Difference between revisions of "Damascus"

<p> The most ancient city of Syria, at the foot of the S.E. range of Antilibanus, which rises 1,500 ft. above the plain of Damascus, which is itself 2,200 above the sea. Hence, [[Damascus]] enjoys a temperate climate cooled by breezes. The plain is a circle of 30 miles diameter, watered by the Barada (the [[Abana]] of 2 Kings 5), which bursts through a narrow cleft in the mountain into the country beneath, pouring fertility on every side. This strikes the eye the more, as bareness and barrenness characterize all the hills and the plain outside. [[Fruit]] of various kinds, especially olive trees, grain and grass abound within the Damascus plain. The Barada flows through Damascus, and thence eastward 15 miles, when it divides and one stream falls into lake el Kiblijeh: another into lake esh-Shurkijeh, on the border of the desert. The wady [[Helbon]] on the N. and Awaj on the S. also water the plain. </p> <p> The Awaj is probably the scriptural [[Pharpar]] First mentioned in &nbsp;Genesis 14:15; &nbsp;Genesis 15:2. [[Abraham]] entering [[Canaan]] by way of Damascus there obtained [[Eliezer]] as his retainer. [[Josephus]] makes Damascus to have been founded by Uz, son of Aram, grandson of Shem. The next Scriptural notice of Damascus is &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:5, when "the [[Syrians]] of Damascus succored [[Hadadezer]] king of Zobah" against David. David slew 22,000 Syrians, and "put garrisons in Syria of Damascus, and the Syrians became servants to David and brought gifts" (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:3-6). Nicholaus of Damascus says [[Hadad]] (so he named him) reigned over "all Syria except Phoenicia," and began the war by attacking David, and was defeated in a last engagement at the [[Euphrates]] [[River.]] His subject Rezon, who escaped when David conquered Zobah, with the help of a band made himself king at Damascus over Syria (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:23-25), and was an adversary to [[Israel]] all the days of Solomon. </p> <p> Hadad's family recovered the throne; or else (See [[Benhadad]] I, who helped [[Baasha]] against Asa and afterward Asa against Baasha, was grandson of Rezon. He "made himself streets" in [[Samaria]] (&nbsp;1 Kings 20:34), so completely was he Israel's master. His son, Benhadad II, who besieged [[Ahab]] (&nbsp;1 Kings 20:1), is the Ben-idri of the [[Assyrian]] inscriptions. These state that in spite of his having the help of the Phoenicians, [[Hittites]] and Hamathites, he was unable to oppose Assyria, which slew 20,000 of his men in just one battle. Hazael, taking advantage of his subjects' disaffection owing to their defeats, murdered Benhadad (&nbsp;2 Kings 8:10-15; &nbsp;1 Kings 19:15). Hazael was defeated by [[Assyria]] in his turn, with great loss, at Antilibanus; but repulsed Ahaziah's and Jehoram's attack on Israel (&nbsp;2 Kings 8:28), ravaged Gilead, the land of Gad, Reuben, and [[Manasseh]] (&nbsp;2 Kings 10:32-33); took also Gath, and was only diverted from [[Jerusalem]] by [[Jehoash]] giving the royal and the temple treasures (&nbsp;2 Kings 12:17-18). (See [[Hazael]] .) </p> <p> Benhadad his son continued to exercise a lordship over Israel (&nbsp;2 Kings 13:3-7; &nbsp;2 Kings 13:22) at first; but Joash, Jehoahaz' son, beat him thrice, according to Elisha's dying prophecy (&nbsp;2 Kings 13:14-19), for "the Lord had compassion on His people ... because of His covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, neither east He them from His presence us yet" (&nbsp;2 Kings 13:23). [[Jeroboam]] II, Joash's son, further "recovered Damascus and Hamath, which belonged to Judah, for Israel ... according to the word of the Lord ... by Jonah the prophet" (&nbsp;2 Kings 14:23-28), 836 B.C. [[Rezin]] of Damascus, a century later, in a respite from the Assyrian invasions, allied himself to [[Pekah]] of Israel against Judah, with a view to depose Ahaz and set up one designated "the son of Tabeal." (See [[Ahaz]] .) The successive invasions of [[Pul]] and Tiglath Pileser suggested the thought of combining Syria, Israel, and Judah as a joint power against Assyria. Ahaz' leaning to Assyria made him obnoxious to Syria and Israel. </p> <p> But, as their counsel was contrary to God's counsel that David's royal line should continue until Immanuel, it came to nought (&nbsp;2 Kings 15:19; &nbsp;2 Kings 15:29; &nbsp;2 Kings 15:57; &nbsp;2 Kings 16:5; &nbsp;Isaiah 7:1-6). [[Elath]] on the shore of the Red Sea, in Edom, built by [[Azariah]] of Judah on territory alleged to be Syrian, was "recovered" by Rezin. [[Whereupon]] Ahaz begged Assyria's alliance; and the very policy of Damascus and Israel against Assyria, namely, to absorb Judah, was the very means of causing their own complete absorption by Assyria (&nbsp;2 Kings 16:6-9; &nbsp;2 Kings 16:17; &nbsp;Isaiah 7:14-25; &nbsp;Isaiah 8:6-10; &nbsp;Isaiah 10:9). The people of Damascus were carried captive to Kir, as Amos (&nbsp;Amos 1:5) foretold, the region from which they originally came, associated with [[Elam]] (&nbsp;Isaiah 22:6), probably in Lower [[Mesopotamia]] = [[Kish]] or Cush, i.e. eastern