Difference between revisions of "Synagogue"

<p> <b> 1. The name. </b> -The name ‘synagogue’ (συναγωγή, Aram. כְּנִישְׁהָּא, Heb. כְּנָסֶת, ‘assembly,’ like ἐκκλησία, Septuagintfor either עֵדִה or קָהָל, ‘congregation’) denotes primarily the religious community of [[Jews]] (Sirach 24:23, Luke 12:11, Acts 9:2; Acts 26:11; also used by the Judaeo-Christians [Epiphan. Haer. xxx. 18; Harnack, ad [[Hermas]] Mand. xi. 9]) but became afterwards the regular term for the [[Jewish]] place of worship. Aram. בֵּכְּנִישְׁתָּא (see E. Levy, Neuhebr. und chald. Wörterbuch über die Talmud-im und Midraschim, Leipzig, 1876-89, s.v.) = Heb. בֵּית חַכְּנֶסֶת, ‘the house of the congregation’ (Mishna throughout); so Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 458; Jos. Ant. XIX. vi. 3, Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xiv. 4-5, VII. iii. 3; Cod. Theodos. xvi. 8. Often προσευχή is used for οἶκος προσευχῆς, ‘house of prayer’ (Septuagintto Isaiah 56:7; Isaiah 60:7; Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 523, 535, 568, 596, 600; Jos. Vita, 54; Acts 16:13), for προσευκτήριον (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168), and for σαββατεῖον = ‘Sabbath place’ in an edict of [[Augustus]] (Jos. Ant. XVI. vi. 2). Through the [[Pauline]] writings ἐκκλησία (Fr. église) became the exclusive name for the [[Christian]] Church in the double sense of congregation and house of worship (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.3 [Leipzig, 1898] 433, 443; but cf. F. Spitta, [[Zur]] Geschichte und Litteratur des Urchristentums, ii. [Göttingen, 1896] 343). </p> <p> <b> 2. Origin. </b> -Like the beginnings of all great movements in history, the origin of the institution is wrapped in obscurity. The ancients ascribed it to [[Moses]] (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168; Jos. c. Apion. ii. 17; Acts 15:21, Targ.[Note: Targum.]Exodus 18:20; cf. Targ.[Note: Targum.]Judges 5:2, 1 Chronicles 16:39, Isaiah 1:13, Amos 5:12). But the [[Mosaic]] system of sacrifices had no provision made for regular prayers; and so the identification of ‘the house of the people’ (Jeremiah 39:8 [see [[Rashi]] and Ḳimḥi]) with the synagogue is without foundation. The synagogue is a new creation for which the [[Exile]] alone offered the conditions (see Wellhausen, Isr. und jüd. Gesch.6, pp. 149, 194). As the prescribed sacrifices could not be offered on foreign soil, which was regarded as ‘unclean’ (Amos 7:17, Ezekiel 4:13), another organized form of worship became an imperative necessity. In place of the priesthood, whose exclusive domain was the [[Temple]] with its sacrificial cult, a new class of men in the Exile voiced the needs of the people, accentuating the significance of prayer and song as the more spiritual elements of the [[Divine]] service, and at the same time appealed to the people, like the prophets of old, by words of warning and consolation, offering public instruction through the Word of God, whether spoken or read. Such a class of men were the ’anâvîm, ‘the meek ones,’ ḥasîdîm, ‘the godly ones,’ or kedôshîm, ‘the holy ones,’ of the Psalms; they had devotional assemblies of their own (Psalms 1:5; Psalms 26:12; Psalms 89:7; Psalms 107:32; Psalms 111:1; Psalms 149:1). To them, in fact, the Psalm literature owes in the main its origin, and they coined the language of prayer (see I. Lceb, La Littérature des pauvres dans la Bible, Paris, 1892); hence the abundance of prayers in the post-Exilic literature (1 Chronicles 17:16-27; 1 Chronicles 29:10-19, 2 Chronicles 6:14-42; 2 Chronicles 14:11; 2 Chronicles 20:6-12, Ezra 9:6-15, Nehemiah 9:6-38, Daniel 2:20-23; Daniel 9:4-19, also Isaiah 36:15-20), not to mention the apocryphal books such as the Maccabees, Enoch, Judith, etc. Music and song likewise occupy a prominent place in the Chronicles and the Psalms, while they are ignored in the Priestly Code. The very fact that the Exilic seer speaks of ‘an house of prayer for all peoples’ (Isaiah 56:7; cf. Septuagintto Isaiah 60:7) indicates the existence of