Difference between revisions of "Exodus"

<p> Going out, the name of the second book of [[Moses]] and of the Bible; so called because it narrates the departure of the [[Israelites]] from Egypt. It comprises a period of about one hundred and forty-five years, from the death of [[Joseph]] to the erection of the tabernacle in the desert. The various topics of the book may be thus presented: (1.) The oppression of the Israelites, under the change of dynasty which sprung up after the death of Joseph: "There arose up another king, who knew not Joseph," Exodus 1:8 . The reference many believe is to the invasion of [[Egypt]] by the Hyksos, who are spoken of in secular history as having invaded Egypt probably about this period, and who held it in subjection for many years. The are termed shepherd-kings, and represented as coming from the east. (2.) The youth, education, patriotism, and flight of Moses, Exodus 2:1 - 6:30 . (3.) The commission of Moses, the perversity of Pharaoh, and the infliction of the ten plagues in succession, Exodus 7:1-11:10 . (4.) The institution of the Passover, the sudden departure of the Israelites, the passage of the [[Red]] Sea, and the thanksgiving of Moses and the people on the opposite shore, after the destruction of [[Pharaoh]] and his host, Exodus 12:1-15:27 . (5.) The narration of various miracles wrought in behalf of the people during their journeyings towards Sinai, Exodus 15:1-17:16 . (6.) The promulgation of the law on mount Sinai. This includes the preparation of the people by Moses, and the promulgation, first of the moral law, then of the judicial law, and subsequently of the ceremonial law, including the instructions for the erection of the tabernacle and the completion of that house of God, Exodus 19:1-40:38 . </p> <p> The scope of the book is not only to preserve the memorial of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, but to present to view the church of [[God]] in her afflictions and triumphs; to point out the providential care of God over her, and the judgments inflicted on her enemies. It clearly shows the accomplishment of the divine promises and prophecies delivered to Abraham: that his posterity would be numerous, [[Genesis]] 15:5 17:4-6 46:27 Numbers 1:1-3,46; and that they should be afflicted in a land not their own, whence they should depart in the fourth generation with great substance, </p> <p> Genesis 15:13-16 Exodus 12:40-41 . Their exodus in many particulars well illustrates the state of Christ's church in the wilderness of this world, until her arrival in the heavenly Canaan. See 1 Corinthians 10:1-33 Hebrews 1:1-13:25 . The book of Exodus brings before us many and singular types of Christ: Moses, Deuteronomy 18:15; Aaron, Hebrews 4:14-16; the paschal lamb, Exodus 12:46 John 19:36 1 Corinthians 5:7-8; the manna, Exodus 1:1-40:38 16:15 1 Corinthians 10:3; the rock in Horeb, Exodus 17:6 1 Corinthians 10:4; the mercy seat, Exodus 37:6 Romans 3:25 Hebrews 4:16; the tabernacle, Exodus 40:1 - 38 , "The Word tabernacled among us," John 1:14 . </p> <p> This departure from Egypt, and the subsequent wanderings of the children of [[Israel]] in the desert, form one of the great epochs in their history. They were constantly led by Jehovah, and the whole series of events is a constant succession of miracles. From their breaking up at Rameses, to their arrival on the confines of the promised land, there was an interval of forty years, during which one whole generation passed away, and the whole [[Mosaic]] law was given, and sanctioned by the thunders and lightnings of Sinai. There is no portion of history extant which so displays the interposition of an overruling [[Providence]] in the affairs both of nations and of individuals, as that which recounts these wanderings of Israel. </p> <p> The four hundred and thirty years referred to in Exodus 12:40 , date, according to the received chronology, from the time when the promise was made to Abraham, Genesis 15:13 . From the arrival of [[Jacob]] in Egypt to the exodus of his posterity, was about two hundred and thirty years. The threescore and fifteen souls had now become 600,000, besides children. They took with them great numbers of cattle, and much [[Egyptian]] spoil. It was only by the mighty hand of God that their deliverance was effected; and there seems to have been a special vindication of his glory in the fact that the Nile, the flies, the frogs, fishes, cattle, etc., which were made the means or the subjects of the plagues of Egypt, were there regarded with idolatrous veneration. </p> <p> After the tenth and decisive plague had been sent, the Israelites were dismissed from Egypt in haste. They are supposed to have been assembled at Rameses, or Heroopolis, in the land of Goshen, about thirty-five miles northwest of Suez, on the ancient canal, which united the [[Nile]] with the Red Sea. They set off on the fifteenth day of the first month, the day after the Passover, that is, about the middle of April. Their course was southeast as far as Etham; but then, instead of keeping on directly to Sinai, they turned to the south, Exodus 14:2 , on the west side of the Red Sea, which they reached three days after starting, probably near Suez. Here, by means of a strong east wind, God miraculously divided the waters of the sea in such a way that the Israelites passed over the bed of it on dry ground; while the Egyptians, who attempted to follow them, were drowned by the returning waters. The arm of the sea at [[Suez]] is now only three or four miles wide, and at low water may be forded. It is known to have been formerly wider and deeper; but the drifting sands of ages have greatly filled and altered. The miracle here wrought was an amazing one, and revealed the hand of God more signally than any of the ten plagues had done. According to the Bible, God caused a "strong east wind" to blow; the deep waters were sundered, and "gathered together;" "the floods stood upright as a heap;" "the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea, and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand and on their left." These effects continued all night till the morning watch, and without obstructing the progress of the Hebrews; whereas in the morning the pursuing [[Egyptians]] were covered by the sea, and "sank like lead in the mighty waters." These were wonders towards the effecting of which any wind must have been as insufficient as Naaman's mere washing in [[Jordan]] would have been to the healing of his leprosy. It should here be stated also, that some geographers think this miracle took place below Mount Atakah, ten or twelve miles south of Suez, where the sea is about twelve miles wide. This opinion is liable to several objections, though it cannot be proved to be false. At this late day the precise locality may be undiscoverable, like the point of a soul's transition from the bondage of [[Satan]] into the kingdom of God; but in both cases the work is of God, and the glory of it is his alone. </p> <p> Having offered thanksgiving to God for their wonderful deliverance, the Israelites advanced along the eastern shore of the Red [[Sea]] and through the valleys and desert to Mount Sinai. This part of their route may be readily traced, and Marah, Elim, and the desert of [[Sin]] have been with much probability identified. They arrived at Mount [[Sinai]] in the third month, or June, probably about the middle of it, having been two months on their journey. Here the law was given, and here they abode during all the transactions recorded in Exodus 21:1 -Nu 21:1-9:23 , that is, until the twentieth day of the second month (May) in the following year, a period of about eleven months. </p> <p> [[Breaking]] up at this time from Sinai, they marched northwards through the desert of Paran, or perhaps