Ethiopia, the Cissia of [[Herodotus]] (G. Rawlinson). </p> <p> Isaiah (&nbsp;Isaiah 17:1) and Amos (&nbsp;Amos 1:4) had prophesied that Damascus should be "taken away from being a city, and should be a ruinous heap," that [[Jehovah]] should "send a fire into the house of Hazael, which should devour the palaces of Benhadad"; and Jeremiah (&nbsp;Jeremiah 49:24-25) that "Damascus is waxed feeble .... How is the city of praise not left, the city of my joy!" By the time of the Mede-Persian supremacy Damascus had not only been rebuilt, but was the most famous city in Syria (Strabo, 16:2,19). In Paul's time (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:32) it was part of (See [[Aretas]] ' (see) kingdom. It is still a city of 150,000 inhabitants, of whom about 130,000 are Mahometans, 15,000 Christians, and about 5,000 Jews. Damascus was the center through which the trade of [[Tyre]] passed on its way to Assyria, Palmyra, Babylon, and the East. </p> <p> It supplied "white wool and the wine of Helbon" (in Antilebanon, 10 miles N.W. of Damascus) in return for "the wares of Tyre's making" (&nbsp;Ezekiel 27:18). Its once famous damask and steel were not manufactured until Mahometan times, and are no longer renowned. The street called "Straight" is still there, leading from one gate to the pasha's palace, i.e. from E. to W. a mile long; it was originally divided by [[Corinthian]] colonnades into three avenues, of which the remains are still traced (&nbsp;Acts 9:11); called by the natives "the street of bazaars." The traditional localities of &nbsp;Acts 9:3; &nbsp;Acts 9:25; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:33 (Paul's conversion on his way to Damascus, and his subsequent escape in a basket let down from the wall) are more than doubtful. Now ''Es-Sham'' , "The East." [[Magnus]] was its bishop at the council of Nice, A.D. 325. The khalif [[Omar]] A.D. 635 took it. It fell into the hands of the Turks, its present masters, under Selim I, A.D. 1516. </p>

<p> <strong> DAMASCUS </strong> </p> <p> 1. [[Situation]] , etc. The chief city of N. Syria, situated in lat. 33° 30′ N. and long. 36° 18′ E. It lies in a plain east of the Anti-Lebanon, famous for its beauty and fertility, and watered by the Barada River, the [[Abanah]] (wh. see) of the Bible. The luxuriance of its gardens has long been renowned: the English traveller W. G. Browne in 1797 noted that the fruit-trees were so numerous that those which died and were cut down were sufficient to supply the town with firewood. Its population is estimated at from 150,000 to 220,000. It derives its modern importance from local manufactures (woodwork, furniture, artistic metal and textile work), from its situation and convenience as a market for the desert tribes, and from its religious significance as the starting-point of the annual [[Syrian]] pilgrim caravan to Mecca. Railways run from Damascus to Haifa, Beyrout, and Mezerîb, and the important line to Mecca, begun in 1901, is expected to be finished in 1910. The writer of Canticles, in his appreciation of the sensuous beauty of scenery, has not forgotten Damascus: the nose of the [[Shulammite]] is compared to the ‘tower of [[Lebanon]] which looketh toward Damascus’ (&nbsp; Song of [[Solomon]] 7:4 ). </p> <p> The history of Damascus begins in remote antiquity: the time of its foundation is quite unknown; but that a settlement should have been founded in so desirable a locality was inevitable from the very beginning of human association. It was probably already an ancient city at the time of the Tell el-Amarna tablets, on which we meet with its name more than once. It also appears in the tribute lists of Thothmes III. as <em> Demesku </em> . </p> <p> <strong> 2. OT references </strong> . In the Biblical history we first meet with the name of Damascus as a territorial indication in defining the line of Abram’s pursuit of the five kings (&nbsp; [[Genesis]] 14:15 ). In &nbsp; Genesis 15:2 the name of Abram’s steward is given in the MT [Note: Massoretic Text.] as <em> Dammesek Eliezer </em> (so RV [Note: Revised Version.] ) a name probably corrupt. It is explained in the Aram. [Note: Aramaic.] , Targum, and Syr. as ‘Eliezer the Damascene,’ which gives sense, though it presupposes a most improbable corruption in the [[Hebrew]] text. We must therefore pass this passage by with the remark that it is not unlikely that Abram’s servant was a native of Damascus. We hear nothing more of Damascus till &nbsp; 2 Samuel 8:5-6 , which describes David’s capture of the city as a reprisal for its assistance given to Hadadezer, king of Zobah; David garrisoned it and reduced it to a tributary condition (cf. &nbsp; 1 Chronicles 18:5 ). The general of Hadadezer, however, [[Rezon]] by name, succeeded in establishing himself as king in Damascus in the time of Solomon, and made himself continuously a very troublesome neighbour (&nbsp; 1 Kings 11:23-24 ). In the wars between Asa and Baasha (&nbsp; 1 Kings 15:17 ff., &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 16:2 ff.) the king of Judah invoked the aid of Ben-hadad, king of Syria, whose royal city was Damascus, against his [[Israelite]] enemy. By gifts he