places for devotional assemblies of the people in the Exile. King Solomon’s dedication prayer, which was composed in the Exile (1 Kings 8:46 ff.), also shows that the exiled Jews prayed ‘in the land of the enemy’ with their faces turned towards Jerusalem, exactly as did Daniel (Daniel 6:10). Such devotional assemblies were held on the banks of rivers (Psalms 137:1; cf. Ezekiel 1:3, Daniel 8:2), the Sabbath, which assumed a higher meaning in the Exile (see Wellhausen, loc. cit.), as well as the feast and fast days offering the incentives to the same (Isaiah 58:4; Isaiah 58:13, Zechariah 7:5; cf. 2 Kings 4:23). To such assemblies the writings of Deutero-Isaiah were in all likelihood addressed (cf. L. Herzfeld, Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Leipzig, 1871, i. 132); and the composition of the prophetical books in their present shape, with the message of comfort at the end of each portion or book, if not also that of the [[Pentateuch]] (cf., for instance, Leviticus 27:34 as the conclusion of the [[Holiness]] Code), seems to have been made with such devotional assemblies in view. Whether the new religious spirit which emanated from [[Persia]] under [[Cyrus]] exerted a re-awakening influence on Judaism, as E. Meyer (Geschichte des Alterthums, Stuttgart, 1884-1901, iii. 122-200) asserts, or not, it is certain that Parsiism had a large share in the shaping of the synagogal liturgy, as pointed out by Graetz (Geschichte der Juden, ii. [1876] 409-418, note 14) and J. H. Schorr (He-Ḥâlûẓ, vii. [1865], viii. [1869]). </p> <p> <b> 3. History. </b> -The words of Ezekiel 11:16 (see Targ.[Note: Targum.]Meg. 29a), ‘To [[Israel]] scattered among the nations I shall be a little sanctuary,’ were actually verified through the synagogue, as Bacher (see article‘Synagogue’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the [[Bible]] (5 vols)) states. It is noteworthy that the synagogue at Shâf Yâthîb near Nahardea in [[Babylonia]] was in the 2nd cent. taken to be the work of King Jehoiachin, who was said to have had the stones and the earth brought from Jerusalem; and it was claimed to be the seat of the [[Shekinah]] like the Temple of yore, the statue erected there (against the Jewish Law) being probably a [[Persian]] symbol of the Divine [[Presence]] (Meg. 29a; Rôsh hash. 24b; Kohler, MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxviii. [1893] 442). The claim of being the seat of the Shekinah was also raised for another old synagogue at Hûzâl (Meg. 29a). Another one was ascribed to Daniel (‛Erûb. 21a). </p> <p> The earliest testimony for the existence of the synagogue in [[Palestine]] is found in Psalms 74:6 : ‘They have burned up all the synagogues of God in the land’ (so [[Symmachus]] and [[Aquila]] for מֹוֹעֲדַי־אַל). Most commentators refer the psalm to the Maccabaean time, though it seems strange that the destruction of the synagogues should not have been mentioned in the Maccabaean books. H. L. Strack (PRE[Note: RE Realencyklopädie für protestantische Theologie und Kirche.]3 xix. 224) refers the psalm to the war of [[Artaxerxes]] Ochus (359-333 b.c.). Wellhausen (loc. cit.) thinks that the synagogue took the place of the ancient bâmôth (‘high places’)-a view which seems to be confirmed by Targ.[Note: Targum.]on 1 Chronicles 16:39 and 1 [[Maccabees]] 3:46; cf. Ḳimḥi on Judges 20:1. Possibly the rule to have the synagogue in the heights of the city (Tôs. Meg. iv. 23; cf. Tanḥ. Beḥuḳḳothai, ed. S. Buber, Wilna, 1885, p. 4; Shabb. 