along the eastern arm of the Red Sea and north through El-Arabah, to Kadesh-barnea, near the southeast border of Canaan. [[Rephidim]] near Mount Sinai, and Taberah, Kibroth-hattaaveh, and Hazerorh, on their journey north, were the scenes of incidents, which may be found, described under their several heads. From Kadesh-barnea, spies were sent out to view the promised land, and brought back an evil report, probably in August of the same year. The people murmured, and were directed by [[Jehovah]] to turn back and wander in the desert, until the carcasses of that generation should all fall in the wilderness, Numbers 14:25 . This they did, wandering from one station to another in the great desert of Paran, lying south of Palestine, and also in the great sandy valley called El-Ghor and chiefly El-Arabah, which extends from the [[Dead]] Sea to the gulf of Akaba, the eastern arm of the Red Sea. See JORDAN. Where and how these long years were spent we are not informed, nor by what routes they traversed the desert, nor how they were furnished with food except manna. Moses says they "compassed mount [[Seir]] many days," always under the guidance of the pillar of fire and cloud, Numbers 9:22; he also gives a list of seventeen stations, mostly unknown, where thy rested or dwelt before reaching Ezion-gaber, Numbers 33:19-35; and then mentions their return to Kadesh, Numbers 33:36-37 , in the first month, Numbers 20:1 , after an interval of almost thirty-eight years. While thus a second time encamped at Kadesh, Moses sent to the king of Idumaea, to ask liberty to pass through his dominions, that is, through the chain of mountains (mount Seir) lying along the eastern side of the great valley El-Arabah. See IDUMAEA. This was refused; and Israel, feeling too weak to penetrate into [[Palestine]] from the south, in face of the powerful tribes of [[Canaanites]] dwelling there, was compelled to take the southern passage around Edom, Numbers 21:4 . Soon after turning, they came to mount Hor, where [[Aaron]] died and was buried, Numbers 20:20-28 . [[Proceeding]] southward along the valley El-Arabah to Ezion-gaber, at the head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, they here passed through the eastern mountains, and then turned north along the eastern desert, by the route which the great [[Syrian]] caravan of Mohammedan pilgrims now passes in going to Mecca. They arrived at the brook Zered, on the southern border of Moab, just forty years after their departure from Egypt. </p>

Exodus 12:51Deuteronomy 26:8Psalm 1141361 Kings 6:1 <p> The time of their sojourning in [[Egypt]] was, according to Exodus 12:40 , the space of four hundred and thirty years. In the LXX., the words are, "The sojourning of the children of [[Israel]] which they sojourned in Egypt and in the land of [[Canaan]] was four hundred and thirty years;" and the [[Samaritan]] version reads, "The sojourning of the children of Israel and of their fathers which they sojourned in the land of Canaan and in the land of Egypt was four hundred and thirty years." In [[Genesis]] 15:13-16 , the period is prophetically given (in round numbers) as four hundred years. This passage is quoted by [[Stephen]] in his defence before the council (Acts 7:6 ). </p> <p> The chronology of the "sojourning" is variously estimated. Those who adopt the longer term reckon thus: </p> <p> | Years | | From the descent of [[Jacob]] into Egypt to the | death of [[Joseph]] 71 | | From the death of Joseph to the birth of | [[Moses]] 278 | | From the birth of Moses to his flight into | [[Midian]] 40 | | From the flight of Moses to his return into | Egypt 40 | | From the return of Moses to the Exodus 1 | | 430 </p> <p> Others contend for the shorter period of two hundred and fifteen years, holding that the period of four hundred and thirty years comprehends the years from the entrance of [[Abraham]] into Canaan (see LXX. and Samaritan) to the descent of Jacob into Egypt. They reckon thus: </p> <p> | Years | | From Abraham's arrival in Canaan to Isaac's | birth 25 | | From Isaac's birth to that of his twin sons | [[Esau]] and Jacob 60 | | From Jacob's birth to the going down into | Egypt 130 | | (215) | | From Jacob's going down into Egypt to the | death of Joseph 71 | | From death of Joseph to the birth of Moses 64 | | From birth of Moses to the Exodus 80 | | In all... 430 </p> <p> During the forty years of Moses' sojourn in the land of Midian, the Hebrews in Egypt were being gradually prepared for the great national crisis which was approaching. The plagues that successively fell upon the land loosened the bonds by which [[Pharaoh]] held them in slavery, and at length he was eager that they should depart. But the Hebrews must now also be ready to go. They were poor; for generations they had laboured for the [[Egyptians]] without wages. They asked gifts from their neighbours around them (Exodus 12:35 ), and these were readily bestowed. And then, as the first step towards their independent national organization, they observed the feast of the Passover, which was now instituted as a perpetual memorial. The blood of the paschal lamb was duly sprinkled on the door-posts and lintels of all their houses, and they were all within, waiting the next movement in the working out of God's plan. At length the last stroke fell on the land of Egypt. "It came to pass, that at midnight [[Jehovah]] smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt." Pharaoh rose up in the night, and called for Moses and [[Aaron]] by night, and said, "Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, both ye and the children of Israel; and go, serve Jehovah, as ye have said. Also take your flocks and your herds, as ye have said, and be gone; and bless me also." Thus was Pharaoh (q.v.) completely humbled and broken down. These words he spoke to Moses and Aaron "seem to gleam through the tears of the humbled king, as he lamented his son snatched from him by so sudden a death, and tremble with a sense of the helplessness which his proud soul at last felt when the avenging hand of [[God]] had visited even his palace." </p> <p> The terror-stricken Egyptians now urged the instant departure of the Hebrews. In the midst of the [[Passover]] feast, before the dawn of the 15th day of the month [[Abib]] (our April nearly), which was to be to them henceforth the beginning of the year, as it was the commencement of a new epoch in their history, every family, with all that appertained to it, was ready for the march, which instantly began under the leadership of the heads of tribes with their various sub-divisions. They moved onward, increasing as they went forward from all the districts of Goshen, over the whole of which they were scattered, to the common centre. Three or four days perhaps elapsed before the whole body of the people were assembled at Rameses, and ready to set out under their leader Moses (Exodus 12:37; Numbers 33:3 ). This city was at that time the residence of the [[Egyptian]] court, and here the interviews between Moses and Pharaoh had taken place. </p> <p> From [[Rameses]] they journeyed to [[Succoth]] (Exodus 12:37 ), identified with Tel-el-Maskhuta, about 12 miles west of Ismailia. (See [[Pithom]] .) Their third station was [[Etham]] (q.v.), 13:20, "in the edge of the wilderness," and was probably a little to the west of the modern town of Ismailia, on the [[Suez]] Canal. Here they were commanded "to turn and encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between [[Migdol]] and the sea", i.e., to change their route from east to due south. The Lord now assumed the direction of their march in the pillar of cloud by day and of fire by night. They were then led along the west shore of the [[Red]] [[Sea]] till they came to an extensive camping-ground "before Pi-hahiroth," about 