Difference between revisions of "Synagogue"

<p> <b> 1. The name. </b> -The name ‘synagogue’ (συναγωγή, Aram. כְּנִישְׁהָּא, Heb. כְּנָסֶת, ‘assembly,’ like ἐκκλησία, Septuagintfor either עֵדִה or קָהָל, ‘congregation’) denotes primarily the religious community of [[Jews]] (Sirach 24:23, Luke 12:11, Acts 9:2; Acts 26:11; also used by the Judaeo-Christians [Epiphan. Haer. xxx. 18; Harnack, ad [[Hermas]] Mand. xi. 9]) but became afterwards the regular term for the [[Jewish]] place of worship. Aram. בֵּכְּנִישְׁתָּא (see E. Levy, Neuhebr. und chald. Wörterbuch über die Talmud-im und Midraschim, Leipzig, 1876-89, s.v.) = Heb. בֵּית חַכְּנֶסֶת, ‘the house of the congregation’ (Mishna throughout); so Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 458; Jos. Ant. XIX. vi. 3, Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xiv. 4-5, VII. iii. 3; Cod. Theodos. xvi. 8. Often προσευχή is used for οἶκος προσευχῆς, ‘house of prayer’ (Septuagintto Isaiah 56:7; Isaiah 60:7; Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 523, 535, 568, 596, 600; Jos. Vita, 54; Acts 16:13), for προσευκτήριον (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168), and for σαββατεῖον = ‘Sabbath place’ in an edict of [[Augustus]] (Jos. Ant. XVI. vi. 2). Through the [[Pauline]] writings ἐκκλησία (Fr. église) became the exclusive name for the [[Christian]] Church in the double sense of congregation and house of worship (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.3 [Leipzig, 1898] 433, 443; but cf. F. Spitta, [[Zur]] Geschichte und Litteratur des Urchristentums, ii. [Göttingen, 1896] 343). </p> <p> <b> 2. Origin. </b> -Like the beginnings of all great movements in history, the origin of the institution is wrapped in obscurity. The ancients ascribed it to [[Moses]] (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168; Jos. c. Apion. ii. 17; Acts 15:21, Targ.[Note: Targum.]Exodus 18:20; cf. Targ.[Note: Targum.]Judges 5:2, 1 Chronicles 16:39, Isaiah 1:13, Amos 5:12). But the [[Mosaic]] system of sacrifices had no provision made for regular prayers; and so the identification of ‘the house of the people’ (Jeremiah 39:8 [see [[Rashi]] and Ḳimḥi]) with the synagogue is without foundation. The synagogue is a new creation for which the [[Exile]] alone offered the conditions (see Wellhausen, Isr. und jüd. Gesch.6, pp. 149, 194). As the prescribed sacrifices could not be offered on foreign soil, which was regarded as ‘unclean’ (Amos 7:17, Ezekiel 4:13), another organized form of worship became an imperative necessity. In place of the priesthood, whose exclusive domain was the [[Temple]] with its sacrificial cult, a new class of men in the Exile voiced the needs of the people, accentuating the significance of prayer and song as the more spiritual elements of the [[Divine]] service, and at the same time appealed to the people, like the prophets of old, by words of warning and consolation, offering public instruction through the Word of God, whether spoken or read. Such a class of men were the ’anâvîm, ‘the meek ones,’ ḥasîdîm, ‘the godly ones,’ or kedôshîm, ‘the holy ones,’ of the Psalms; they had devotional assemblies of their own (Psalms 1:5; Psalms 26:12; Psalms 89:7; Psalms 107:32; Psalms 111:1; Psalms 149:1). To them, in fact, the Psalm literature owes in the main its origin, and they coined the language of prayer (see I. Lceb, La Littérature des pauvres dans la Bible, Paris, 1892); hence the abundance of prayers in the post-Exilic literature (1 Chronicles 17:16-27; 1 Chronicles 29:10-19, 2 Chronicles 6:14-42; 2 Chronicles 14:11; 2 Chronicles 20:6-12, Ezra 9:6-15, Nehemiah 9:6-38, Daniel 2:20-23; Daniel 9:4-19, also Isaiah 36:15-20), not to mention the apocryphal books such as the Maccabees, Enoch, Judith, etc. Music and song likewise occupy a prominent place in the Chronicles and the Psalms, while they are ignored in the Priestly Code. The very fact that the Exilic seer speaks of ‘an house of prayer for all peoples’ (Isaiah 56:7; cf. Septuagintto Isaiah 60:7) indicates the existence of places for devotional assemblies of the people in the Exile. King Solomon’s dedication prayer, which was composed in the Exile (1 Kings 8:46 ff.), also shows that the exiled Jews prayed ‘in the land of the enemy’ with their faces turned towards Jerusalem, exactly as did Daniel (Daniel 6:10). Such devotional assemblies were held on the banks of rivers (Psalms 137:1; cf. Ezekiel 1:3, Daniel 8:2), the Sabbath, which assumed a higher meaning in the Exile (see Wellhausen, loc. cit.), as well as the feast and fast days offering the incentives to the same (Isaiah 58:4; Isaiah 58:13, Zechariah 7:5; cf. 2 Kings 4:23). To such assemblies the writings of Deutero-Isaiah were in all likelihood addressed (cf. L. Herzfeld, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipzig, 1871, i. 132); and the composition of the prophetical books in their present shape, with the message of comfort at the end of each portion or book, if not also that of the [[Pentateuch]] (cf., for instance, Leviticus 27:34 as the conclusion of the [[Holiness]] Code), seems to have been made with such devotional assemblies in view. Whether the new religious spirit which emanated from [[Persia]] under [[Cyrus]] exerted a re-awakening influence on Judaism, as E. Meyer (Geschichte des Alterthums, Stuttgart, 1884-1901, iii. 122-200) asserts, or not, it is certain that Parsiism had a large share in the shaping of the synagogal liturgy, as pointed out by Graetz (Geschichte der Juden, ii. [1876] 409-418, note 14) and J. H. Schorr (He-Ḥâlûẓ, vii. [1865], viii. [1869]). </p> <p> <b> 3. History. </b> -The words of Ezekiel 11:16 (see Targ.[Note: Targum.]Meg. 29a), ‘To [[Israel]] scattered among the nations I shall be a little sanctuary,’ were actually verified through the synagogue, as Bacher (see article‘Synagogue’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the [[Bible]] (5 vols)) states. It is noteworthy that the synagogue at Shâf Yâthîb near Nahardea in [[Babylonia]] was in the 2nd cent. taken to be the work of King Jehoiachin, who was said to have had the stones and the earth brought from Jerusalem; and it was claimed to be the seat of the [[Shekinah]] like the Temple of yore, the statue erected there (against the Jewish Law) being probably a [[Persian]] symbol of the Divine [[Presence]] (Meg. 29a; Rôsh hash. 24b; Kohler, MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxviii. [1893] 442). The claim of being the seat of the Shekinah was also raised for another old synagogue at Hûzâl (Meg. 29a). Another one was ascribed to Daniel (‛Erûb. 21a). </p> <p> The earliest testimony for the existence of the synagogue in [[Palestine]] is found in Psalms 74:6 : ‘They have burned up all the synagogues of God in the land’ (so [[Symmachus]] and [[Aquila]] for מֹוֹעֲדַי־אַל). Most commentators refer the psalm to the Maccabaean time, though it seems strange that the destruction of the synagogues should not have been mentioned in the Maccabaean books. H. L. Strack (PRE[Note: RE Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche.]3 xix. 224) refers the psalm to the war of [[Artaxerxes]] Ochus (359-333 b.c.). Wellhausen (loc. cit.) thinks that the synagogue took the place of the ancient bâmôth (‘high places’)-a view which seems to be confirmed by Targ.