ). They, including the mother of Jesus, were among the 120 who continued in prayer in the upper room and received the Pentecostal enduement ( Acts 1:14 ); they were among the first Christian converts ( Acts 8:12 ); suffered equally with men in the early persecutions of the church ( Acts 9:2 ). The Jewish enemies of the new faith sought their aid and influence in the persecutions raised against Paul and Barnabas ( Acts 13:50 ); while women of equal rank among the Greeks became ardent and intelligent believers ( Acts 17:12 ). The fidelity of women to Jesus during his three years' ministry, and at the cross and sepulcher, typifies their spiritual devotion in the activities and enterprises of the church of the 20th century.

3. In the Early Church:

Women were prominent, from the first, in the activities of the early church. Their faith and prayers helped to make Pentecost possible ( Acts 1:14 ). They were eminent, as in the case of Dorcas , in charity and good deeds ( Acts 9:36 ); foremost in prayer, like Mary the mother of John, who assembled the disciples at her home to pray for Peter's deliverance (  Acts 12:12 ). Priscilla is equally gifted with her husband as an expounder of "the way of God," and instructor of Apollos (  Acts 18:26 ), and as Paul's "fellow-worker in Christ" ( Romans 16:3 ). The daughters of Philip were prophetesses (  Acts 21:8 ,  Acts 21:9 ). The first convert in Europe was a woman, Lydia of Thyatira, whose hospitality made a home for Paul and a meeting-place for the infant church ( Acts 16:14 ). Women, as truly as men, were recipients of the charismatic gifts of Christianity. The apostolic greetings in the Epistles give them a place of honor. The church at Rome seems to have been blessed with a goodly number of gifted and consecrated women, inasmuch as Paul in the closing salutations of his Epistles sends greetings to at least eight prominent in Christian activity: Phoebe , Prisca , Mary "who bestowed much labor on you," Tryphena and Tryphosa , Persis , Julia , and the sister of Nereus (  Romans 16:1 ,  Romans 16:3 ,  Romans 16:6 ,  Romans 16:12 ,  Romans 16:15 ). To no women did the great apostle feel himself more deeply indebted than to Lois and Eunice , grandmother and mother of Timothy, whose "faith unfeigned" and ceaseless instructions from the holy Scriptures ( 2 Timothy 1:5;  2 Timothy 3:14 ,  2 Timothy 3:15 ) gave him the most "beloved child" and assistant in his ministry. Their names have been conspicuous in Christian history for maternal love, spiritual devotion and fidelity in teaching the Word of God. See also Claudia .

4. Official Service:

From the first, women held official positions of influence in the church. Phoebe ( Romans 16:1 ) was evidently a deaconess, whom Paul terms "a servant of the church," "a helper of many" and of himself also. Those women who "labored with me in the gospel" ( Philippians 4:3 ) undoubtedly participated with him in preaching. Later on, the apostle used his authority to revoke this privilege, possibly because some women had been offensively forward in "usurping authority over the man" ( 1 Timothy 2:12 the King James Version). Even though he bases his argument for woman's keeping silence in public worship on Adam's priority of creation and her priority in transgression (  1 Timothy 2:13 ,  1 Timothy 2:14 ), modern scholarship unhesitatingly affirms that his prohibition was applicable only to the peculiar conditions of his own time. Her culture, grace, scholarship, ability, religious devotion and spiritual enduement make it evident that she is often as truly called of God to public address and instruction as man. It is evident in the New Testament and in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers that women, through the agency of two ecclesiastical orders, were assigned official duties in the conduct and ministrations of the early church.