40 miles from Etham. This distance from Etham may have taken three days to traverse, for the number of camping-places by no means indicates the number of days spent on the journey: e.g., it took fully a month to travel from Rameses to the wilderness of [[Sin]] ( Exodus 16:1 ), yet reference is made to only six camping-places during all that time. The exact spot of their encampment before they crossed the Red Sea cannot be determined. It was probably somewhere near the present site of Suez. </p> <p> Under the direction of God the children of Israel went "forward" from the camp "before Pi-hahiroth," and the sea opened a pathway for them, so that they crossed to the farther shore in safety. The Egyptian host pursued after them, and, attempting to follow through the sea, were overwhelmed in its returning waters, and thus the whole military force of the Egyptians perished. They "sank as lead in the mighty waters" (Exodus 15:1-9; Compare [[Psalm]] 77:16-19 ). </p> <p> Having reached the eastern shore of the sea, perhaps a little way to the north of 'Ayun Musa ("the springs of Moses"), there they encamped and rested probably for a day. Here [[Miriam]] and the other women sang the triumphal song recorded in Exodus 15:1-21 . </p> <p> From 'Ayun Musa they went on for three days through a part of the barren "wilderness of Shur" (22), called also the "wilderness of Etham" (Numbers 33:8; Compare Exodus 13:20 ), without finding water. On the last of these days they came to [[Marah]] (q.v.), where the "bitter" water was by a miracle made drinkable. </p> <p> Their next camping-place was [[Elim]] (q.v.), where were twelve springs of water and a grove of "threescore and ten" palm trees (Exodus 15:27 ). </p> <p> After a time the children of Israel "took their journey from Elim," and encamped by the Red Sea (Numbers 33:10 ), and thence removed to the "wilderness of Sin" (to be distinguished from the wilderness of Zin, 20:1), where they again encamped. Here, probably the modern el-Markha, the supply of bread they had brought with them out of Egypt failed. They began to "murmur" for want of bread. God "heard their murmurings" and gave them quails and manna, "bread from heaven" (Exodus 16:4-36 ). Moses directed that an omer of manna should be put aside and preserved as a perpetual memorial of God's goodness. They now turned inland, and after three encampments came to the rich and fertile valley of Rephidim, in the [[Wady]] Feiran. Here they found no water, and again murmured against Moses. [[Directed]] by God, Moses procured a miraculous supply of water from the "rock in Horeb," one of the hills of the [[Sinai]] group (17:1-7); and shortly afterwards the children of Israel here fought their first battle with the Amalekites, whom they smote with the edge of the sword. </p> <p> From the eastern extremity of the Wady Feiran the line of march now probably led through the Wady esh-Sheikh and the Wady Solaf, meeting in the Wady er-Rahah, "the enclosed plain in front of the magnificient cliffs of Ras Sufsafeh." Here they encamped for more than a year (Numbers 1:1; 10:11 ) before Sinai (q.v.). </p> <p> The different encampments of the children of Israel, from the time of their leaving Egypt till they reached the [[Promised]] Land, are mentioned in Exodus 12:37-19; Numbers 1021-21; 33; Deuteronomy 1,2,10 . </p> <p> It is worthy of notice that there are unmistakable evidences that the Egyptians had a tradition of a great exodus from their country, which could be none other than the exodus of the Hebrews. </p>

Deuteronomy 26:5-91 Samuel 12:6-8Psalm 78:1Psalm 105:1Psalm 106:1Psalm 114:1Psalm 135:1Psalm 136:1Isaiah 11:16Jeremiah 2:6Jeremiah 7:22-25Ezekiel 20:620:10Hosea 2:15Hosea 11:1Amos 2:10Amos 3:1Micah 6:4Haggai 2:5Luke 22:1-201 Corinthians 11:23-26 <p> Historicity The only explicit account of the Exodus we have is the biblical account (Exodus 1-15 ). No extra-biblical witnesses directly speak of the sojourn of Israel's ancestors in the land of the Nile. However, [[Egyptian]] sources do confirm the general situation that we find in the end of [[Genesis]] and the beginning of the [[Book]] of Exodus. There are many reports in Egyptian sources of nomadic people called <i> [[Habiru]] </i> coming into [[Egypt]] from the east fleeing from famine. Extra-biblical evidence from Egypt indicates that Egypt used slave labor in building projects ( Exodus 1:11 ). At one time the land in Egypt was owned by many landholders; but after the reign of the [[Hyksos]] kings the [[Pharaoh]] owned most of the land, and the people were serfs of the king (Genesis 47:20 ). Old [[Testament]] scholars accept the essential historicity of the Exodus. </p> <p> The Nature of the [[Event]] Some scholars see the Exodus as the miraculous deliverance of the people of [[God]] from the grip of Pharaoh's army at the [[Red]] Sea. Others see it as an escape across a sprawling wilderness and sweltering desert of a small mixed band of border slaves. Some argue that the military language in the account indicates that the event was a military skirmish. Such language may be the language of holy war. The people of [[Israel]] went up from the land of Egypt “equipped for battle” (Exodus 13:18 RSV), but God did not lead them by the way of the Philistines, which was the closest way but it was also the way of war. God thought that if Israel saw war she would repent and return to Egypt ( Exodus 13:17 ). God is called a “man of war” in Exodus 15:3 . </p> <p> The [[Bible]] stresses that the Exodus was the work of God. God brought the plagues on Egypt (Exodus 7:1-5 ). The miracle at the sea was never treated merely as a natural event or as Israel's victory alone. In the earliest recorded response to the event [[Miriam]] sang, “Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea” (Exodus 15:21 RSV). </p> <p> [[Elements]] of the wonderful and the ordinary contributed to the greatest Old Testament events. The natural and supernatural combined to produce God's deliverance. The Exodus was both miraculous and historical. An air of mystery surrounds this event as all miraculous events. We are not told when the Exodus occurred. We do not know precisely where it happened since the [[Hebrew]] term may have meant the Red [[Sea]] as we know it, one of its tributaries, or a “sea of reeds” whose location is unknown. We do not know who or how many may have been involved. The record makes it clear that God delivered Israel from bondage because of His covenant with the patriarchs and because He desired to redeem His people (Exodus 6:2-8 ). </p> <p> The [[Date]] of the Exodus The Bible does not give an incontrovertible date for the Exodus. 