[Note: Targum.]on 1 Chronicles 16:39 and 1 [[Maccabees]] 3:46; cf. Ḳimḥi on Judges 20:1. Possibly the rule to have the synagogue in the heights of the city (Tôs. Meg. iv. 23; cf. Tanḥ. Beḥuḳḳothai, ed. S. Buber, Wilna, 1885, p. 4; Shabb. 11a; Epiphan. Haer. lxxx. 1) has some connexion with this ancient practice. On the other hand, the site of the synagogue was, on account of the necessary ablutions, preferably chosen near some flowing water or at the seaside, as is shown by the [[Halicarnassus]] decree (Jos. Ant. XIV. x. 23: ‘They may make their proseuches at the seaside, following the customs of their fathers’; cf. Acts 16:13). Hence also the interpretation of ‘the well in the field’ (Genesis 29:2), that is the synagogue (Ber. R. lxx. 8). Owing to this, the synagogue was frequently outside the city (Ḳid. 73b, Shab. 24b, Rashi; Tanḥ. Ḥayç Sârâh, ed. Buber, p. 7; Ṭûr. Ô. Ḥ. 236; cf. Mekilta Bô, 1; Shemôṭh R. on Exodus 9:29; Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 298). There being no special provision made for a synagogue within the Temple, the Hall of the [[Hewn]] Stones was used for the daily prayer (Tâmîd iv-v), but [[Rabbi]] Joshua of the 1st cent. (Tôs. Suk. iv. 5) speaks of a synagogue and a school-house on the Temple hill near by. The term מְלֵאֲתִי (= 481, being the numerical value of the letters) in Isaiah 1:21 causes the Haggâdist to speak of 480 synagogues which [[Jerusalem]] had besides the Temple (Jer. Meg. 73d, Keth B. 35c, ‛Çkâh R. Introd. 12; Babl. Keth. has erroneously 394). It is certain that the number was quite large, as may be seen from Acts 6:9 (cf. 2:5-11), according to which each settlement of foreign Jews had a synagogue of its own-Alexandrians (cf. Tôs. Meg. iii. 6, iv. 13), Cyrenians, Cilicians, and Asiatics. [[Epiphanius]] (de Mensuris, 14) speaks of seven on Zion. [[Josephus]] (Vita, 54) mentions the Great [[Synagogue]] at Tiberias, where during the [[Roman]] war political meetings took place (see also ‛Çrûb. x. 10). In the 5th cent. [[Tiberias]] had thirteen synagogues (Ber. 8a), one in the village of Tiberias (Pesîḳ. R. 196b). The synagogue at Caesarea, where the revolt against Rome was started (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xiv. 4-5), continued its existence under the name of the synagogue of the revolution to the 4th cent. (Jer. Bik. iii. 65d), and was probably the one in which Rabbi [[Abbahu]] had his frequent disputes with the Church [[Fathers]] (H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, iv.3 [1893] 288). The [[Gospels]] mention the synagogues of [[Capernaum]] (Mark 1:21 and ||s) and [[Nazareth]] (Luke 4:16 and ||) wherein Jesus taught. The former was built for the Jews by the Roman centurion, a proselyte (Luke 7:5-6). About the interesting ruins discovered in recent times of many synagogues in [[Galilee]] from the 1st and 2nd centuries, possibly even that of Capernaum, see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 [1901] 517, note 59. At Sepphoris, the seat of the academy of Rabbi Judah, the prince, of the 2nd cent., one synagogue was called ‘the great Synagogue’ (Pesîḳ. 136b); another one, probably after an engraved symbol, ‘the Synagogue of the Vine’ (Jer. Nâzîr, vii. 56a). The wealth spent on the synagogue at [[Lydda]] gave the Rabbis cause for complaint (Jer. Shekâlîm, v. 49b). As [[Philo]] (ed. Mangey, ii. 168) says, each city inhabited by Jews had its synagogue ‘for instruction in virtue and piety’ (cf. Tôs. B.M. xi. 23 and Sanh. 17b). </p> <p> The oldest synagogue on record is that built in [[Alexandria]] under [[Ptolemy]] III. (247-221 b.c.) and dedicated to him and his sister [[Berenice]] according to the inscription discovered in 1902 (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4, 497, iii.4 [1909] 41). The large Jewish population had many synagogues in the different quarters of the city (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 568), the largest and most famous of which was the one built in the shape of a basilica and described in glowing colours (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Jer. Suk. v. 55a, Babl. Suk. 51a); it was totally destroyed under [[Trajan]] (Graetz, Gesch. der Juden, iv.3 117). The legendary narrative 3 Maccabees 7:17-20 tells of the founding of a synagogue at [[Ptolemais]] in Southern [[Egypt]] under Ptolemy IV. In [[Syria]] the most famous was the Great Synagogue at Antioch, to which the brazen vessels carried off from the Temple at Jerusalem by [[Antiochus]] [[Epiphanes]] were presented by his successors (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)VII. iii. 3). [[Damascus]] also had a number of synagogues; in these Paul the [[Apostle]] preached (Acts 9:2-20). Throughout Asia Minor, Macedonia, [[Greece]] and its islands, in cities such as Ephesus, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth, the synagogues, being the gathering-places for Jews and ‘God-fearing’ half-proselytes (Acts 13:16; Acts 13:26; Acts 13:43; Acts 17:17), offered a sphere of activity to St. Paul and his fellow-workers (Acts 13:5; Acts 13:14; Acts 14:1; Acts 16:13; Acts 17:1; Acts 17:10; Acts 17:17; Acts 18:4; Acts 18:7). In Rome there were quite a number of synagogues at the time of Augustus (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 569), and the inscriptions discovered in recent times mention nine different ones named either after persons, such as Augustus, Agrippa, and Volumnus, or after places, such as Campus (Martius) and the Subura, or after the language of the members, Hebraic or the vernacular, one after the trade ‘lime burners,’ and another after an engraved symbol ‘the Synagogue of the [[Olive]] Tree.’ A synagogue of [[Severus]] is mentioned in Ber. R. ix. 5 quoted by Ḳimḥi on [[Genesis]] 1:3 (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]iii.4, 83g). On disputes held there by Palestinian masters with Romans and [[Christians]] under [[Domitian]] see H. Vogelstein and P. Rieger, Geschichte der Juden in Rom, i. [Berlin, 1896] 29. </p> <p> <b> 4. Form and furniture of the synagogue. </b> -Like the [[Alexandrian]] Great Synagogue and the Hall of Hewn Stones in the Temple (Yômâ, 25a), the synagogue at Tiberias had the form of a basilica with a double row of pillars (Midr. Tehillîm on Psalms 93 [end]). As to the style of the synagogue, as shown by the ruins in Galilee see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 446; their orientation, however, does not conform to the rule that they should be directed towards the East, corresponding with the tabernacle (Numbers 3:38). However, the same was also the rule for the Church (Apost. Const. ii. 57, 3, 14; cf. Tylor, PC[Note: C Primitive [[Culture]] (E. B. Tylor).]3, London, 1891, ii. 426 ff.). </p> <p> The chief furniture was the תֵּבָה, ‘ark’ (Meg. iii. 1, Ta‛an. ii. 1), in which the scrolls were kept covered with cloth or put in a case, over which was spread a baldachin (kilah) or curtain (pârôketh, Exodus 26:31; Jer. Meg. 73d, 75b). It was placed near the upper end of the synagogue, and in front of it stood the ‘delegate of the congregation,’ who offered the prayer (Ber. v. 3, 4 and elsewhere). In the centre was the bçmâh (= βῆμα, ‘platform’) made of wood (Sôṭâ, vii. 8; Suk. 51b; cf. Nehemiah 8:4 Authorized Version, ‘the pulpit of wood’), called in more modern times almemar, the Muhammadan al-minbar (Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. ‘Almemar’); upon it stood or sat in a chair called ‘the seat of Moses’ (Matthew 23:2; cf. article‘China’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 37a) those who read from the scroll of the Law or other sacred books, which were placed upon the lectern, called after the Greek ἀναλογεῖον (see Levy, Wörterbuch, s.vv. אנלנין and בּימה), or the tablets. There were also chairs set for the elders and the scribes (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Matthew 23:6 and ||). For the candelabra (menôrâh) see Tôs. Meg. iii. 3, Jer. Meg. 74a. </p> <p> <b> 5. [[Organization]] of the synagogue. </b> -The members of a religious community having a synagogue for its centre-and there were, as shown above, often many in the larger cities-were called bene hakkeneseth, ‘sons of the synagogue’ (Meg. ii. 5, iii. 1). The number required for the formation of a synagogue community was ten (Bekôr. v. 5, Zâbîm, iii. 2, Tôs. Meg. iv. 3, Sanh. i. 6). At the head was a ruler, rôsh hak-keneseth (Yômâ, vii. 1, Sôṭâ, vii. 7) = ἀρχισυνάγωγος (Mark 5:22, Luke 13:14, Acts 13:15; cf. Luke 8:41), whose function was to maintain order in the synagogue and to decide who should conduct the service. The subaltern officer, who had to carry out the orders of the former, assisting him in keeping order, hand the sacred scroll to the reader and return it to its place (Sôṭâ, vii. 7, Luke 4:20), take charge of the palm branches of the Sukkôth feast (Suk. iv. 4), and give the signal for the service (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Sifrç Nu 39) and for the suspension from work on [[Sabbath]] and Holy-day [[Eve]] (Tôs. Suk. iv. 12), was called ḥazzan hak-keneseth = ὑπηρέτης (Epiph. Haer. xxx. 11). He also assisted in the instruction of the school children by showing the passage that was to be read (Shab. 13) and acted as lictor of the synagogue court in scourging offenders (Mak. iii. 12, Tôs. Mak. v. 12). In the course of time, however, he rose in rank while officiating in smaller congregations as leader in prayer and as instructor (Jer. Yeb. xii. 13a, Jer. Ber. ix. 12, Bablî Meg. 23h, Mas. Sôferîm x. 8, xiv. 1; Pirḳç de R.E. xii. [end]). For the various functions of the service itself no permanent official existed in the ancient time, and he who was to lead in prayer was selected by the congregation-mostly through its ruler-as the representative, or ‘the delegate of the community,’ shelîaḥ zîbbûr, and upon being invited in the usual formula-at least in the Talmudic period-‘Come and bring for us the offering,’ he stepped in front of the ark to offer the prayer (Ber. v. 3-5, Jer. Ber. iv. 8b). In Mishnaic times it seems that the functions of reciting the Shemâ’ (the proclamation of the Unity of God, Deuteronomy 6:4-9, and its corollaries Deuteronomy 11:13-21 and Numbers 15:37-41), with its accompanying benedictions, of reading from the Prophets, and of offering the Priestly Blessing at the close of the service were all preferably assigned to one person (Meg. iv. 5); but this was by no means the case originally (see below). For the reading from the Pentateuch different members of the congregation were called up, on Sabbath seven, on the Day of [[Atonement]] six, on festival days five, on New [[Moon]] and semi-festivals four, and on the second and fifth weekdays and Sabbath afternoons three (Meg. iv. 1-2), and as a rule [[Aaronites]] first and [[Levites]] afterwards (Giṭṭîn, v. 5). The one who was to translate the text into the vernacular (Aramaic), called metûrgemân (Meg. iv. 4), was, however, permanently engaged. The more learned men of the congregation, and especially learned guests, were as a rule invited to read the last portion and some portion from the Prophets, which they afterwards expounded in a sermon. This prophetic portion was called in [[Aramaic]] aphṭartâ (Heb. haphthârâh-word of dismissal; whence the name of the last reader, maphṭîr [see Levy, Wörterbuch, s.v. אפטרתא], Tanḥ. Terûmâh, 1; Luke 4:16 f.). </p> <p> It was principally on Sabbath and festival days, when the people were at leisure, that the service was well attended, and accordingly the weekly lesson from the [[Torah]] was read in full (cf. Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 282, 630, 458); wherefore the synagogue was called the ‘Sabbath place’ par excellence (Jos. Ant. XVI. vi. 2; cf. Bacher’s quotation from Payne Smith, article‘Synagogue,’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols)iv. 636b). On Monday and Thursday the villagers coming to the cities for the court or the market attended the synagogue in sufficient numbers to have a portion of the Torah read (Tôs. Ta‛an. ii. 4). On week days only larger cities had the required ‘ten men of leisure’ (baṭlânîm || Meg. i. 3, Sanh. 17b; see Jewish Encyclopedia, article‘Baṭlanim’) for the daily service; later it became a fixed custom to engage ‘ten men of leisure’ for the holding of the daily service where the attendance was too small. </p> <p> <b> 6. The service: its elements and its development. </b> -The Divine service assumed at the very outset a two-fold character: it was to offer common devotion and public instruction. But the devotional part, again, consisted at the very beginning, as far as we can trace it, of two elements: (a) the confession of faith, (b) the real prayer (tefillâh). </p> <p> (a) The confession of faith, termed in the [[Mishna]] ‘the acceptance of the yoke of sovereignty of God,’ Ḳabbâlath ‛ôl Malkût Shâmayim (Ber. ii. 2), by the recital of the Shema‛ (Deuteronomy 6:4-9; Deuteronomy 11:13; Deuteronomy 11:21, Numbers 15:37-41), was preceded by two benedictions, one containing the praise of the Lord as the [[Giver]] of light in view of the rising sun each morning, and of the Withdrawer of the light of day each evening, and another containing the praise of the Lord as Giver of the Law to Israel, His chosen people, and followed by one benediction beginning with a solemn attestation of the monotheistic truth proclaimed in the Shemâ‛, and ending with the praise of God as the [[Redeemer]] of Israel with reference to the deliverance from Egypt mentioned in the closing verse of the Shemâ‛ chapters (Numbers 15:41). That this part is very old is shown, not merely by the discussion of the oldest Rabbinical schools concerning the details of observing the commandment found in Deuteronomy 6:7 : ‘When thou liest down, and when thou risest up,’ but by Josephus’ source (Ant. IV. viii. 13), which ascribes to Moses the recital of the Shemâ’ and of the benediction for Israel’s redemption. But what Philo tells of the Therapeutes, that ‘they prayed each morning and evening for the light of heaven’ (ed. Mangey, ii. 475), and Josephus of the Essenes, that ‘they offer prayers handed down from their fathers towards the rising sun as if supplicating for its rising,’ that is to say, with hands outstretched towards the streaks of light coming forth (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. viii. 5; cf. [[Enoch]] lxxxiii. 11, Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 16:28, Sib. Orac. iii. 591f.), which corresponds with what the [[Talmud]] says (Ber. 9b, Jer. Ber. i. 3a) of the Vethîḳîm, ‘the enduring, conscientiously pious’ (another name for the Essenes), that ‘they recited the Shemâ‛ at the time of the radiance of the morning sun,’ points almost with certainty to Zoroastrian influence (see, besides Graetz, Schorr, and Kohler, also T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and [[Religious]] Contents of the [[Psalter]] [BL[Note: L Bampton Lecture.]], London, 1891, pp. 283, 448), and thus indicates a time when these prayers were offered under the open sky. </p> <p> (b) The real prayer (tefillâh) consisted of either eighteen benedictions or seven benedictions on Sabbath and festival days. In both cases the three opening and three concluding benedictions were the same. On week days, however, twelve specific prayers are offered between these, six concerning human life in general and five concerning the national life of the Jewish people, the twelfth containing the supplication that all the prayers offered either collectively or individually be heard, whereas on Sabbaths and festivals only one specific prayer with reference to the day is offered. </p> <p> The three opening benedictions are: (1) Birkath Âbôth, ‘the praise of the God of the fathers,’ dwelling on the merits of the patriarchs and closing with the words ‘Shield of Abraham’; (2) Gebûrôth, ‘the praise of the Divine Omnipotence,’ as manifested in cosmic life and in the future resurrection: it closes, ‘Blessed be Thou who revivest the dead’; (3) Ḳedûshâh, ‘the sanctification of the Lord by the heavenly hosts’: it closes with, ‘Blessed be Thou, the holy God.’ The three concluding benedictions are: (1) ‛Abôdâh, prayer for the favourable acceptance of the Divine service in the Temple, which, since the destruction of the Temple, has been changed into a prayer for the restoration of the sacrificial cult: it now closes, ‘Blessed be Thou who restorest [[Thy]] Shekinah to Zion’; (2) Hôdââh, thanksgiving for all the bounties of life and the wondrous doings of Providence; (3) Birkath Kôhanîm, the benediction connected with the Priestly Blessing (Numbers 6:24-27), which formed the conclusion of the service. </p> <p> The twelve week-day benedictions are: (1) prayer for knowledge and wisdom; (2) for spiritual regeneration; (3) for Divine forgiveness; (4) for the redemption of those in bondage; (5) for the healing of the sick; (6) for the produce of the year; (7) for the gathering of the dispersed of Israel; (8) for the restoration of a reign of righteousness; (9) originally for the destruction of the kingdom of arrogancy (= the heathen powers): after the Bar Cochba war, however, it was changed into a curse of the heretics and (Christian) informers in the service of Rome; (10) prayer for the leading authorities, the Zaddîḳîm, the Ḥasîdîm, the elders, the remnant of the Sôferîm, and the proselytes; (11) originally a prayer for the restoration of the Davidic dynasty in Jerusalem, afterwards divided into a prayer for Jerusalem’s restoration as the city of God and another for the [[Branch]] of David-hence arose nineteen instead of eighteen week-day prayers (cf. Tôs. Ber. ii. 25, Jer. Ber. ii. 4d-5d, iv. 8ac, Rôsh hash. iv. 49c; Lekaḥ [[Tob]] Waëthḥanan; Yalḳûṭ on 1 Samuel 2; Ber. 28bf.); (12) prayer for the acceptance of all petitions (see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 540). As to the age of these prayers in their original form, the mention of the Sanhedrin, elders, and the remnant of the Sôferîm in the 10th (resp. 13th) prayer indicates the Maccabaean, if not the pre-Maccabaean, time (cf. also [[Sirach]] 51:12 and Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 542 n.[Note: . note.], 156). The three opening and three concluding benedictions have been preserved in a more elaborate and original form in the ancient Church liturgy that came down under the name of [[Clement]] (Apost. Const. vii. 33-35, 37-38, viii. 37), the opening and concluding formulas being almost identical (see article‘Didascalia’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 593 ff.). The Sabbath and Holy-day benediction (Apost. Const. vii. 36) has also the original Jewish character. All these prayers evidently originated in Hasidaean circles, and were only afterwards reduced in length to suit the people at large, as the synagogue became a common institution (see also L. Zunz, Göttesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden2, Frankfort a.M., 1892, pp. 379-383, and G. Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, Leipzig, 1898, p. 299 ff.). As a matter of fact, the entire angelology of the first Shema’ benediction and of the third of the eighteen benedictions is, like those in the ancient Church liturgy, altogether Essene in character, intended only for the initiated into the ‘higher wisdom,’ and the popularization of these prayers was as much the work of the synagogue as was the propagation of religious knowledge among the people-a work begun by the Levites (Nehemiah 8:7; Nehemiah 9:5, 2 Chronicles 19:8; 2 Chronicles 31:2; 2 Chronicles 35:3; Test. Levi, viii. 7; Yômâ, 26a; Tanḥ. Waëra, 4; Num. R., i., iii., v.) and achieved in the course of centuries through the synagogue by the [[Pharisees]] (see R. T. Herford, Pharisaism, London, 1912, pp. 80-83). </p> <p> The reading from the Law introduced by Ezra (Nehemiah 8:5) became soon afterwards a fixed custom for each Sabbath, and so the Pentateuch was completed at first in triennial (possibly originally septennial [cf. Deuteronomy 31:10]) and later in annual cycles (Zunz, op. cit., p. 3 f.), it having been divided at first into 154 and afterwards into 54 sections accordingly. The seven men called up for public reading seem to have been originally identical with the seven leading men of each community (Meg. 26a; Jos. Ant. IV. viii. 14, Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xx. 5), probably the Ḥeber‛Îr (Tôs. Bik. iii. 12, Ber. iv. 7, and elsewhere), but were afterwards chosen from among all the members of the synagogue. The reading from the [[Prophets]] which followed that from the Pentateuch (Acts 13:15) is probably of an older origin than the latter; its selection was left to the preacher of the day (Luke 4:17), but afterwards the selection for each Sabbath and Holy-day was fixed so as to correspond with the character of the day or the Pentateuch section. </p> <p> <b> 7. Women in the synagogue. </b> -Women could not be members of the synagogue, though they seem to have performed synagogal functions of their own, and so prominent women were elected as mothers of the synagogue (‘Mater Synagogae’ [Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]iii.4 88]). They attended the service (Acts 16:13, Ab. Zârâ 38b, Sôṭâ 22a), but could take no part in the common service (Tôs. Meg. iv. 11, Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Meg. 23a). They were without doubt at all times (Tôs. Suk. iv. 11, Bab.[Note: Babylonian.]Suk. 51b; cf. Philo, ad. Mangey, ii. 482; Ḳid. 81a; Chrysos. Hom. 74 in Matt., quoted by Lcew) separated from the men by some sort of wall or barrier (against Lcew, Gesammelte Schriften, iv. 62 f., and Bacher, loc. cit.). See also Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 521, 527, where the emporium found in the ruins of the ancient synagogue is correctly assigned by him to the women. </p> <p> <b> 8. Schoolhouse. </b> -The synagogue was at the outset the place for public instruction (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168: ‘Their houses of worship are nothing but schools of wisdom and virtue’; and Jos. c. Apion. ii. 17-18), and at an early time elementary schools for the young were established therein, or near by (Jer. Keth. xiii. 35c; M.K. iii. 31d; Bab.[Note: Babylonian.]Ḳid. 30a; Ber. 17a; Meg. 28b; B.B. 21; Giṭṭ. 58a). </p> <p> <b> 9. Other uses of the synagogue. </b> -To eat, drink, or sleep in the synagogue was regarded as profanation, but it was used for funeral addresses (Tôs. Meg. iii. 7; Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Meg. 28b), for public announcement, especially of charity donations (Lev. R. xxxii. 6; Schürer’s quotation of Matthew 6:2 refers to the Temple [see articles ‘Alms’ in Jewish Encyclopediai. and ‘Didascalia,’ ib. iv. 591d-592a]). The ancient Ḥasîdîm or [[Essenes]] seem to have had their meals in, or near, the synagogue, and the poor were housed and fed in rooms adjoining it (Pes. 101a; Kohler, MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxvii. 494). [[Punishment]] by scourging was inflicted in the synagogue (Matthew 10:17; Matthew 23:34, Acts 26:11). </p> <p> <b> 10. The synagogue discipline. </b> -The maintenance of the synagogue community required certain disciplinary measures to keep obnoxious or hostile elements out. The following were the different forms of exclusion or excommunication used against unsubmissive members. </p> <p> (1) Ḥerem, anathema-a term used since 2 [[Esdras]] 10:8 (see articles ‘Anathema’ and ‘Ban’ in Jewish Encyclopedia) in the sense of absolute exclusion from the congregation (M.Ḳ. 16a; 1 Corinthians 16:22, where the Greek ἀνάθεμα is followed by the Aramaic formula Mârân athâ [‘thou art accursed’] Galatians 1:8), for which also the term ἀποσυνάγωγος is used (John 9:22; John 12:42; John 16:2; Apost. Const. II. xliii. 1, III. viii. 3, IV. viii. 3; the [[Syrian]] Didascalia is less exact). </p> <p> (2) Niddûy, conditional or temporary exclusion-a term used chiefly in Mishna (Ta’an. iii. 8, M.Ḳ. iii. 1-2; ‛Çdûy. v. c; Midd. 112; Jer. M.Ḳ. 81a; Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Ber. 19a; M.Ḳ 16-17; B.Ḳ. 112b ff.; Ned. 7b, and elsewhere). It corresponds with ἀφορίζειν (Luke 6:22; Apost. Const. II. xvi. 3, 4; xxi. 3, 7; xxviii. 2, 4; xl. 2; xlvi., xlvii. 3; xlviii. 1; III. viii. 2; VI. xliii. and VII. ii. 8; also in the later ecclesiastical rules [VIII. xxviii. 3, 7, 8; xxxii. 5; xlvii. 5, 8ff.]); probably also with ἐκβάλλειν ἐκ τῆς ἐκκλησίας, 3 John 1:10. </p> <p> (3) Nezîphâh, severe public reprimand implying a seven days’ seclusion in accord with Numbers 12:14 (cf. Sifrç, ad loc.; M.Ḳ. 16a; Shab. 115a), found as early as the 1st cent. b.c. in Apost. Const. II. xvi. 3-4; cf. article‘Didascalia’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 589d, against Hamburger, article‘Bann,’ p. 150. </p> <p> (4) Shammatâ, handing over to desolation (from shammâinion with another lady called Euodiaemâmâh = παραδοῦναι τῷ Σατανᾷ, 1 Corinthians 5:5; cf. Jos. Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. viii. 8 and Jewish Encyclopediai. 561-562; M.