11a; Epiphan. Haer. lxxx. 1) has some connexion with this ancient practice. On the other hand, the site of the synagogue was, on account of the necessary ablutions, preferably chosen near some flowing water or at the seaside, as is shown by the [[Halicarnassus]] decree (Jos. Ant. XIV. x. 23: ‘They may make their proseuches at the seaside, following the customs of their fathers’; cf. Acts 16:13). Hence also the interpretation of ‘the well in the field’ (Genesis 29:2), that is the synagogue (Ber. R. lxx. 8). Owing to this, the synagogue was frequently outside the city (Ḳid. 73b, Shab. 24b, Rashi; Tanḥ. Ḥayç Sârâh, ed. Buber, p. 7; Ṭûr. Ô. Ḥ. 236; cf. Mekilta Bô, 1; Shemôṭh R. on Exodus 9:29; Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 298). There being no special provision made for a synagogue within the Temple, the Hall of the [[Hewn]] Stones was used for the daily prayer (Tâmîd iv-v), but [[Rabbi]] Joshua of the 1st cent. (Tôs. Suk. iv. 5) speaks of a synagogue and a school-house on the Temple hill near by. The term מְלֵאֲתִי (= 481, being the numerical value of the letters) in Isaiah 1:21 causes the Haggâdist to speak of 480 synagogues which [[Jerusalem]] had besides the Temple (Jer. Meg. 73d, Keth B. 35c, ‛Çkâh R. Introd. 12; Babl. Keth. has erroneously 394). It is certain that the number was quite large, as may be seen from Acts 6:9 (cf. 2:5-11), according to which each settlement of foreign Jews had a synagogue of its own-Alexandrians (cf. Tôs. Meg. iii. 6, iv. 13), Cyrenians, Cilicians, and Asiatics. [[Epiphanius]] (de Mensuris, 14) speaks of seven on Zion. [[Josephus]] (Vita, 54) mentions the Great [[Synagogue]] at Tiberias, where during the [[Roman]] war political meetings took place (see also ‛Çrûb. x. 10). In the 5th cent. [[Tiberias]] had thirteen synagogues (Ber. 8a), one in the village of Tiberias (Pesîḳ. R. 196b). The synagogue at Caesarea, where the revolt against Rome was started (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xiv. 4-5), continued its existence under the name of the synagogue of the revolution to the 4th cent. (Jer. Bik. iii. 65d), and was probably the one in which Rabbi [[Abbahu]] had his frequent disputes with the Church [[Fathers]] (H. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden, iv.3 [1893] 288). The [[Gospels]] mention the synagogues of [[Capernaum]] (Mark 1:21 and ||s) and [[Nazareth]] (Luke 4:16 and ||) wherein Jesus taught. The former was built for the Jews by the Roman centurion, a proselyte (Luke 7:5-6). About the interesting ruins discovered in recent times of many synagogues in [[Galilee]] from the 1st and 2nd centuries, possibly even that of Capernaum, see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 [1901] 517, note 59. At Sepphoris, the seat of the academy of Rabbi Judah, the prince, of the 2nd cent., one synagogue was called ‘the great Synagogue’ (Pesîḳ. 136b); another one, probably after an engraved symbol, ‘the Synagogue of the Vine’ (Jer. Nâzîr, vii. 56a). The wealth spent on the synagogue at [[Lydda]] gave the Rabbis cause for complaint (Jer. Shekâlîm, v. 49b). As [[Philo]] (ed. Mangey, ii. 168) says, each city inhabited by Jews had its synagogue ‘for instruction in virtue and piety’ (cf. Tôs. B.M. xi. 23 and Sanh. 17b). </p> <p> The oldest synagogue on record is that built in [[Alexandria]] under [[Ptolemy]] III. (247-221 b.c.) and dedicated to him and his sister [[Berenice]] according to the inscription discovered in 1902 (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4, 497, iii.4 [1909] 41). The large Jewish population had many synagogues in the different quarters of the city (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 568), the largest and most famous of which was the one built in the shape of a basilica and described in glowing colours (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Jer. Suk. v. 55a, Babl. Suk. 51a); it was totally destroyed under [[Trajan]] (Graetz, Gesch. der Juden, iv.3 117). The legendary narrative 3 Maccabees 7:17-20 tells of the founding of a synagogue at [[Ptolemais]] in Southern [[Egypt]] under Ptolemy IV. In [[Syria]] the most famous was the Great Synagogue at Antioch, to which the brazen vessels carried off from the Temple at Jerusalem by [[Antiochus]] [[Epiphanes]] were presented by his successors (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)VII. iii. 3). [[Damascus]] also had a number of synagogues; in these Paul the [[Apostle]] preached (Acts 9:2-20). Throughout Asia Minor, Macedonia, [[Greece]] and its islands, in cities such as