1 Kings 6:1 says, “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon's reign over Israel, in the month of Zif, which is the second month, that he began to build the house of the Lord.” But this verse refers primarily to the beginning of the building of Solomon's [[Temple]] and only in a general way to the time of the Exodus. We do not know the precise dates of Solomon's reign. If we use 961 B.C. as the beginning of Solomon's reign, his fourth year would be 957 B.C. If we take the 480 years of 1 Kings 6:1 literally, the Exodus would be dated in 1437 B.C. Exodus 1:11 says, however, that the [[Israelites]] in Egypt built the store cities of [[Pithom]] and [[Raamses]] for Pharaoh. [[Evidently]] the name Raamses was not used in Egypt before 1300 B.C. If one of the store cities was named for a king by that name, the Exodus could not have happened before 1300 B.C. Thus some scholars believe the Exodus must have taken place after 1300 B.C. </p> <p> [[Another]] difficulty in dating these events is that although the term “pharaoh” is used over a hundred times in the first fifteen chapters of Exodus to refer to the king of Egypt, the title is always anonymous. No personal name of any individual pharaoh is used. The text does not indicate the identity of the pharaoh of the oppression nor the one of the Exodus. Old Testament scholars have generally agreed that the Exodus occurred either during the eighteenth (1570-1310 B.C.) or nineteenth (1310-1200 B.C.) dynasties. </p> <p> It has been the opinion of most scholars since the rise of modern [[Egyptology]] that the Exodus likely occurred during the reign of Ramses II in the nineteenth dynasty about 1270 B.C., although many Bible students attempt to date it in the earlier eighteenth dynasty about 1447 B.C. [[Several]] variations of these dates have been suggested, ranging all the way back to 2000 B.C. [[None]] of these attempts to redate the Exodus has gained widespread acceptance. Perhaps the best estimate of the date for the Exodus remains about 1270 B.C., but this is far from a proven fact. </p> <p> The Number Involved in the Exodus In our English Bibles Exodus 12:37 says, “And the children of Israel journeyed from [[Rameses]] to Succoth, about six hundred thousand on foot, that were men, besides children.” For a very long time and for various reasons some Bible scholars have asked: Should the number 600,000 be understood literally? It seems to be an excessively large number. Exodus 23:29-30 and Deuteronomy 7:22 suggest the number was so small that the people would be endangered by wild beasts. Many scholars believe the Hebrew word eleph, usually translated “thousand,” can also be translated “clan” or “fighting unit.” Perhaps this is the meaning in Exodus 12:17 . Assuming this, conservative scholars have estimated the number at between 6,000,72,000. We may not know the exact date, route, or number of people in the Exodus. But the significant thing is we know and believe that such an event happened and that we interpret it as a saving act of God. </p> <p> The Exodus was the work of God. It was also a historical event involving a superpower nation and an oppressed people. God acted redemptively in power, freedom, and love. When the kingdom of God did not come, the later prophets began to look for a second Exodus. That expectation was fulfilled spiritually in Christ's redemptive act. </p> <p> Ralph L. [[Smith]] </p>

== Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18582" /> ==

<p> Israel’s escape from slavery in [[Egypt]] is commonly known as the exodus (meaning ‘a going out’). The most likely date for the event is about 1280 BC, and the historical account of the event is given in the book of Exodus (see EXODUS, BOOK OF). </p> <p> Significance of the exodus </p> <p> The actual going out from Egypt was but one part of a series of events that gave the exodus its great significance in Israel’s history. It was preceded by God’s judgment on Egypt through a number of plagues (Exodus 1; Exodus 2; Exodus 3; Exodus 4; Exodus 5; Exodus 6; Exodus 7; Exodus 8; Exodus 9; Exodus 10; Exodus 11; see PLAGUE); it came about through the decisive judgment on [[Passover]] night and the subsequent crossing of the [[Red]] [[Sea]] (Exodus 12; Exodus 13; Exodus 14; Exodus 15; see PASSOVER; RED SEA); and it was followed by the covenant ceremony at Mt Sinai, where [[God]] formally established [[Israel]] as his people (Exodus 16; Exodus 17; Exodus 18; Exodus 19; Exodus 20; Exodus 21; Exodus 22; Exodus 23; Exodus 24; see COVENANT). After giving them his law, God directed them to the new homeland he had promised them in Canaan. </p> <p> [[Throughout]] the years that followed, [[Israelites]] looked back to the exodus as the decisive event in their history. This was not just because the exodus led to the establishment of Israel’s national independence, but more importantly because it showed them the sort of person their God was. [[Yahweh]] revealed his character, showing that he was a God who redeems (Deuteronomy 15:15; 2 Samuel 7:23; Nehemiah 1:8-10; Micah 6:4; cf. Exodus 6:6-8; Exodus 15:2; Exodus 15:13; see REDEMPTION). The exodus was a sign to the people of this Redeemer-God’s love (Deuteronomy 4:37; Deuteronomy 7:8; Hosea 11:1), power (Deuteronomy 9:26; 2 Kings 17:36; Psalms 81:10) and justice (Deuteronomy 6:21-22; Joshua 24:5-7). </p> <p> In demonstrating the character of God, the exodus gave assurance to God’s people that they could trust in him. At the same time it reminded them that he required them to be loyal, obedient and holy (Leviticus 11:45; Deuteronomy 4:37-40; Deuteronomy 5:6-7; Deuteronomy 7:7-11; cf. Hosea 11:1-4). </p> <p> The pattern repeated </p> <p> Even with the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] in 587 BC and the subsequent captivity in Babylon, God’s people never forgot his redeeming power. They looked for a ‘second exodus’ when he would again deliver them from bondage. They prayed that as he had first brought them out of Egypt and into the promised land, so he would now bring them out of [[Babylon]] and back to their homeland (Isaiah 43:1-7; Isaiah 43:14-21; Isaiah 48:20-21; Isaiah 49:25-26; Isaiah 51:9-11; Isaiah 52:11-12; Jeremiah 31:10-12; Micah 7:14-17). </p> <p> The exodus theme is prominent also in the New Testament. The word ‘exodus’ (RSV: ‘departure’) is used of Jesus’ death, by which he delivers people from the bondage of sin (Luke 9:31; cf. Colossians 1:13; Hebrews 2:14-15; see REDEMPTION). As the Passover lamb, he died in the place of those under judgment and so achieved redemption for them (1 Corinthians 5:7; 1 Peter 1:18-19; see PASSOVER). Those redeemed through [[Christ]] can therefore sing the song that the redeemed Israelites sang, but with new meaning (Revelation 15:2-4; cf. Exodus 15:1-21). They must also heed the lessons that the Israelites failed to learn in the wilderness years that followed their deliverance (1 Corinthians 10:1-11; Hebrews 3:7-19). </p>

<p> (1): (n.) The second of the Old Testament, which contains the narrative of the departure of the [[Israelites]] from Egypt. </p> <p> (2): (n.) A going out; particularly (the Exodus), the going out or journey of the Israelites from [[Egypt]] under the conduct of Moses; and hence, any large migration from a place. </p>

<p> (Gr. ῎Εξοδος, an exit; in the [[Hebrew]] canon וְאֵלֶּה שְׁמוֹת, ve-l'leh shemoth', its initial words, or simply שְׁמוֹת; in the [[Masora]] to [[Genesis]] 24:8 called נזיקין see Buxt. Lex. Talm. col. 1325; Vulig. Exodus), the second book of the law or Pentateuch, so called from the principal event recorded in it, namely, the departure of the [[Israelites]] from Egpyt. (See [[Exode]]). With this book begins the proper history of that people, continuing it until their arrival at Sinai, and the erection of the sanctuary there. </p> <p> I. Contents. — </p> <p> 1. [[Preparation]] for the [[Deliverance]] of [[Israel]] from their [[Bondage]] in Eyypt. — This first section (Exodus 1:50-12:36) contains an account of the following particulars: The great increase of Jacob's posterity in the land of Egypt, and their oppression under a new dynasty which occupied the throne after the death of [[Joseph]] (chapter 1); the birth, education, and flight of [[Moses]] (chapter 2); his solemn call to be the deliverer of his people (Exodus 3:1 to Exodus 4:17), and his return to [[Egypt]] in consequence (Exodus 4:18-31); his first ineffectual attempt to prevail upon Pharaoh, to let the Israelites go, which only resulted in an increase of their burdens (Exodus 5:1-21); a farther preparation of Moses and [[Aaron]] for their office, together ewith the account of their genealogies (Exodus 5:22 to Exodus 7:7); the successive signs and wonders, by means of which the deliverance of Israel from the land of hondage is at length accomplished, and the institution of the [[Passover]] (Exodus 7:8 to Exodus 12:36). </p> <p> 2. [[Narrative]] of Events from the [[Departure]] out of Egypt to the