persuaded him to break the truce already existing between Ben-hadad and Israel, and to join partnership with Judah. Accordingly Ben-hadad proceeded to harass Baasha on his northern borders, and so induced him to desist from his plan of erecting border fortifications between the two Hebrew kingdoms. Hostilities continued between Syria and Israel till the days of Ahab: Ahab’s sparing of Ben-hadad after the battle of [[Aphek]] and his making a truce with him, were the cause of a prophetic denunciation (&nbsp; 1 Kings 20:42 ). In the reign of Jehoram, the Syrian general [[Naaman]] came to be cleansed of leprosy (&nbsp; 2 Kings 5:1-27 ), and Elisha’s directions led to his famous depreciating comparison of the muddy [[Jordan]] with the clear-flowing Abanah and Pharpar (v. 12). The Chronicler (&nbsp; 2 Chronicles 24:23 ) reports a victorious invasion of Judah by Damascus in the days of Joash. The city of Damascus was re-taken by Jeroboam II. (&nbsp; 2 Kings 14:28 ), though the circumstances are not related; but must have been lost again immediately, for we find the Syrian king Rezin there (&nbsp; 2 Kings 16:1-20 ) oppressing Ahaz, so that he was led to the policy, which (as Isaiah foresaw, &nbsp; Isaiah 7:1-25; &nbsp; Isaiah 10:5-11 ) proved suicidal, of calling in the aid of Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, and submitting himself as a vassal of that great king. Prophetic denunciations of Damascus, as of the other enemies of the Hebrews, are found in &nbsp; Isaiah 17:1-14 , &nbsp; Jeremiah 49:23 , &nbsp; Amos 1:3-5 , and &nbsp; Zechariah 9:1 . Damascus as a commercial centre was always of great importance, and Ezekiel (&nbsp; Ezekiel 27:18 ) alludes to its trade in vines and wool. It is, of course, included in the imaginary restoration of the kingdom (&nbsp; Ezekiel 47:17 ). </p> <p> <strong> 3. NT references </strong> . Damascus appears only in connexion with St. Paul. Here took place his miraculous conversion (&nbsp; Acts 9:1-43; &nbsp; Acts 22:1-30; &nbsp; Acts 26:1-32 ) with the well-known attendant circumstances, and his escape from Aretas (wh. see), the governor, by being lowered in a basket over the wall (&nbsp; Acts 9:25 , &nbsp; 2 Corinthians 11:32-33 ), and hither he returned after his [[Arabian]] retirement (&nbsp; Galatians 1:17 ). </p> <p> <strong> 4. Later history </strong> . The late extra-Biblical history is very complicated. In 333 b.c., after the battle of Issus, the city was surrendered to Parmenio, the general of [[Alexander]] the Great, and during the subsequent Græco-Egyptian wars it fell more than once into the hands of the Ptolemys. In 111 b.c., on the partition of Syria between [[Antiochus]] Grypus and A. Cyzicenus, the latter obtained possession of the city. His successor, [[Demetrius]] Eucærus, invaded [[Palestine]] in 88 b.c. and defeated Alexander Jannæus at Shechem. His brother, who succeeded him, was driven out by the Arabian Haritha (Aretas). For a while it remained in [[Arab]] hands, then, after a temporary occupation by Tigranes, king of Armenia, it was conquered by Metellus, the Roman general. It was a city of the Decapolis. The great temple of the city was by one of the early [[Christian]] emperors probably Theodosius transformed into a church. It is now the principal mosque of the city, but was partly destroyed by fire in 1893. Since 635 Damascus has been a Muslim city, though governed from time to time by different tribes and dynasties of that faith. It was conquered by the [[Seljuks]] in 1075. The Crusaders never succeeded in making a strong position for themselves in the city. In 1860 about 6000 [[Christians]] were massacred by the Muslim population of the city. Few remains of antiquity are to be seen in the modern city, which is attractive principally for its undiluted Oriental life and its extensive markets and bazaars. The mosque just mentioned, a mediæval castle, and part of the ancient walls, are the principal relics. Of course, there are the usual traditional sites of historical events, but these are not more trustworthy at Damascus than anywhere else in Syria and Palestine. </p> <p> R. A. S. Macalister. </p>

<p> One of the oldest cities in the world, being mentioned as a known city in the days of Abraham. &nbsp;Genesis 14:15; &nbsp;Genesis 15:2 . Josephus says it was founded by Uz, grandson of Shem. It is not again mentioned in scripture until the time of David. It was the capital of Syria. &nbsp;Isaiah 7:8 . The Syriansof Damascus sided with Hadadezer, king of Zobah, against Israel, but David slew 22,000 of the Syrians. &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:5 . David put garrisons in Syria, and they brought him gifts. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:3-6 . Rezon escaped and established himself at Damascus as king of Syria and was an adversary to Israel all the days of Solomon. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:23-25 . </p> <p> A few years later Ben-hadad was induced by Judah to attack Baasha king of Israel, when all the land of [[Naphtali]] was smitten. &nbsp;1 Kings 15:16-20 . About 30 years after this Benhadad II. besieged Samaria; but God wrought for their deliverance, and Ben-hadad was taken prisoner; but Ahab called him 'brother' and released him, for which he was rebuked by a prophet. &nbsp;1 Kings 20 . About B.C. 890 Hazael murdered Ben-hadad and became king of Syria; and we read that Jehovah began to cut Israel short and He used Hazael as His instrument. He smote all the coasts of Israel, from Jordan eastward, in [[Gilead]] and the lands of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh. &nbsp;2 Kings 10:32,33 . He took also Gath, and was only diverted from Jerusalem by Jehoash giving up the royal and temple treasures. &nbsp;2 Kings 12:17,18 . Ben-hadad III. his son continued to exercise dominion over Israel, &nbsp;2 Kings 13:3-7,22; but Jehovah had compassion on Israel, and Joash, according to the dying prophecy of Elisha, overcame the king of Syria three times and recovered the cities of Israel. &nbsp;2 Kings 13:14-19,23-25 . Jeroboam also 'restored' the coast of Israel, and recovered Damascus and Hamath, according to the prophecy of Jonah. &nbsp;2 Kings 14:23-28 . </p> <p> About a century later, Rezin king of Syria and Pekah king of Israel attacked Ahaz and besieged Jerusalem. Ahaz sent the royal and temple treasures to Tiglath-pileser king of Assyria to induce him to resist Rezin. He attacked Damascus, and took it, and carried away the inhabitants to Kir, and slew Rezin, about B.C. 740. &nbsp;2 Kings 16:5-9; &nbsp;Isaiah 7:1-9 . </p> <p> Isaiah prophesied that Damascus should be a ruinous heap, because of its confederacy with [[Ephraim]] against God's city Jerusalem. &nbsp;Isaiah 17:1 : cf. also &nbsp;Amos 1:3-5; &nbsp;Jeremiah 49:23-27; &nbsp;Zechariah 9:1 . God had used the kings of Syria to punish Israel; but, as in other cases, He afterwards for their arrogance and cruelty brought them to nought. </p> <p> In the time of the Medo-Persian kingdom, Damascus was again rebuilt and was the most famous city of Syria; it afterwards belonged to the Greeks, and later to the Romans, and eventually to the Arabs, Saracens, and Turks. </p> <p> In the N.T. Damascus is of note as the city near to which Paul was converted, and where he received his sight, and began to preach. He escaped from his enemies by being let down by the wall in a basket. &nbsp;Acts 9:2-27; &nbsp;Acts 22:5-11 . In &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:32 its inhabitants are called [[Damascenes]] Damascus was the first [[Gentile]] city in which Jesus was preached as 'the Son of God;' and though it is now in possession of Muslims, yet in their great mosque a stone has been preserved that formed part of a church erected on the spot, bearing this inscription in Greek: " <i> [[Thy]] kingdom, [[O]] Christ, is an everlasting kingdom, and Thy dominion endureth throughout all generations. </i> " The city is also lamentably memorable on account of the outburst of Muslim hatred in 1860, when on the 9th, 10th and 11th of July not less than 2,500 adult Christians were murdered by them in cold blood, and many besides lost their lives in their flight. </p> <p> The city is beautifully situated (33 30' N, 36 18' E ) at the foot of the south-east range of [[Antilibanus]] on a large plain, watered by the two rivers Barada and Awaj (the Abana and Pharpar of &nbsp;2 Kings 5:12 ), the former of which runs through the city, and may be said to be the life of the place. The plain abounds in corn-fields, olive-groves, and meadows, with vines, figs, apricots, citrons, plums, pomegranates, and other fruits. There is a long street of more than a mile in length that may well have been called 'Straight,' but is now a street of Bazaars. This was divided into rows by Corinthian columns, the remains of which can still be traced. </p>

<p> [[Damascus]] ( ''Da-Măs'Kus'' ). The ancient city of Syria, 133 miles northeast of Jerusalem. It is on a fertile plain, 30 miles in diameter, with mountains on three sides. The plain is well watered by the Barada, the Chrysorrhoas (or "Golden Stream" of the Greeks, the Abana of Scripture; now ''El AʾWaj,'' "the Crooked"), and the Pharpar of Scripture. &nbsp;2 Kings 5:12. The climate is delightful; the nights are cool and the dews heavy: yet the people sleep on the flat roofs of their houses. Damascus is called by the Arabs "the [[Eye]] of the Desert" and the "Pearl of the East." It is to the Mohammedan the earthly reflection of Paradise. Travellers have vied with each other in describing the beauty of Damascus. "From the edge of the mountain range," says Stanley, "you look down on the plain.... The river Abana (the Barada), with its green banks, is seen at the bottom rushing through the cleft: it bursts forth, and as if in a moment scatters over the plain, through a circle of 30 miles, the same verdure which had hitherto been confined to its single channel.... Far and wide in front extends the level plain, its horizon bare, its lines of surrounding hills bare, all bare far away on the road to Palmyra and Bagdad. In the midst of this plain lies at your feet the vast lake or island of deep verdure, walnuts and apricots waving above, corn and grass below; and in the midst of this mass of foliage rises, striking out its wide arms of streets hither and thither, and its white