Ephesus, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth, the synagogues, being the gathering-places for Jews and ‘God-fearing’ half-proselytes (Acts 13:16; Acts 13:26; Acts 13:43; Acts 17:17), offered a sphere of activity to St. Paul and his fellow-workers (Acts 13:5; Acts 13:14; Acts 14:1; Acts 16:13; Acts 17:1; Acts 17:10; Acts 17:17; Acts 18:4; Acts 18:7). In Rome there were quite a number of synagogues at the time of Augustus (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 569), and the inscriptions discovered in recent times mention nine different ones named either after persons, such as Augustus, Agrippa, and Volumnus, or after places, such as Campus (Martius) and the Subura, or after the language of the members, Hebraic or the vernacular, one after the trade ‘lime burners,’ and another after an engraved symbol ‘the Synagogue of the [[Olive]] Tree.’ A synagogue of [[Severus]] is mentioned in Ber. R. ix. 5 quoted by Ḳimḥi on [[Genesis]] 1:3 (Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]iii.4, 83g). On disputes held there by Palestinian masters with Romans and [[Christians]] under [[Domitian]] see H. Vogelstein and P. Rieger, Geschichte der Juden in Rom, i. [Berlin, 1896] 29. </p> <p> <b> 4. Form and furniture of the synagogue. </b> -Like the [[Alexandrian]] Great Synagogue and the Hall of Hewn Stones in the Temple (Yômâ, 25a), the synagogue at Tiberias had the form of a basilica with a double row of pillars (Midr. Tehillîm on Psalms 93 [end]). As to the style of the synagogue, as shown by the ruins in Galilee see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 446; their orientation, however, does not conform to the rule that they should be directed towards the East, corresponding with the tabernacle (Numbers 3:38). However, the same was also the rule for the Church (Apost. Const. ii. 57, 3, 14; cf. Tylor, PC[Note: C Primitive [[Culture]] (E. B. Tylor).]3, London, 1891, ii. 426 ff.). </p> <p> The chief furniture was the תֵּבָה, ‘ark’ (Meg. iii. 1, Ta‛an. ii. 1), in which the scrolls were kept covered with cloth or put in a case, over which was spread a baldachin (kilah) or curtain (pârôketh, Exodus 26:31; Jer. Meg. 73d, 75b). It was placed near the upper end of the synagogue, and in front of it stood the ‘delegate of the congregation,’ who offered the prayer (Ber. v. 3, 4 and elsewhere). In the centre was the bçmâh (= βῆμα, ‘platform’) made of wood (Sôṭâ, vii. 8; Suk. 51b; cf. Nehemiah 8:4 Authorized Version, ‘the pulpit of wood’), called in more modern times almemar, the Muhammadan al-minbar (Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. ‘Almemar’); upon it stood or sat in a chair called ‘the seat of Moses’ (Matthew 23:2; cf. article‘China’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 37a) those who read from the scroll of the Law or other sacred books, which were placed upon the lectern, called after the Greek ἀναλογεῖον (see Levy, Wörterbuch, s.vv. אנלנין and בּימה), or the tablets. There were also chairs set for the elders and the scribes (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Matthew 23:6 and ||). For the candelabra (menôrâh) see Tôs. Meg. iii. 3, Jer. Meg. 74a. </p> <p> <b> 5. [[Organization]] of the synagogue. </b> -The members of a religious community having a synagogue for its centre-and there were, as shown above, often many in the larger cities-were called bene hakkeneseth, ‘sons of the synagogue’ (Meg. ii. 5, iii. 1). The number required for the formation of a synagogue community was ten (Bekôr. v. 5, Zâbîm, iii. 2, Tôs. Meg. iv. 3, Sanh. i. 6). At the head was a ruler, rôsh hak-keneseth (Yômâ, vii. 1, Sôṭâ, vii. 7) = ἀρχισυνάγωγος (Mark 5:22, Luke 13:14, Acts 13:15; cf. Luke 8:41), whose function was to maintain order in the synagogue and to decide who should conduct the service. The subaltern officer, who had to carry out the orders of the former, assisting him in keeping order, hand the sacred scroll to the reader and return it to its place (Sôṭâ, vii. 7, Luke 4:20), take charge of the palm branches of the Sukkôth