Arrival of the Israelites at Mount [[Sin]] ai.We have in this section </p> <p> (a.) the departure and (mentioned in connection with it) the injunctions then given respecting the Passover and the sanctification of the first- born (Exodus 12:37 to Exodus 13:16); the march to the [[Red]] Sea, the passage through it, and the destruction of [[Pharaoh]] and his host in the midst of the sea, together with Moses's song of triumph upon the occasion (Exodus 13:17 to Exodus 15:21); </p> <p> (b.) the principal events on the journey from the Red [[Sea]] to Sinai, the bitter waters at Marah, the giving of quails and of the manna, the observance of the Sabbath, the miraculous supply of water from the rock at Rephidim, and the battle there with the [[Amalekites]] (Exodus 15:22 to Exodus 17:16); the arrival of [[Jethro]] in the [[Israelitish]] camp, and his advice as to the civil government of the people (18). </p> <p> 3. The [[Solemn]] [[Establishment]] of the [[Theocracy]] on Mount Sinai. — The people are set apart to [[God]] as "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exodus 19:6); the ten commandments are given, and the laws which are to regulate the social life of the people are enacted (Exodus 21:1 to Exodus 23:19); an angel is promised as their guide to the [[Promised]] Land, and the covenant between God and Moses, [[Nadab]] and Abihu, and seventy elders, as the representatives of the people, is most solemnly ratified (Exodus 23:20 to Exodus 24:18); instructions are given respecting the tabernacle, the ark, the mercy-seat, the altar of burnt-offering, the separation of Aaron and his sons for the priest's office, the vestments which they are to wear, the ceremonies to be observed at their consecration, the altar of incense, the laver, the holy oil, the selection of [[Bezaleel]] and Ahmoliab for the work of the tabernacle, the observance of the [[Sabbath]] and the delivery of the two tables of the law into the hands of Moses (Exodus 25:1 to Exodus 31:18); the sin of the people in the matter of the golden calf, their rejection in consequence, and their restoration to God's favor at the intercession of Moses (Exodus 32:1 to Exodus 34:35); lastly, the construction of the tabernacle, and all pertaining to its service in accordance with the injunctions previously given (Exodus 35:1 to Exodus 40:38). </p> <p> This book, in shout, gives a sketch of the early history of Israel as a nation: and the history has three clearly marked stages. First we see a nation enslaved; next a nation redeemed; lastly a nation set apart, asnd, through the blending of its religious and political life, consecrated to the service of God. The close literarv connection between the books of Genesis and Exodus is clearly marked by the Hebrew conjunctive particle ו (vay), "and," with which the latter begins, and still more by the recapitulation of the name of Jacob's sons who accompanied him to Egypt, abridged from the fuller account in Genesis 46:8-17. Still the book of Exodus is not a continuation in strict chronological sequence of the preceding history; for a very considerable interval is passed over in silence, saving only the remark, "And the children of Israel were fruitful and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and eaxed exceedingly mighty; and the land was filled with them" (Exodus 1:7). The pretermission of all that, concerned Israel during this period and their intercourse with the Egyptians, instead of being an indication, as Rationalists allege, of the fragmentary character of the Pentateuch, only shows the sacred purpose of the history, and that, in the plan of the writer, considerations of a merely political interest were entirely subordinate to the divine intentions already partially unfolded in Genesis, and to be still farther developed in the course of the present narrative regarding the national constitution of the seed of Abraham. </p> <p> II. Unity. — According to Von Lengerke (Kenaan, 88, 90), the following portions of the book belong to the original or Elohistic document: Exodus 1:1-14; Exodus 2:23-25; Exodus 6:2 to Exodus 7:7; Exodus 12:1-28; Exodus 12:37-38; Exodus 12:40-51 (Exodus 13:1-2, perhaps); 16; Exodus 19:1; Exodus 20; Exodus 25-31; Exodus 35-40. Stihelin (Krit. Unterss.) and [[De]] Wette (Einleitung) agree in the main with this division. Knobel, the most recent writer on the subject, in the introduction to his commentary on Exodus and Leviticus, has sifted these books still muore carefully and with regard to many passages has formed a different judgment. He assigns to the Elohist: Exodus 1:1-7; Exodus 1:13-14; Exodus 2:23-25, front ויאנחו, Exodus 6:2 to Exodus 7:7; except Exodus 6:8; Exodus 7:8-13; Exodus 7:19-22; Exodus 8:1-3; Exodus 8:11 from ולא, and Exodus 8:12-15; Exodus 9:8-12; Exodus 9:35; Exodus 11:9-10; Exodus 12:1-23; Exodus 12:28; Exodus 12:37 a, Exodus 12:40-51; Exodus 13:1-2; Exodus 13:20; Exodus 14:1-4; Exodus 14:8-9; Exodus 14:15-18 (except מה תצעק אלי in Exodus 14:15, and מט ָונטה את in Exodus 14:16), Exodus 14:21-23, and Exodus 14:26-29 (except Exodus 14:27 from וישב ); Exodus 15:19; Exodus 15:22-23; Exodus 15:27; Exodus 16:1-2; Exodus 16:9-26; Exodus 16:31-36; Exodus 17:1; Exodus 19:2 a; Exodus 19:25 to Exodus 31:1; Exodus 31:12-17 in the main; Exo 35:50-40:38. </p> <p> A mere comparison of the two lists of passages selected by these different writers as belongiuug to the original document is sufficient to show how very uncertain all such critical processes must be. The first, that of Lengerke, is open to many objections, which have been arged by Havernick (Einleit. in der Pent. § 117), Ranke, and others. Thus, for instance, 6:6, which all agree in regarding as Elohistic, speaks of great judgments ( מַשְׁפָּטַים גְּדֹלַים in the plural), wherewith God would redeem Israel, and yet not a word is said of these in the so-called original document. Again, Exodus 12:12; Exodus 12:23; Exodus 12:27 contains the announcement of the destruction of the first-born of Egypt, but the fulfillment of the threat is to be found, according to the critics, only in the later Jehovistic additions. Hupfeld has tried to escape this difficulty by supposing that the original documents did contain an account of the slaying of the first-born, as the institution of the Passover in 12:12, etc., has clearly a reference to it: only he will not allow that the story as it now stands is that account. But even then the difficulty is only partially removed, for thus one judgment only is mentioned, not many (Exodus 6:6). Knobel has done his best to obviate this glaring inconsistency. [[Feeling]] no doubt that the ground taken by his predecessors was not tenable, he retains as a part of the originual work much which they had rejected. It is especially worthy of notice that he considers sonue at least of the miraculous portions of the story to belong to the older document, and so accounts for the expression in 6:6. The changing of Aaron's rod into a serpent, of the waters of the [[Nile]] into blood, the plague of frogs, of musquitoes (A.V. lice), and of boils, and the destruction of the first-born, are, according to Knobel, Elohistic. He points out what he considers here links of connection, and a regular sequence in the narrative. He bids us observe that [[Jehovah]] always addresses Moses, and that Moses directs Aaron howe to act. The miracles, then, are arranged in order of importance: first there is the sign which serves to accredit the mission of Aaron; next follow three plagues, which, however, do not touch men, sand these are sent through the instrumentality of Aaron; the fourth plague is a plague upon man, and here Moses takes the most prominent part; the fifth and last is accomplished by Jehovah himself. Thus the miracles increase in intensity as they go on. The agents likewise