minarets above the trees which embosom them, the city of Damascus. On the right towers the snowy height of Hermon, overlooking the whole scene. Close behind are the sterile limestone mountains; so that you can stand literally between the living and the dead." ''Sinai And Palestine,'' p. 410. Damascus has been called the oldest city in the world. Josephus says it was founded by Uz, a grandson of Shem; Abraham' visited it, &nbsp;Genesis 14:15; &nbsp;Genesis 15:2, A. V., but the R. V. reads "Dammesek Eliezer;" it was conquered by David, &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:5-6; was allied with Israel and against Israel, &nbsp;1 Kings 15:18; &nbsp;1 Kings 15:20; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 16:3; was taken by Tiglath-pileser; denounced by Jeremiah, &nbsp;Jeremiah 49:27; and afterward seldom noticed in Old [[Testament]] history. It was surrendered to Alexander the Great after the battle of Issus, b.c. 333. In the New Testament it is noticed as the place of the scene of Paul's conversion, &nbsp;Acts 9:1-25; later it became the residence of a Christian bishop; was conquered by the Arabs a.d. 635; became a provincial capital of the Turkish empire, 1516; and is now the residence of a Turkish governor. It is the hot-bed of Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1860, 6000 Christians were massacred by the [[Moslems]] in cold blood, in the city and adjoining districts. It has a population of from 110,000 to 150,000. The principal street, known as Sultany, or Queen's street, runs in nearly a straight line from east to west, and is supposed to be the same as the street called "Straight" in &nbsp;Acts 9:11. </p>

&nbsp;Isaiah 7:8&nbsp;17:3 <p> The situation of this city is said to be the most beautiful of all Western Asia. It is mentioned among the conquests of the [[Egyptian]] king Thothmes [[Iii. (BC]]  1500), and in the Amarna tablets (B.C. 1400). </p> <p> It is first mentioned in [[Scripture]] in connection with Abraham's victory over the confederate kings under [[Chedorlaomer]] (&nbsp;Genesis 14:15 ). It was the native place of Abraham's steward (15:2). It is not again noticed till the time of David, when "the Syrians of Damascus came to succour Hadadezer" (q.v.), &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:5; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:5 . In the reign of Solomon, Rezon became leader of a band who revolted from Hadadezer (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:23 ), and betaking themselves to Damascus, settled there and made their leader king. There was a long war, with varying success, between the [[Israelites]] and Syrians, who at a later period became allies of Israel against Judah (&nbsp;2 Kings 15:37 ). </p> <p> The Syrians were at length subdued by the Assyrians, the city of Damascus was taken and destroyed, and the inhabitants carried captive into Assyria (&nbsp;2 Kings 16:7-9; Compare &nbsp;Isaiah 7:8 ). In this, prophecy was fulfilled (&nbsp;Isaiah 17:1; &nbsp;Amos 1:4; &nbsp;Jeremiah 49:24 ). The kingdom of Syria remained a province of Assyria till the capture of [[Nineveh]] by the [[Medes]] (B.C. 625), when it fell under the conquerors. After passing through various vicissitudes, Syria was invaded by the Romans (B.C. 64), and Damascus became the seat of the government of the province. In A.D. 37 Aretas, the king of Arabia, became master of Damascus, having driven back Herod Antipas. </p> <p> This city is memorable as the scene of Saul's conversion (&nbsp;Acts 9:1-25 ). The street called "Straight," in which Judas lived, in whose house Saul was found by Ananias, is known by the name Sultany, or "Queen's Street." It is the principal street of the city. Paul visited Damascus again on his return from Arabia (&nbsp;Galatians 1:16,17 ). [[Christianity]] was planted here as a centre (&nbsp;Acts 9:20 ), from which it spread to the surrounding regions. </p> <p> In A.D. 634Damascus was conquered by the growing Mohammedan power. In A.D. 1516 it fell under the dominion of the Turks, its present rulers. It is now the largest city in Asiatic Turkey. Christianity has again found a firm footing within its walls. </p>

<p> ''''' da ''''' - ''''' mas´kus ''''' : </p> <p> 1. The Name </p> <p> 2. Situation and Natural Features </p> <p> 3. The City Itself </p> <p> 4. Its History </p> <p> (1) The Early Period (to circa 950 bc) </p> <p> (2) The [[Aramean]] [[Kingdom]] (circa 950-732 bc) </p> <p> (3) The Middle Period (732 bc-650 ad) </p> <p> (4) Under [[Islam]] </p> 1. Name <p> The English name is the same as the Greek Δαμασκός , <i> ''''' Damaskós ''''' </i> ̌ . The Hebrew name is דמּשׂק , <i> ''''' Dammeseḳ ''''' </i> , but the [[Aramaic]] form דּרמשׂק , <i> ''''' Darmeseḳ ''''' </i> , occurs in &nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:5; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 28:5 . The name appears in Egyptian inscriptions as <i> ''''' Ti ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' mas ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ku ''''' </i> (16th century bc), and <i> ''''' Sa ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' mas ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ki ''''' </i> (13th century bc), which W. M. Müller, <i> Asien u. [[Europa]] </i> , 227, regards as representing <i> ''''' Ti ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' mas ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ki ''''' </i> , concluding from the " <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> " in this form that Damascus had by that time passed under Aramaic influence. In the <i> Tell el-Amarna [[Letters]] </i> the forms <i> ''''' Ti ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' aš ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' gi ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' Di ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' maš ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ka ''''' </i> occur. The Arabic name is <i> ''''' Dimashk esh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Sham ''''' </i> ("Damascus of Syria") usually contrasted to <i> ''''' Esh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Sham ''''' </i> simply. The meaning of the name Damascus is unknown. <i> ''''' Esh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Sham ''''' </i> (Syria) means "the left," in contrast to the <i> ''''' [[Yemen]] ''''' </i> (Arabia) = "the right." </p> 2. Situation and Natural Features <p> Damascus is situated (33 degrees 30´ North latitude, 36 degrees 18´ East longitude) in the Northwest corner of the Ghuta, a fertile plain about 2,300 ft. above sea level, West of Mt. Hermon. The part of the Ghuta East of the city is called <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Merj ''''' </i> , the "meadow-land" of Damascus. The river Barada (see [[Asana]] ) flows through Damascus and waters the plain, through which the <i> ''''' Nahr el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Awaj ''''' </i> (see Pharpar ) also flows, a few miles South of the city. Surrounded on three sides by bare hills, and bordered on the East, its open side, by the desert, its well-watered and fertile Ghuta, with its streams and fountains, its fields and orchards, makes a vivid impression on the Arab of the desert. Arabic literature is rich in praises of Damascus, which is described as an earthly paradise. The European or American traveler is apt to feel that these praises are exaggerated, and it is perhaps only in early summer that the beauty of the innumerable fruit trees - apricots, pomegranates, walnuts and many others - justifies enthusiasm. To see Damascus as the Arab sees it, we must approach it, as he does, from the desert. The Barada (Abana) is the life blood of Damascus. Confined in a narrow gorge until close to the city, where it spreads itself in many channels over the plain, only to lose itself a few miles away in the marshes that fringe the desert, its whole strength is expended in making a small area between the hills and the desert really fertile. That is why a city on this site is inevitable and permanent. Damascus, almost defenseless from a military point of view, is the natural mart and factory of inland Syria. In the course of its long history it has more than once enjoyed and lost political supremacy, but in all the vicissitudes of political fortune it has remained the natural harbor of the Syrian desert. </p> 3. The City Itself <p> Damascus lies along the main stream of the Barada, almost entirely on its south bank. The city is about a mile long (East to West) and about half a mile broad (North to South). On the south side a long suburb, consisting for the most part of a single street, called the <i> ''''' Meidan ''''' </i> , stretches for a mile beyond the line of the city wall, terminating at the <i> ''''' Bawwabet [[Allah]] ''''' </i> , the "Gate of God," the starting-point of the Haj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. The city has thus roughly the shape of a broad-headed spoon, of which the <i> ''''' Meidan ''''' </i> is the handle. In the Greek period, a long, colonnaded street ran through the city, doubtless the "street which is called Straight" (&nbsp;Acts 9:11 ). This street, along the course of which remains of columns have been discovered, runs westward from the <i> ''''' Babesh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Sherki ''''' </i> , the "East Gate." Part of it is still called <i> ''''' Derb el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Mustakim ''''' </i> ("Straight Street"), but it is not certain that it has borne the name through all the intervening centuries. It runs between the Jewish and Christian quarters (on the left and right, respectively, going west), and terminates in the <i> ''''' Suk el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Midhatiyeh ''''' </i> , a bazaar built by Midhat Pasha, on the north of which is the main Moslem quarter, in which are the citadel and the Great Mosque. The houses are flat-roofed, and are usually built round a courtyard, in which is a fountain. The streets, with the exception of [[Straight]] Street, are mostly narrow and tortuous, but on the west side of the city there are some good covered bazaars. Damascus is not rich in antiquities. The Omayyad Mosque, or Great