5. Widows:

Their existence as a distinct order is indicated in  1 Timothy 5:9 ,  1 Timothy 5:10 , where Paul directs Timothy as to the conditions of their enrollment. No widow should be "enrolled" (καταλέγω , katalégō , "catalogued," "registered") under 60 years of age, or if more than once married. She must be "well reported of for good works"; a mother, having "brought up children"; hospitable, having "used hospitality to strangers"; Christlike in loving service, having "washed the saints' feet." Chrysostom and Tertullian make mention of this order. It bound its members to the service of God for life, and assigned them ecclesiastical duties, e.g. the superintendence of the rest of the women, and the charge of the widows and orphans supported at public expense. Dean Alford (see the Commentary in the place cited) says they "were vowed to perpetual widowhood, clad in a vestis vidualis ("widow's garments"), and ordained by the laying on of hands. This institution was abolished by the eleventh Canon of the council of Laodicea."

Other special duties, mentioned by the Church Fathers, included prayer and fasting, visiting the sick, instruction of women, preparing them for baptism, assisting in the administration of this sacrament, and taking them the communion. The spiritual nature of the office is indicated by its occupant being variously termed "the intercessor of the church"; "the keeper of the door," at public service; "the altar of God." See Widows .

6. Deaconesses:

Many of these duties were transferred, by the 3century, to the deaconesses, an order which in recent history has been restored to its original importance and effectiveness. The women already referred to in  Romans 16:1 ,  Romans 16:6 ,  Romans 16:12 were evidently of this order, the term διάκονος , diákonos , being specifically applied to Phoebe, a deaconess of the church at Cenchrea. The women of  1 Timothy 3:11 , who were to serve "in like manner" as the "deacons" of  1 Timothy 3:10 , presumably held this office, as also the "aged women" of  Titus 2:3 (= "presbyters" (feminine), πρεσβύτεραι , presbúterai ,  1 Timothy 5:2 ). Virgins as well as widows were elected to this office, and the age of eligibility was changed from 60 to 40 by the Council of Chalcedon. The order was suppressed in the Latin church in the 6th century, and in the Greek church in the 12th. because of certain abuses that gradually became prevalent. Owing, however, to its exceptional importance and value it has been reinstated by nearly all branches of the modern church, the Methodists especially emphasizing its spiritual efficiency. Special training schools and courses in education now prepare candidates for this office. Even as early as the Puritan Reformation in England the Congregationalists recognized this order of female workers in their discipline. The spiritual value of woman's ministry in the lay and official work of the church is evidenced by her leadership in all branches of ecclesiastical and missionary enterprise. This modern estimate of her capability and place revises the entire historic conception and attitude of mankind. See Deaconess .

V. Later Times.

1. Changes in Character and Condition:

Tertullian mentions the modest garb worn by Christian women ( De Cult. Fem . ii. 11) as indicating their consciousness of their new spiritual wealth and worthiness. They no longer needed the former splendor of outward adornment, because clothed with the beauty and simplicity of Christlike character. They exchanged the temples, theaters, and festivals of paganism for the home, labored with their hands, cared for their husbands and children, graciously dispensed Christian hospitality, nourished their spiritual life in the worship, service and sacraments of the church, and in loving ministries to the sick. Their modesty and simplicity were a rebuke to and reaction from the shameless extravagances and immoralities of heathenism. That they were among the most conspicuous examples of the transforming power of Christianity is manifest from the admiration and astonishment of the pagan Libanius who exclaimed, "What women these Christians have!"

The social and legal status of woman instantly improved when Christianity gained recognition in the Empire. Her property rights as wife were established by law, and her husband made subject to accusation for marital infidelity. Her inferiority, subjection and servitude among all non-Jewish and non-Christian races, ancient and modern, are the severest possible arraignment of man's intelligence and virtue. Natural prudence should have discovered the necessity of a cultured and noble motherhood in order to a fine grade of manhood. Races that put blighting restrictions upon woman consign themselves to perpetual inferiority, impotence and final overthrow. The decline of Islam and the collapse of Turkey as a world-power are late striking illustrations of this fundamental truth.