rise in dignity. If Aaron with his rod of might begins the work, he gives way afterwards to his greater brother, whilst for the last act of redemption Jehovah employs he human agency, but himself with a mighty hand and outstretched arm effects the deliverance of his people. The passages thus selected have no doubt a sort of connection, but it is in the highest degree arbitrary to conclude that because portions of a work may be omnitted without seriously disturbing the sense, these portions do not belong to the original Work, but must be regarded as subsequent embellishments and additions. </p> <p> Again, all agree in assigning chapters 3 and 4 to the Jehovist. The call of Moses, as there described, is said to be merely the Jehovistic parallel to Exodus 6:2 to Exodus 7:7. Yet it seems improbable that the [[Elohist]] should introduce Moses with the bare words, "And God spake to Moses" (Exodus 6:2), without a single word as to the previous history of so remarkable a man. So argues Havernick, and, as it appears to us, not without reason. It will be observed that none of these critics attempt to make the divine names a criterion whereby to distinguish the several documents. Thus, in the Jehovistic portion (Exodus 1:15-22), De Wette is obliged to remark, with a sort of uneasy candor, "but Exodus 1:17; Exodus 1:20, [[Elohim]] (?)," and again (Exodus 3:4; Exodus 3:6; Exodus 3:11-15), "here seven times Elohim." In other places there is the same difficulty as in Exodus 19:17; Exodus 19:19, which Stahelin, as well as Knobel, gives to the Jehovist. In the passages in chapters 7, 8, 9, which Knobel classes in the earlier record, the name Jehovah occurs throughout. It is obvious, then, that there must be other means of determining the relative antiquity of the different portions of the book, or the attempt to ascertain which are earlier and which are later must entirely fail. </p> <p> Accordingly, certain peculiarities of style are supposed to be characteristic of the two documents. Thus, for instance, De Wette (Einl. § 151, S. 183) appeals to פרה ורבה, Exodus 1:7; בעצ μ הי הזה Exodus 12:17; Exodus 12:41; ברית הסים, Exodus 6:4; the formula וירבר יי אל משה לאמר Exodus 25:1; Exodus 30:11, etc.; צבאות, Exodus 6:26; Exodus 7:4; Exodus 12:17; Exodus 12:41; Exodus 12:51; בין הערבים, Exodus 12:6; Exodus 29:41; Exodus 30:8, and other expressions, as decisive of the Elohist. Stahelin also proposes on very similar grounds to separate the first fr(om the second legislation. "Wherever," he says, "I find mention of a pillar of fire, or of a cloud (Exodus 33:9-10), or an 'angel of Jehovah,' as Exodus 23, 24, or the phrase 'flowing with milk and honey,' as Exodus 13:5; Exodus 33:3 ... where nmention is made of a coming down of God, as Exodus 34:5, or where the [[Canaanitish]] nations are numbered, or the tabernacle supposed to be without the camp (Exodus 33:7), I feel tolerably certain that I am reading the words of the author of the second legislation (i.e., the Jehovist)." But these nice critical distinctions are very precarious, especially in a stereoty-ped language like the Hebrew. </p> <p> Unfortunately, too, dogmatical prepossessions have been allowed some share in the controversy. De Wette and his school chose to set down everything which savored of a miracle as proof of later authorship. The love of the marvelous, which is all they see in the stories of miracles, according to them could not have existed in an earlier and simpler age. But on their oen hypothesis this is a very extraordinary view; for the earlier traditions of a people are not generally the least wonderful, but the reverse; and one cannot thus acquit the second eriter of a design in embellishing his narrative. However, this is not the place to argue with those who deny the possibility of a miracle, or who make the narration of miracles proof sufficient of later authorship. Into this error Knobel, it is true, has not fallen. By admitting some of the plagues into his Elohistic catalogue, he shows that he is at least free from the dogmatic prejudices of critics like De Wette. But his own critical tests are not conclusime. And the way in which he cuts verses to pieces, as in Exodus 8:11, and Exodus 13:15-16, where it suits his purpose, is so completely arbitrary, and results so evidently from the stern constraint of a theory, that his labors in this direction are not more satisfactory than those of his predecessors. </p> <p> On the whole, there seems mumch reason to doubt whether critical acumen will ever be able plausibly to distinguish between the original and the supplement in the book of Exodus. There is nothing indeed forced or improbable in the supposition either that Moses himself incorporated in his memoil a ancient tradition, whether oral or written, or that a writer later thant Moses made use of materials left by the great legislator in a somewhat fragmentary form. There is an occasional abruptness in the narrative, which suggests that this may possibly have been the case, as in the introduction of the genealogy, Exodus 6:13-27. The remarke in Exodus 11:3; Exodus 16:35-36, lead to the same conclusion. The apparent confusion at 11:1-3 may be explained by regarding these verses as parenthetical. Inasmuch, lowever, as there exists no definite proof or knowledge of any later editor, except it he Joshua or Ezra, to whom isolated and unimportant additions may be attributed, we are not warranted in attributing the book to any other author than Moses. (See [[Pentateuch]]). </p> <p> III. Credibility. — [[Almost]] every historical fact mentioned in Exodus has at some time or other been called in question; but it is certain that all investigation has hitherto only tended to establish the veracity of the narrator. A comparison with other writers and an examination of the monuments confirm, or at least do not contradict, the most material statements of this book. Thus, for instance, Manetho's story of the Hyksos, questionable as much of it is, and differently as it has been interpreted by different writers, points at least to some early connection between the Israelites and the Egyptians, and is corroborative of the fact implied in the [[Pentateuch]] that, at the time of the Israelitish sojourn, Egypt was ruled by a foreign dynasty. (See [[Egypt]]). [[Manetho]] speaks, too, of strangers from the East who occupied the eastern part of [[Lower]] Egypt; and his account shows that the Israelites had become a numerous and formidable people. According to Exodus 12:37, the number of men, besides women and children, who left Egypt was 600,000. This would give for the whole nation about two millions and a half. There is no doubt some difficulty in accounting for this immense increase, if we suppose (as on many accounts seems probable) that the actual residence of the children of Israel was only 215 years. We must remember, indeed, that the number who went into Egypt with [[Jacob]] was considerably more than "threescore and ten souls" (See [[Chronology]]); we must also take into account the extraordinary fruitfulness of Egypt (concerning which all writers are agreed — Strabo, 15:478; Aristot. Hist. Anim. 7:4; Pliny, H. N. 7:3; Seneca, Qu. Nat. 3:25, quoted by Halvernick), and especially of that part of it in which the Israelites dwelt; and, finally, we must take into the account the "mixed multitude" that accompanied the Israelites (Exodus 12:38). </p> <p> According to De Wette, the story of Moses's birth is mythical, and arises from an attempt to account etymologically for his name. But the beautiful simplicity of the narrative places it far above the stories of Romulus, Cyrus, and Semiramis, with which it has been compared (Knobel, page 14). As regards the etymology of the name, there can be very little doubt that it is [[Egyptian]] (from the