Mosque, replaced a Christian church, which in its time had taken the place of a pagan temple. The site was doubtless occupied from time immemorial by the chief religious edifice of the city. A small part of the ancient Christian church is still extant. Part of the city wall has been preserved, with a foundation going back to Roman times, surmounted by Arab work. The traditional site of Paul's escape (&nbsp;Acts 9:25; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:33 ) and of the House of Naaman (2 Ki 5) are pointed out to the traveler, but the traditions are valueless. The charm of Damascus lies in the life of the bazaars, in the variety of types which may be seen there - the Druse, the Kurd, the Bedouin and many others - and in its historical associations. It has always been a manufacturing city. Our word "damask" bears witness to the fame of its textile industry, and the "Damascus blades" of the Crusading period were equally famous; and though Timur (Tamerlane) destroyed the trade in arms in 1399 by carrying away the armorers to Samarcand, Damascus is still a city of busy craftsmen in cloth and wood. Its antiquity casts a spell of romance upon it. After a traceable history of thirty-five centuries it is still a populous and flourishing city, and, in spite of the advent of the railway and even the electric street car, it still preserves the flavor of the East. </p> 4. Its History <p> (1) The Early Period (to Circa 950 bc) </p> <p> The origin of Damascus is unknown. [[Mention]] has already been made (section 1 ) of the references to the city in Egyptian inscriptions and in the <i> Tell el-Amarna Letters </i> . It appears once - possibly twice - in the history of Abraham. In &nbsp;Genesis 14:15 we read that Abraham pursued the four kings as far as Hobah, "which is on the left hand (i.e. the north) of Damascus." But this is simply a geographical note which shows only that Damascus was well known at the time when Gen 14 was written. [[Greater]] interest attaches to &nbsp; Genesis 15:2 , where Abraham complains that he is childless and that his heir is "Dammesek Eliezer" (English Revised Version), for which the [[Syriac]] version reads "Eliezer the Damaschul." The clause, however, is hopelessly obscure, and it is doubtful whether it contains any reference to Damascus at all. In the time of David Damascus was an Aramean city, which assisted the neighboring Aramean states in their unsuccessful wars against David (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:5 f). These campaigns resulted indirectly in the establishment of a powerful Aramean kingdom in Damascus. Rezon, son of Eliada, an officer in the army of Hadadezer, king of Zobah, escaped in the hour of defeat, and became a captain of banditti. Later he established himself in Damascus, and became its king (&nbsp; 1 Kings 11:23 ). He cherished a not unnatural animosity against Israel and the rise of a powerful and hostile kingdom in the Israelite frontier was a constant source of anxiety to Solomon (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:25 ). </p> <p> (2) The Aramean Kingdom (Circa 950-732 bc) </p> <p> Whether Rezon was himself the founder of a dynasty is not clear. He has been identified with Hezion, father of Tab-rimmon, and grandfather of Ben-hadad (&nbsp;1 Kings 15:18 ), but the identification, though a natural one, is insecure. Ben-hadad (Biridri) is the first king of Damascus, after Rezon, of whom we have any detailed knowledge. The disruption of the Hebrew kingdom afforded the Arameans an opportunity of playing off the rival Hebrew states against each other, and of bestowing their favors now on one, and now on the other. Benhadad was induced by Asa of Judah to accept a large bribe, or tribute, from the Temple treasures, and relieve Asa by attacking the Northern Kingdom (&nbsp;1 Kings 15:18 ). Some years later (circa 880 bc) Ben-hadad (or his successor?) defeated [[Omri]] of Israel, annexed several Israelite cities, and secured the right of having Syrian "streets" (i.e. probably a bazaar for Syrian merchants) in Samaria (&nbsp;1 Kings 20:34 ). Ben-hadad Ii (according to Winckler the two Ben-hadads are really identical, but this view, though just possible chronologically, conflicts with &nbsp;1 Kings 20:34 ) was the great antagonist of Ahab. His campaigns against Israel are narrated in &nbsp;1 Kings 20:22 . At first successful, he was subsequently twice defeated by Ahab, and after the rout at Aphek was at the mercy of the conqueror, who treated him with generous leniency, claiming only the restoration of the lost Israelite towns, and the right of establishing an Israelite bazaar in Damascus. On the renewal of hostilities three years later Ahab fell before Ramoth-gilead, and his death relieved Ben-hadad of the only neighboring monarch who could ever challenge the superiority of Damascus. Further light is thrown upon the history of Damascus at this time by the Assyrian inscriptions. In 854 bc the Assyrians defeated a coalition of Syrian and Palestine states (including Israel) under the leadership of Ben-hadad at ''''' Karḳar ''''' . In 849 and 846 bc renewed attacks were made upon Damascus by the Assyrians, who, however, did