Ḳ. 17a). </p> <p> (5) Lûṭ, execration-a milder form of shammatâ resorted to by the Talmudic leader in Babylonia (see articleלוט in Levy, Wörterbuch; M.K. 16d; cf. Judges 5:23, Deuteronomy 27:15-26). </p> <p> (6) [[Corporal]] punishments such as the thirty-nine stripes for transgression of Mosaic commandments (Deuteronomy 25:3, 2 Corinthians 11:24) or beating for rebelliousness against the Rabbinical authorities-Makkath Mardûth (Nâzîr iv. 3, 2 Corinthians 11:25, Acts 16:22). The entire disciplinary system, which in the course of time became rather less severe in the same measure as heresy and antagonism ceased within the synagogue (M.Ḳ. 16ab), was no longer clearly understood in Talmudic times; it receives better light, however, from the Essene Church rules preserved in the Apost. Const. II. xl. 2-43 and 47, as shown above. It is from the ancient Hasidaean synagogue that the Christian Church adopted her own disciplinary system. </p> <p> Literature.-E. Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 [Leipzig, 1907] 497-541, where the entire literature is given; W. Bacher, article‘Synagogue,’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols). [[Especially]] to be mentioned are L. Lcew, Der synagogale Ritus (= Gesammelte Schriften, Szegedin, 1889-1900, iv. 1-71, v. 21-33); K. Kohler, ‘Ueber die Ursprünge und Grundformen der synagogalen Liturgie,’ in MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxvii. [1893] 441-451, 489-497; W. O. E. Cesterley and G. H. Box, The [[Religion]] and [[Worship]] of the Synagogue, London, 1907; W. Bousset, Religion des Judentums2, Berlin. 1906, pp. 83, 197f., 197 ff.; J. Wellhausen, Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte6, do., 1907, pp. 193 f., 199f.; I. Elbogen, Der jüdische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung, Leipzig, 1913. </p> <p> K. Kohler. </p>

<p> ''''' sin´a ''''' - ''''' gog ''''' : </p> <p> 1. Name </p> <p> 2. Origin </p> <p> 3. Spread of Synagogues </p> <p> 4. The [[Building]] </p> <p> (1) The Site </p> <p> (2) The Structure </p> <p> (3) The Furniture </p> <p> 5. The Officials </p> <p> (1) The [[Elders]] </p> <p> (2) The Ruler </p> <p> (3) The [[Servant]] (or Servants) </p> <p> (4) Delegate of the [[Congregation]] </p> <p> (5) The [[Interpreter]] </p> <p> (6) The Almoners </p> <p> 6. The [[Service]] </p> <p> (1) Recitation of the "Shema'" </p> <p> (2) Prayers </p> <p> (3) [[Reading]] of the Law and the Prophets </p> <p> (4) The [[Sermon]] </p> <p> (5) The [[Benediction]] </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> 1. Name: <p> Synagogue, Greek συναγωγή , <i> ''''' sunagōgḗ ''''' </i> , "gathering" ( Acts 13:43 ), "gathering-place" (Luke 7:5 ), was the name applied to the Jewish place of worship in later Judaism in and outside of Palestine <i> '''''Proseuchḗ''''' </i> , "a place of prayer" (Acts 16:13 ), was probably more of the nature of an enclosure, marking off the sacred spot from the profane foot, than of a roofed building like a synagogue. <i> '''''Sabbateı́on''''' </i> in <i> Ant. </i> , XV, i, 2, most probably also meant synagogue. In the Mishna we find for synagogue <i> '''''bēth''''' </i> <i> '''''ha''''' </i> - <i> '''''keneṣeth''''' </i> , in the [[Targums]] and Talmud <i> '''''bē''''' </i> - <i> '''''khenı̄shtā'''''' </i> , or simply <i> '''''kenı̄shtā'''''' </i> . The oldest Christian meetings and meeting-places were modeled on the pattern of the synagogues, and, in Christian-Palestinian Aramaic the word <i> '''''kenı̄shtā'''''' </i> is used for the Christian church (compare Zahn, <i> Tatian's [[Diatessaron]] </i> , 335). </p> 2. Origin: <p> That the synagogue was, in the time of our Lord, one of the most important religious institutions of the Jews is clear from the fact that it was thought to have been instituted by Moses ( <i> Apion </i> , ii, 17; Philo, <i> De Vita Moses </i> , iii. 27; compare [[Targum]] Jer to Exodus 18:20 ). It must have come into being during the Babylonian exile. At that time the more devout Jews, far from their native land, having no sanctuary or altar, no doubt felt drawn from time to time, especially on Sabbath and feast days, to gather round those who were specially pious and God-fearing, in order to listen to the word of God and engage in some kind of worship. That such meetings were not uncommon is made probable by Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 20:1 . This would furnish a basis for the institution of the synagogue. After the exile the synagogue remained and even developed as a counterpoise to the absolute sacerdotalism of the temple, and must have been felt absolutely necessary for the Jews of the Dispersion. Though at first it was meant only for the exposition of the Law, it was natural that in the course of time prayers and preaching should be added to the service. Thus these meetings, which at first were only held on Sabbaths and feast days, came also to be held on other days, and at the same hours with the services in the temple. The essential aim, however, of the synagogue was not prayer, but instruction in the Law for all classes of the people. Philo calls the synagogues "houses of instruction, where the philosophy of the fathers and all manner of virtues were taught" (compare Matthew 4:23; Mark 1:21; Mark 6:2; Luke 4:15 , Luke 4:33; Luke 6:6; Luke 13:10; John 6:59; John 18:20; <i> CAp </i> , ii, 17). </p> 3. Spread of Synagogues: <p> In Palestine the synagogues were scattered all over the country, all the larger towns having one or more (e.g. Nazareth, Matthew 13:54; Capernaum, Matthew 12:9 ). In Jerusalem, in spite of the fact that the Temple was there, there were many synagogues, and all parts of the [[Diaspora]] were represented by particular synagogues (Acts 6:9 ). Also in heathen lands, wherever there was a certain number of Jews, they had their own synagogue: e.g. Damascus (Acts 9:2 ), [[Salamis]] (Acts 13:5 ), Antioch of Pisidia (Acts 13:14 ), [[Thessalonica]] (Acts 17:1 ), Corinth (Acts 18:4 ), Alexandria (Philo, <i> [[Leg]] [[Ad]] Cai </i> , xx), Rome (ibid., xxiii). The papyrus finds of recent years contain many references to Jewish synagogues in Egypt, from the time of [[Euergetes]] (247-221 BC) onward. According to Philo ( <i> Quod omnis probus liber sit </i> , xii, et al.) the Essenes had their own synagogues, and, from <i> '''''‛Ābhōth''''' </i> 3 10, it seems that "the people of the land," i.e. the masses, especially in the country, who were far removed from the influence of the scribes, and