feast (Suk. iv. 4), and give the signal for the service (Tôs. Suk. iv. 6, Sifrç Nu 39) and for the suspension from work on [[Sabbath]] and Holy-day [[Eve]] (Tôs. Suk. iv. 12), was called ḥazzan hak-keneseth = ὑπηρέτης (Epiph. Haer. xxx. 11). He also assisted in the instruction of the school children by showing the passage that was to be read (Shab. 13) and acted as lictor of the synagogue court in scourging offenders (Mak. iii. 12, Tôs. Mak. v. 12). In the course of time, however, he rose in rank while officiating in smaller congregations as leader in prayer and as instructor (Jer. Yeb. xii. 13a, Jer. Ber. ix. 12, Bablî Meg. 23h, Mas. Sôferîm x. 8, xiv. 1; Pirḳç de R.E. xii. [end]). For the various functions of the service itself no permanent official existed in the ancient time, and he who was to lead in prayer was selected by the congregation-mostly through its ruler-as the representative, or ‘the delegate of the community,’ shelîaḥ zîbbûr, and upon being invited in the usual formula-at least in the Talmudic period-‘Come and bring for us the offering,’ he stepped in front of the ark to offer the prayer (Ber. v. 3-5, Jer. Ber. iv. 8b). In Mishnaic times it seems that the functions of reciting the Shemâ’ (the proclamation of the Unity of God, Deuteronomy 6:4-9, and its corollaries Deuteronomy 11:13-21 and Numbers 15:37-41), with its accompanying benedictions, of reading from the Prophets, and of offering the Priestly Blessing at the close of the service were all preferably assigned to one person (Meg. iv. 5); but this was by no means the case originally (see below). For the reading from the Pentateuch different members of the congregation were called up, on Sabbath seven, on the Day of [[Atonement]] six, on festival days five, on New [[Moon]] and semi-festivals four, and on the second and fifth weekdays and Sabbath afternoons three (Meg. iv. 1-2), and as a rule [[Aaronites]] first and [[Levites]] afterwards (Giṭṭîn, v. 5). The one who was to translate the text into the vernacular (Aramaic), called metûrgemân (Meg. iv. 4), was, however, permanently engaged. The more learned men of the congregation, and especially learned guests, were as a rule invited to read the last portion and some portion from the Prophets, which they afterwards expounded in a sermon. This prophetic portion was called in [[Aramaic]] aphṭartâ (Heb. haphthârâh-word of dismissal; whence the name of the last reader, maphṭîr [see Levy, Wörterbuch, s.v. אפטרתא], Tanḥ. Terûmâh, 1; Luke 4:16 f.). </p> <p> It was principally on Sabbath and festival days, when the people were at leisure, that the service was well attended, and accordingly the weekly lesson from the [[Torah]] was read in full (cf. Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 282, 630, 458); wherefore the synagogue was called the ‘Sabbath place’ par excellence (Jos. Ant. XVI. vi. 2; cf. Bacher’s quotation from Payne Smith, article‘Synagogue,’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols)iv. 636b). On Monday and Thursday the villagers coming to the cities for the court or the market attended the synagogue in sufficient numbers to have a portion of the Torah read (Tôs. Ta‛an. ii. 4). On week days only larger cities had the required ‘ten men of leisure’ (baṭlânîm || Meg. i. 3, Sanh. 17b; see Jewish Encyclopedia, article‘Baṭlanim’) for the daily service; later it became a fixed custom to engage ‘ten men of leisure’ for the holding of the daily service where the attendance was too small. </p> <p> <b> 6. The service: its elements and its development. </b> -The Divine service assumed at the very outset a two-fold character: it was to offer common devotion and public instruction. But the devotional part, again, consisted at the very beginning, as far as we can trace it, of two elements: (a) the confession of faith, (b) the real prayer (tefillâh). </p> <p> (a) The confession of faith, termed in the [[Mishna]] ‘the acceptance of the yoke of sovereignty of God,’ Ḳabbâlath ‛ôl Malkût Shâmayim (Ber. ii. 2), by the recital of the Shema‛ (Deuteronomy 