Copt. mo, "water," and si, "to take"), and if so, the author has merely played upon the name. But this does not prove that the whole story is nothing but a myth. Philology as a science is of very modern growth, and the truth of history does not stand or fail with the explanation of etymologies. The same remark applies to De Wette's objection to the etymology in 2:22. </p> <p> Other objections are of a very arbitrary kind. Thus Knobel thinks the command to destroy the male children (1:15 sq.) extremely improbable, because the object of the king was not to destroy the people, but to make use of them as slaves. To require the midwives to act as the enemies of their own people, and to issue an injunction that every son born of Israelitish parents should be thrown into the Nile, was a piece of downright madness of which he thinks the king would not be guilty. But we do not know that the midwives were Hebrew; they may have been Egyptian; and kings, like other slave-owners, may act contrary to their interest in obedience to their fears or their passions; indeed, Knobel himself compares the story of king Bocchoris, who commanded all the unclean in his land to be cast into the sea (Lysim. ap. Josephus, c. Apion. 1:34), and the destruction of the Spartan helots (Plutarch, Lycnrg. 28). He objects further that it is not easy to reconcile such a command with the number of the Israelites at their exode. But we suppose that in very many instances the command of the king would be evaded, and probably it did not long continue in force. </p> <p> Again, De Wette objects to the call of Moses that he could not have thus formed the resolve to become the savior of his people, which, as Havernick justly remarks, is a dogmatical, not a critical decision. </p> <p> It has been alleged that the place, according to the original narrative, where God first appeared to Mosi was Egypt, God making himself known as Jehovah, that being the first intimation of the name (Exodus 6:2). [[Another]] account, it is further alleged, places the scene at [[Horeb]] (Exodus 3:2), God appearing as the God of the patriarchs (Exodus 3:6), and declaring his name Jehovah (Exodus 3:14); while a third makes [[Midian]] the scene of the interview (Exodus 4:19). These assumptions require no refutation. It need only be remarked that the name Jehovah in Exodus 6:2 necessarily presupposes the explanation given of it in Exodus 3:14. Further, Moses's abode in Midian, and connection with Jethro, were matters, Knobel affirms, quite unknown to the older writer, while his statement that Moses was eighty years old when he appeared before Pharaoh (Exodus 7:7), is declared irreconcilable with the supplementary narrative which represents him as a young man at the time of his flight from Egypt (Exodus 2:11), and a son by Zipporah, whom he married probably on his arrival in Midian, is still young when he returned to Egypt (Exodus 4:20; Exodus 4:25; Exodus 18:2). There can be no question that from Moses' leaving Egypt till his return thither a considerable time elapsed. It is stated in Exodus 2:23 as "many days," and by [[Stephen]] (Acts 7:30) as forty years. But it is not necessary to suppose that his abode in Midian extended over the whole, of that period. The expression וִיֵּשֶׁב, "he sat down," or settled (Exodus 2:15), may only point to Midian as the end of his wanderings; or if otherwise, his marriage need not have followed immediately on his arrival, or there may have been a considerable interval between the birth of his two sons. The silence, indeed, of this part of the narrative regarding the birth of the second son may possibly be referrible to this circumstance, more probably indicated, however, by the different feelings of the father as expressed in the names [[Gershom]] and [[Eliezer]] (Exodus 2:22; Exodus 18:4). The order of these names is perplexing to expositors who conceive that the first thoughts of the fugitive would have been thankfulness for his safety, and that only afterwards would spring up the feelings of exile. But if the name Eliezer was bestowed in connection with the preparation to return to Egypt, and particularly with the intimation "all the men are dead which sought thy life" (Exodus 4:19), the whole is strikingly consistent. Another instance of the alleged discrepancies is that, according to one account, Moses' reception from his brethren was very discouraging (Exodus 6:9), whereas the other narrative describes it as quite the reverse (Exodus 4:31). De Wette calls this a striking contradiction, but it is only such when the intermediate section (Exodus 5:19-23), which shows the change that in the interval had occurred in the prospects of the Israelites, is violently ejected from the narrative — a process fitted to produce contradictions in any composition. (See [[Moses]]). </p> <p> The only alleged anachronism of importance in this book is the remark relative to the continuance of the manna (Exodus 16:35), which would seem to extend it beyond the time of Moses, particularly when compared with Joshua 5:11-12, according to which the manna ceased not until after the passage of the Jordan. But, as remarked by Hengstenberg, it is not of the cessation of the manna that the historian here writes, but of its continuance. Besides, "forty years" must be taken as a round number, for the manna, strictly speaking, lasted about one month less (Exodus 16:1). (See [[Manna]]). </p> <p> The ten plagues are physically, many of them, what might be expected in Egypt, although in their intensity and in their rapid succession they are clearly supernatural. Even the order in which they occur is an order in which physical causes are allowed to operate. The corruption of the river is followed by the plague of frogs. From the dead frogs are bred the gnats and flies; from these came the murrain among the cattle land the bolls on men; and so on. Most of the plagues, indeed, though of course in a much less aggravated form, and without such succession, are actually experienced at this day in Egypt. Of the plague of locusts it is expressly remarked that "before them were no such locusts, neither after them shall be such." And all travelers in Egypt have observed swarms of locusts, brought generally by a southwest wind (Denon, however, mentions their coming with an east wind), end in the winter or spring of the year. This last fact agrees also with our narrative. Lepsius speaks of being in a "regular snow-drift of locusts," which came from the desert in hundreds of thousands to the valley. "At the edge of the fruitful plain," he says, "they fell down in showers." This continued for six days, indeed in weaker flights much uonger. He also saw hail in Egypt. In January, 1843, he and his party were surprised by a storm. "Suddenly," he writes, "the storm grew to a tremendous hurricane, such as I have never seen in Europe, and hail fell upon us in such masses as almost to turn day into night." He notices, too, an extraordinary cattle murrain "which carried off 40,000 head of cattle" (Letters from AEgypt, Eng. transl. pages 49, 27, 14). (See [[Plagues]] (Of Egypt).) </p> <p> The institution of the Passover (chapter 12) has been subjected to severe criticism. This has also been called a mythic fiction. The alleged circumstances are not historical, it is said, but arise out of a later attempt to explain the origin of the cememony and to refer it to the time of Moses. The critics rest mainly on the difference between the directions given for the observance of this the first, and those given for subsequent passovers. But there is no reason why, considering the very remarkable circumstances under which it was instituted, the first Passover should not have had its own peculiar solemnities, or why instructions should not then have been given for a somewhat different