were even opposed to their narrow interpretation of the Law had their own synagogues. </p> 4. The Building: <p> <b> (1) The Site. </b> </p> <p> There is no evidence that in Palestine the synagogues were always required to be built upon high ground, or at least that they should overlook all other houses (compare <i> Pefs </i> , July, 1878,126), though we read in the Talmud that this was one of the requirements ( <i> ''''' Tōṣ ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> , edition Zunz, 4:227; <i> ''''' Shabbāth ''''' </i> 11a). From Acts 16:13 it does not follow that synagogues were intentionally built outside the city, and near water for the sake of ceremonial washing (compare <i> Monatsschr. fur Gesch. und Wissensch. des Judenthums </i> , 1889, 167-70; Hjp Ii , 370). </p> <p> <b> (2) The Structure. </b> </p> <p> Of the style of the architecture we have no positive records. From the description in the Talmud of the synagogue at Alexandria ( <i> ''''' Tōṣ ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ṣukkāh ''''' </i> , edition Zunz, 198 20; <i> ''''' Ṣukkāh ''''' </i> 51b one imagrees the synagogues to have been modeled on the pattern of the temple or of the temple court. From the excavations in Palestine we find that in the building the stone of the country was used. On the lintels of the doors were different forms of ornamentation, e.g. seven-branched candlesticks, an open flower between two paschal lambs, or vine leaves with bunches of grapes, or, as in Capernaum, a pot of manna between two representations of Aaron's rod. The inside plan "is generally that of two double colonnades, which seem to have formed the body of the synagogue, the aisles East and West being probably used as passages. The intercolumnar distance is very small, never greater than 9 1/2 ft." (Edersheim). Because of a certain adaptation of the corner columns at the northern end, Edersheim supposes that a woman's gallery was once erected there. It does not appear, however, from the Old Testament or New Testament or the oldest Jewish tradition that there was any special gallery for women. It should be noted, as against this conclusion, that in <i> De Vita Contemplativa </i> , attributed by some to Philo, a certain passage (sec. iii) seems to imply the existence of such a gallery. </p> <p> <b> (3) The Furniture. </b> </p> <p> We only know that there was a movable ark in which the rolls of the Law and the Prophets were kept. It was called <i> ''''' 'ărōn ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ḳōdhesh ''''' </i> , but chiefly <i> ''''' tēbhāh ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> 3 1; <i> ''''' Nedhārim ''''' </i> 5 5; <i> ''''' Ta‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> 2 1,2), and it stood facing the entrance. According to <i> ''''' Ta‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> 15a it was taken out and carried in a procession on fast days. In front of the ark, and facing the congregation, were the "chief seats" (see [[Chief Seats]] ) for the rulers of the synagogue and the learned men (Matthew 23:6 ). From Nehemiah 8:4 and Nehemiah 9:4 it appears that the <i> '''''bēmah''''' </i> (Jerusalem <i> '''''Meghillāh''''' </i> 3 1), a platform from which the Law was read, although it is not mentioned in the New Testament, was of ancient date, and in use in the time of Christ. </p> 5. The Officials: <p> <b> (1) The Elders. </b> </p> <p> These officials (Luke 7:3 ) formed the local tribunal, and in purely Jewish localities acted as a Committee of Management of the affairs of the synagogue (compare <i> '''''Berākhōth''''' </i> 4 7; <i> '''''Nedhārim''''' </i> 5 5; <i> '''''Meghillāh''''' </i> 3 1). To them belonged, most probably, among other things, the power to excommunicate (compare Ezra 10:8; Luke 6:22; John 9:22; John 12:42; John 16:2; <i> '''''‛Ēdhuyōth''''' </i> 5 6; <i> '''''Ta‛ănı̄th''''' </i> 3 8; <i> '''''Middōth''''' </i> 2 2). </p> <p> <b> (2) The Ruler. </b> </p> <p> Greek <i> ''''' archisunágōgos ''''' </i> ( Mark 5:35; Luke 8:41 , Luke 8:49; Luke 13:14; Acts 18:8 , Acts 18:17 ), Hebrew <i> '''''rō'sh''''' </i> <i> '''''ha''''' </i> - <i> '''''keneseth''''' </i> ( <i> '''''Ṣōtāh''''' </i> 7 7, 8). In some synagogues there were several rulers (Mark 5:22; Acts 13:15 ). They were most probably chosen from among the elders. It was the ruler's business to control the synagogue services, as for instance to decide who was to be called upon to read from the Law and the Prophets ( <i> '''''Yōmā'''''' </i> 7 1) and to preach (Acts 13:15; compare Luke 13:14 ); he had to look after the discussions, and generally to keep order. </p> <p> <b> (3) The Servant (or Servants). </b> </p> <p> Greek <i> ''''' hupērétēs ''''' </i> ; Talmud <i> ''''' ḥazzān ''''' </i> ( Luke 4:20; <i> '''''Yōmā''''' </i> 7 1; <i> '''''Ṣōtāh''''' </i> 7 7, 8). He had to see to the lighting of the synagogue and to keep the building clean. He it was who wielded the scourge when punishment had to be meted out to anyone in the synagogue (Matthew 10:17; Matthew 23:34; Mark 13:9; Acts 22:19; compare <i> '''''Maḳḳōth''''' </i> 16). From <i> '''''Shabbāth''''' </i> 1 3 it seems that the <i> '''''ḥazzān''''' </i> was also an elementary teacher. See [[Education]] . </p> <p> <b> (4) Delegate of the Congregation. </b> </p> <p> Hebrew <i> ''''' shelı̄aḥ ''''' </i> <i> ''''' cibbūr ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' Rō'sh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' shānāh ''''' </i> 4 9; <i> ''''' Berākhōth ''''' </i> 5 5). This office was not permanent, but one was chosen at each meeting by the ruler to fill it, and he conducted the prayers. According to <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> 4 5, he who was asked to read the Scriptures was also expected to read the prayers. He had to be a man of good character. </p> <p> <b> (5) The Interpreter. </b> </p> <p> Hebrew <i> ''''' methōrgemān ''''' </i> . It was his duty to translate into Aramaic the passages of the Law and the Prophets which were read in Hebrew ( <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> 3 3; compare 1 Corinthians 14:28 ). This also was probably not a permanent office, but was filled at each meeting by one chosen by the ruler. </p> <p> <b> (6) The Almoners. </b> </p> <p> ( <i> ''''' Demā'ı̄ ''''' </i> 3 1; <i> ''''' Ḳiddūshı̄n ''''' </i> 4 5). [[Alms]] for the poor were collected in the synagogue (compare Matthew 6:2 ). According to <i> '''''Pē'āh''''' </i> 