not effect any considerable conquest. From this date until the fall of the city in 732 bc the power of the Aramean kingdom depended upon the activity or quiescence of Assyria. Hazael, who murdered Ben-hadad and usurped his throne circa 844 bc, was attacked in 842 and 839, but during the next thirty years Assyria made no further advance westward. Hazael was able to devote all his energies to his western neighbors, and Israel suffered severely at his hands. In 803 Mari' of Damascus, who is probably identical with the Ben-hadad of &nbsp;2 Kings 13:3 , Hazael's son, was made tributary to Ramman-nirari Iii of Assyria. This blow weakened Aram, and afforded Jeroboam Ii of Israel an opportunity of avenging the defeats inflicted upon his country by Hazael. In 773 Assyria again invaded the territory of Damascus. Tiglath-pileser Iii (745-727 bc) pushed vigorously westward, and in 738 Rezin of Damascus paid tribute. A year or two later he revolted, and attempted in concert with Pekah of Israel, to coerce Judah into joining an anti-Assyrian league (&nbsp;2 Kings 15:37; &nbsp;2 Kings 16:5; Isa 7). His punishment was swift and decisive. In 734 the Assyrians advanced and laid siege to Damascus, which fell in 732. Rezin was executed, his kingdom was overthrown, and the city suffered the fate which a few years later befell Samaria. </p> <p> (3) The Middle Period (Circa 732 bc-650 ad) </p> <p> Damascus had now lost its political importance, and for more than two centuries we have only one or two inconsiderable references to it. It is mentioned in an inscription of [[Sargon]] (722-705 bc) as having taken part in an unsuccessful insurrection along with [[Hamath]] and Arpad. There are incidental references to it in &nbsp;Jeremiah 49:23 and &nbsp; Ezekiel 27:18; &nbsp;Ezekiel 47:16 . In the [[Persian]] period Damascus, if not politically of great importance, was a prosperous city. The overthrow of the Persian empire by Alexander was soon followed (301 bc) by the establishment of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria, with [[Antioch]] as its capital, and Damascus lost its position as the chief city of Syria. The center of gravity was moved toward the sea, and the maritime commerce of the [[Levant]] became more important than the trade of Damascus with the interior. In 111 bc the Syrian kingdom was divided, and Antiochus Cyzicenus became king of Coele-Syria, with Damascus as his capital. His successors, Demetrius Eucaerus and Antiochus Dionysus, had troubled careers, being involved in domestic conflicts and in wars with the Parthians, with Alexander Janneus of Judea, and with Aretas the Nabatean, who obtained possession of Damascus in 85 bc. Tigranes, being of Armenia, held Syria for some years after this date, but was defeated by the Romans, and in 64 bc Pompey finally annexed the country. The position of Damascus during the first century and a half of Roman rule in Syria is obscure. For a time it was in Roman hands, and from 31 bc-33 ad its coins bear the names of [[Augustus]] or Tiberius. Subsequently it was again in the hands of the Nabateans, and was ruled by an ethnarch, or governor, appointed by Aretas, the Nabatean king. This ethnarch adopted a hostile attitude to Paul (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:32 f) . Later, in the time of Nero, it again became a Roman city. In the early history of Christianity Damascus, as compared with Antioch, played a very minor part. But it is memorable in Christian history on account of its associations with Paul's conversion, and as the scene of his earliest Christian preaching (Acts 9:1-25). All the New Testament references to the city relate to this event (&nbsp; Acts 9:1 :25; &nbsp; Acts 22:5-11; &nbsp;Acts 26:12 , &nbsp;Acts 26:20; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:32 f; &nbsp; Galatians 1:17 ). Afterward, under the early Byzantine emperor, Damascus, though important as an outpost of civilization on the edge of the desert, continued to be second to Antioch both politically and ecclesiastically. It was not until the Arabian conquest (634 ad when it passed out of Christian hands, and reverted to the desert, that it once more became a true capital. </p> <p> (4) Under Islam </p> <p> Damascus has now been a Moslem city, or rather a city under Moslem rule, for nearly thirteen centuries. For about a century after 650 ad it was the seat of the Omayyad caliphs, and enjoyed a position of preeminence in the Moslem world. Later it was supplanted by Bagdad, and in the 10th century it came under the rule of the Fatimites of Egypt. Toward the close of the 11th century the Seljuk Turks entered Syria and captured Damascus. In the period of the [[Crusades]] the city, though never of decisive importance, played a considerable part, and was for a time the headquarters of Saladin. In 1300 it was plundered by the Tartars, and in 1399 Timur exacted an enormous ransom from it, and carried off its famous armorers, Thus robbing it of one of its most important industries. Finally, in 1516 ad, the Osmanli Turks under [[Sultan]] Selim conquered Syria, and Damascus became, and still is, the capital of a province of the Ottoman Empire. </p>