observance for the future. (See [[Passover]]). </p> <p> In minor details the writer shows a remarkable acquaintance with Egypt. Thus, for instance, Pharaoh's daughter goes to the river to bathe. At the present day, it is true that only women of the lower orders bathe in the river. But [[Herodotus]] (2:35) tells us (what we learn also from the monuments) that in ancient Egypt the women were under no restraint, but apparently lived more in public than the men. To this must be added that the [[Egyptians]] supposed a sovereign virtue to exist in the Nile waters. The writer spaks of chariots and "chosen chariots" (Exodus 14:7) as constituting an important element in the Egyptian army, and of the king as leading in person. The monuments amply confirm this representation. The Pharaohs lead their armies to battle, and the armies consist entirely of infantry and chariots. (See [[Chariot]]). </p> <p> As the events of this history are laid in Egypt and Arabia, we have ample opportunity of testing the accuracv of the Mosaical accounts, and surely we find nowhere the least transgression against Egyptian institutions and customs; on the contrary, it is most evident that the author had a thorough knowledge of the Egyptian institutions and of the spirit that pervaded them. Exodus contains a mass of incidents and detailed descriptions which have gained new force from the modern discoveries and researches in the field of Egyptian antiquities (comp. Hengstenberg, [[Die]] Bucher Mosis und AEgypten, Berlin, 1841). The description of the passage of the Israelites through the desert also evinces such a thorough familiarity with the localities as to excite the utmost respect of scrupulous and salentific travelers of our own time for the authenticity of the Pentateuch (comp. ex. gr. Raumer, Der [[Zug]] der Israeliten aus Egypten nach Canaan, Leipz. 1837). </p> <p> The arrangements of the tabernacle, described in the second part of Exodus, likewise throw a favorable light on the historical authenticity of the preceding events; and the least tenable of all the objections against it are, that the architectural arrangements of the tabernacle were too artificial, and the materialas and richness too costly and precious for the condition and position of the [[Jews]] at that early period, etc. But the critics seem to have overlooked the fact that the Israelites of that period were a people who had come out from Egypt, a people possessing wealth, Egyptian culture and arts, which we admire even nmow, in the works which have descended to us from ancient Egypt; so that it cannot seem strange to see the Hebrews in possession of the materials or artistic knowledge requisite for the construction of the tabernacle. Moreover, the establishment of a tent as a sanctuary for the Hebrews can only be explained from their abode in the desert, being in perfect unison with their then roving and nomadic life; and it is therefore a decided mistake in those critics who give to the sacred tent a later date than the Mosaical; while other critics (such as De Wette, Von Bohlen, Vatke) proceed much more consistently with their views by considering the narrative of the construction of a sacred tabernacle to be a mere fiction in Exodus, introduced for the purpose of ascribing to the [[Temple]] of [[Solomon]] a higher antiquity and authority. However, independently of the circumstance that the Temple necessarily presupposes the existence of a far older analogous sanctuary, the whole process of such a forced hypothesis is but calculated to strike out a portion from the [[Jewish]] history on purely arbitrary grounds. </p> <p> The extremely simple and sober style and views throughout the whole narrative afford a sure guarantee for its authenticity and originality. Not a vestige of a poetical hand can b e discovered in Exodus 18; not even the most sceptical critics can deny that we tread here on purely historical ground. The same may fairly be maintained of chapter 20-23. How is it then possible that one and the same book should contain so strange a mixture of truth and fiction as its opponeemts assert to be found in it? The most striking proofs against such an assumption are, in particular, the accounts, such as in Exodus 32 sq., where the most vehement complaints are made against the Israelites, where the high-priest of the covenant- people participates most shamefully in the idolatry of his people. All these incidents are described in plaen and clear terms, without the least vestige of later embellishmemets and false extolling of former ages. The Pentatemmch, some critics assert, is written for the interest and in favor of the hierarchy; but can there be more anti-hierarchical details than are founed in that book? The whole representation indicates the strictest impartiality and truth. </p> <p> IV. The authorship and date of the book will be discussed under PENTATEUCH. </p> <p> V. (Commentaries, etc. — The following is a list of exegetical helps on the whole book, the most important being designated by an asterisk (*) prefixed: Origen, Commentarii (in Opp. 2:110); Selecta (ib. 2:121); also Homiliae (ib. 2:129); Ephraem Syrus, Explanatio (in his Opp. 4:194); Isidore, Commentaria (in his Opp.); Theodoret, Questiones (in his Opp. I, 1); [[Hugo]] a St. Victoire, Adnotationes (in his Opp. 1); Aben-Esra, Commentar. (Prague, 1840, 8vo); Bede, Explanatio (in his Opp. 4); Quastiones (ib. 8); Rupert, In Exodus (in his Opp. 1:150); Zuingle, Adnotationes (Tigurini, 1527); Brent, Commentatio (in his Opp. 1); Ziegler, Commentarii (Basil. 1540, fol.); Phrygio, Commentarius (Tub. 1543, 4to); Lippoman, Catena (Par. 1550; Leyd. 1657, fol.); Chytraeus, Enarrationes (Vitemb. 1556, 1563, 1579, 8vo); Galasius, Commentarias (Genev. 1560, fol.); Strigel, Commentarius (Lips. 1566, 1572; Brem. 1585, 8vo); Simler, Commentarius (Tigur. 1584, 1605, fol.); Ystella, Commentaria (Romans 1601, fol.); Pererius, Disputationes (Ingolst. 1601, 4to); *Mechilthea, Commentarius (in Ugolini Thesaurus, 14); Willet, Commentarie (London, 1608, 1622, 2 vols. fol.); Rung, Praelectiones (Vitemb. 1614, 8vgo); Babington, Notes (in Works, page 165); Reuter, Commentarius (Francf. 1616, 4to); *Rivetus, Commentarii (L.B. 1634, 4to); Jackson, [[Paraphrase]] (in Works, 9:384); De la Havy, Commentarii (Paris 1639, 1641, 2 volumes fol.); Lightfoot, Gleanings (Lond. 1643, 4to); Sylvius, Commentarius (Duac. 1644, 4to); Cartwright, Adnotationes (Lond. 1653, 8vo); Calixtus, Exposatio (Helmst. 1641, 1654, 4to); Cocceius, Observationes (in his Opp. 1:136); Hughes, [[Exposition]] (Lond. 1672, fol.); *Patrick, [[Commentary]] (Lond. 1697, 4to); Hagemann, Betrachtungen (Brunsw. 1738, 4to); Torellis, Animadversiones (Lips. 1746, 4to); Haitsma, Commentarii (Franc. 1771, 4to); Hopkins, Notes (London, 1784, 4to); *St. Cruce, Hermentia (Heidelb. 1787, 4to); *Horsley, Notes (in Bib. Criticism, 1:47); Cockburn, Credibility, etc. (Lond. 1809,8vo); *Rosenmuller, [[Scholia]] (Lips: 1822, 8vo); Newnham, [[Illustrations]] (Lond. n. d. 8vo); Vizard, Commentary (London, 1838, l2mo); Buddicom, Exodus (2d ed. Liverp. 1839, 2 volumes, 12mo); Trower, Sermone (Lond. 1843, 8vo); Kitto, [[Illustration]] (Daily [[Bible]] Illust. 2); *Bush, Notes (N.Y. 1852, 2 volumes, 12mo); Cumming, Readings (Lond. 1853, 8vo); *Kalisch, Commentary (London, 1855, 8vo); Osburn, Israel in Egypt (London, 1856, 12mo); *Knobel, Erkurung (Lpz. 1857, 8vo); Howard, Notes (Cambr. 1857, 8vo); *Keil and Delitzsch, Comment. (from their Bibelwerk, Edinb. 1861, 8vo); *Lanae, Comment. (in his Bibelwerk, 2, Lpz. 1864, 8vo); *Murphy, Comment. (Edinb. 1866, Andov. 1868, 8vo). (See [[Old Testament]]). </p>

<ref name="term_18582"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/bridgeway-bible-dictionary/exodus Exodus from Bridgeway Bible Dictionary]</ref>