8 7, the collecting was to be done by at least two persons, and the distributing by at least three. </p> 6. The Service: <p> <b> (1) Recitation of the "Shema'". </b> </p> <p> At least ten persons bad to be present for regular worship ( <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> 4 3; <i> ''''' Ṣanhedhrı̄n ''''' </i> 1 6). There were special services on Saturdays and feast days. In order to keep the synagogue services uniform with those of the temple, both were held at the same hours. The order of service was as follows: the recitation of the <i> ''''' shema‛ ''''' </i> , i.e. a confession of God's unity, consisting of the passages Deuteronomy 6:4-9; Deuteronomy 11:13-21;. Numbers 15:37-41 ( <i> '''''Berākhōth''''' </i> 2 2; <i> '''''Tāmı̄dh''''' </i> 5 1). Before and after the recitation of these passages "blessings" were said in connection with the passages ( <i> '''''Berākhōth''''' </i> 1 4). This formed a very important part of the liturgy. It was believed to have been ordered by Moses (compare <i> Ant. </i> , IV, viii, 13). </p> <p> <b> (2) Prayers. </b> </p> <p> The most important prayers were the <i> ''''' Shemōneh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ‛esrēh ''''' </i> , "Eighteen Eulogies," a cycle of eighteen prayers, also called " <i> The </i> Prayer" ( <i> ''''' Berākhōth ''''' </i> 4 3; <i> ''''' Ta‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> 2 2). Like the <i> ''''' shema‛ ''''' </i> they are very old. </p> <p> The following is the first of the eighteen: "Blessed art Thou, the Lord our God, and the God of our fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob: the great, the mighty and the terrible God, the most high God Who showest mercy and kindness, Who createst all things, Who rememberest the pious deeds of the patriarchs, and wilt in love bring a redeemer to their children's children for Thy Name's sake; [[O]] K ing, Helper, [[Saviour]] and Shield! Blessed art Thou, [[O]] L ord, the [[Shield]] of Abraham." </p> <p> The prayers of the delegate were met with a response of Amen from the congregation. </p> <p> <b> (3) Reading of the Law and the Prophets. </b> </p> <p> After prayers the <i> ''''' pārāshāh ''''' </i> , i.e. the pericope from the Law for that Sabbath, was read, and the interpreter translated verse by verse into Aramaic ( <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> 3 3). The whole Pentateuch was divided into 154 pericopes, so that in the course of 3 years it was read through in order. After the reading of the Law came the <i> ''''' Haphṭārāh ''''' </i> , the pericope from the Prophets for that Sabbath, which the interpreter did not necessarily translate verse by verse, but in paragraphs of 3 verses ( <i> ''''' Meghillāh ''''' </i> , loc. cit.). </p> <p> <b> (4) The Sermon. </b> </p> <p> After the reading from the Law and the Prophets followed the sermon, which was originally a caustical exposition of the Law, but which in process of time assumed a more devotional character. Anyone in the congregation might be asked by the ruler to preach, or might ask the ruler for permission to preach. </p> <p> The following example of an old (lst century AD) rabbinic sermon, based on the words, "He hath clothed me with the garments of salvation" (Isaiah 61:10 , a verse in the chapter from which Jesus took His text when addressing the synagogue of Nazareth), will serve as an illustration of contemporary Jewish preaching: </p> <p> "Seven garments the [[Holy]] One - blessed be He! - has put on, and will put on from the time the world was created until the hour when He will punish the wicked [[Edom]] (i.e. Roman empire). When He created the world, He clothed Himself in honor and majesty, as it is said (Psalm 104:1 ): 'Thou art clothed in honor and majesty.' Whenever He forgave the sins of Israel, He clothed Himself in white, for we read (Daniel 7:9 ): 'His raiment was white as snow.' When He punishes the peoples of the world, He puts on the garments of vengeance, as it is said (Isaiah 59:17 ): 'He put on garments of vengeance for clothing, and was clad with zeal as a cloke.' The sixth garment He will put on when the [[Messiah]] comes; then He will clothe Himself in a garment of righteousness, for it is said (same place) : 'He put on righteousness as a breast-plate, and an helmet of salvation upon His head.' The seventh garment He will put on when He punishes Edom; then He will clothe Himself in <i> ''''''ādhōm''''' </i> , i.e. 'red,' for it is said (Isaiah 63:2 ): 'Wherefore art Thou red in [[Thine]] apparel?' But the garment which He will put upon the Messiah, this will shine afar, from one end of the earth to the other, for it is said (Isaiah 61:10 ): 'As a bridegroom decketh himself with a garland.' And the [[Israelites]] will partake of His light, and will say: </p> <p> 'Blessed is the hour when the Messiah shall come! </p> <p> Blessed the womb out of which He shall come! </p> <p> Blessed His contemporaries who are eye-witnesses! </p> <p> Blessed the eye that is honored with a sight of Him! </p> <p> For the opening of His lips is blessing and peace; </p> <p> His speech is a moving of the spirits; </p> <p> The thoughts of His heart are confidence and cheerful-ness; </p> <p> The speech of His tongue is pardon and forgiveness; </p> <p> His prayer is the sweet incense of offerings; </p> <p> His petitions are holiness and purity. </p> <p> [[O]] how blessed is Israel, for whom such has been prepared! </p> <p> For it is said (Psalm 31:19 ): "How great is Thy goodness, which thou hast laid up for them that fear thee" ' " </p> <p> ( <i> ''''' Peṣiḳtā' ''''' </i> , edition Buber). </p> <p> <b> (5) The Benediction. </b> </p> <p> After the sermon the benediction was pronounced (by a priest), and the congregation answered Amen ( <i> ''''' Berākhōth ''''' </i> 5 4; <i> ''''' Ṣōtāh ''''' </i> 7 2,3). </p> Literature. <p> L. Zunz, <i> Die gottesdienstlichen Vortrage der Juden </i> , 2nd edition; Herzfeld, <i> Geschichte des Volkes Israel </i> , III, 129-37,183-226; Hausrath, <i> Neutestamentliche Zeitgesch </i> ., 2d edition, 73-80; <i> Hjp </i> , II, 357-86; <i> Gjv 4 </i> , II; 497-544; Edersheim, <i> Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah </i> , 5th edition, I, 431-50; Oesterly and Box, "The Religion and Worship of the Synagogue," <i> Church and Synagogue </i> , IX, number 2, April, 1907, p. 46; W. Bacher, article "Synagogue" in <i> Hdb </i> ; Strack, article "Synagogen," in RE, 3edition, Xix . </p>