2. Notable Examples of Christian Womanhood:

Woman's activity in the early church came to its zenith in the 4th century. The type of feminine character produced by Christianity in that era is indicated by such notable examples as Eramelia and Macrina, the mother and sister of Basil; Anthusa, Nonna, Monica, respectively the mothers of Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzen and Augustine. Like the mothers of Jerome and Ambrose they gave luster to the womanhood of the early Christian centuries by their accomplishments and eminent piety. As defenders of the faith women stand side by side with Ignatius and Polycarp in their capacity to face death and endure the agonies of persecution. The roll of martyrs is made luminous by the unrivaled purity, undaunted heroism, unconquerable faith of such Christian maidens as Blandina, Potamiaena, Perpetua and Felicitas, who, in their loyalty to Christ, shrank not from the most fiendish tortures invented by the diabolical cruelties and hatred of pagan Rome.

In the growing darkness of subsequent centuries women, as mothers, teachers, abbesses, kept the light of Christian faith and intelligence burning in medieval Europe. The mothers of Bernard and Peter the Venerable witness to the conserving and creative power of their devotion and faith. The apotheosis of the Virgin Mother, though a grave mistake and a perversion of Christianity by substituting her for the true object of worship, nevertheless served, in opposition to pagan culture, to make the highest type of womanhood the ideal of medieval greatness. The full glory of humanity was represented in her. She became universally dominant in religion. The best royalty of Europe was converted through her influence. Poland and Russia were added to European Christendom when their rulers accepted the faith of their Christian wives. Clotilda's conversion of Clovis made France Christian. The marriage of Bertha, another Christian princess of France, to Ethelbert introduced Roman Christianity into England, which became the established religion when Edwin, in turn, was converted through the influence of his Christian wife. The process culminated, in the 19th century, in the long, prosperous, peaceful, Christian reign of Victoria, England's noblest sovereign.

3. Woman in the 20th Century:

The opening decades of the 20th century are witnessing a movement among women that is one of the most remarkable phenomena in the history of mankind. It is world-wide and spontaneous, and aims at nothing less than woman's universal education and enfranchisement. This new ideal, taking its rise in the teaching of Jesus regarding the value of the human soul, is permeating every layer of society and all races and religions. Woman's desire for development and serf-expression, and better still for service, has given birth to educational, social, eleemosynary, missionary organizations and institutions, international in scope and influence. In 75 years after Mary Lyon inaugurated the higher education of woman at Mt. Holyoke College, in 1837,60,000 women were students in the universities and colleges of the United States; nearly 40,000 in the universities of Russia; and increasingly proportionate numbers in every higher institution of learning for women in the world; 30,000 were giving instruction in the primary and secondary schools of Japan. Even Moslem leaders confessed that the historic subjection of woman to ignorance, inferiority, and servitude was the fatal mistake of their religion and social system. The striking miracle occurred when Turkey and China opened to her the heretofore permanently closed doors of education and social opportunity.

This universal movement for woman's enlightenment and emancipation is significantly synchronous with the world-wide extension and success of Christian missions. The freedom wherewith Christ did set us free includes her complete liberation to equality of opportunity with man. In mental endowment, in practical ability, in all the higher ministries of life and even in statecraft, she has proved herself the equal of man. Christianity always tends to place woman side by side with man in all the great achievements of education, art, literature, the humanities, social service and missions. The entire movement of modern society toward her perfect enfranchisement is the distinct and inevitable product of the teaching of Jesus. The growing desire of woman for the right of suffrage, whether mistaken or not, is the incidental outcome of this new emancipation. The initial stages of this evolutionary. process are attended by many abnormal desires, crudities of experiment and conduct, but ultimately, under the guidance of the Spirit of God and the Christian ideal, woman will intelligently adjust herself to her new opportunity and environment, recognizing every God-ordained difference of function, and every complementary and cooperative relation between the sexes. The result of this latest evolution of Christianity will not only be a new womanhood for the race but, through her enlightenment, culture and spiritual leadership, a new humanity.

Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature

Copyright StatementThese files are public domain. Bibliography InformationMcClintock, John. Strong, James. Entry for 'Woman'. Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/tce/w/woman.html. Harper & Brothers. New York. 1870.