6:4-9; Deuteronomy 11:13; Deuteronomy 11:21, Numbers 15:37-41), was preceded by two benedictions, one containing the praise of the Lord as the [[Giver]] of light in view of the rising sun each morning, and of the Withdrawer of the light of day each evening, and another containing the praise of the Lord as Giver of the Law to Israel, His chosen people, and followed by one benediction beginning with a solemn attestation of the monotheistic truth proclaimed in the Shemâ‛, and ending with the praise of God as the [[Redeemer]] of Israel with reference to the deliverance from Egypt mentioned in the closing verse of the Shemâ‛ chapters (Numbers 15:41). That this part is very old is shown, not merely by the discussion of the oldest Rabbinical schools concerning the details of observing the commandment found in Deuteronomy 6:7 : ‘When thou liest down, and when thou risest up,’ but by Josephus’ source (Ant. IV. viii. 13), which ascribes to Moses the recital of the Shemâ’ and of the benediction for Israel’s redemption. But what Philo tells of the Therapeutes, that ‘they prayed each morning and evening for the light of heaven’ (ed. Mangey, ii. 475), and Josephus of the Essenes, that ‘they offer prayers handed down from their fathers towards the rising sun as if supplicating for its rising,’ that is to say, with hands outstretched towards the streaks of light coming forth (Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. viii. 5; cf. [[Enoch]] lxxxiii. 11, Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 16:28, Sib. Orac. iii. 591f.), which corresponds with what the [[Talmud]] says (Ber. 9b, Jer. Ber. i. 3a) of the Vethîḳîm, ‘the enduring, conscientiously pious’ (another name for the Essenes), that ‘they recited the Shemâ‛ at the time of the radiance of the morning sun,’ points almost with certainty to Zoroastrian influence (see, besides Graetz, Schorr, and Kohler, also T. K. Cheyne, The Origin and [[Religious]] Contents of the [[Psalter]] [BL[Note: L Bampton Lecture.]], London, 1891, pp. 283, 448), and thus indicates a time when these prayers were offered under the open sky. </p> <p> (b) The real prayer (tefillâh) consisted of either eighteen benedictions or seven benedictions on Sabbath and festival days. In both cases the three opening and three concluding benedictions were the same. On week days, however, twelve specific prayers are offered between these, six concerning human life in general and five concerning the national life of the Jewish people, the twelfth containing the supplication that all the prayers offered either collectively or individually be heard, whereas on Sabbaths and festivals only one specific prayer with reference to the day is offered. </p> <p> The three opening benedictions are: (1) Birkath Âbôth, ‘the praise of the God of the fathers,’ dwelling on the merits of the patriarchs and closing with the words ‘Shield of Abraham’; (2) Gebûrôth, ‘the praise of the Divine Omnipotence,’ as manifested in cosmic life and in the future resurrection: it closes, ‘Blessed be Thou who revivest the dead’; (3) Ḳedûshâh, ‘the sanctification of the Lord by the heavenly hosts’: it closes with, ‘Blessed be Thou, the holy God.’ The three concluding benedictions are: (1) ‛Abôdâh, prayer for the favourable acceptance of the Divine service in the Temple, which, since the destruction of the Temple, has been changed into a prayer for the restoration of the sacrificial cult: it now closes, ‘Blessed be Thou who restorest [[Thy]] Shekinah to Zion’; (2) Hôdââh, thanksgiving for all the bounties of life and the wondrous doings of Providence; (3) Birkath Kôhanîm, the benediction connected with the Priestly Blessing (Numbers 6:24-27), which formed the conclusion of the service. </p> <p> The twelve week-day benedictions are: (1) prayer for knowledge and wisdom; (2) for spiritual regeneration; (3) for Divine forgiveness; (4) for the redemption of those in bondage; (5) for the healing of the sick; (6) for the produce of the year; (7) for the gathering of the dispersed of Israel; (8) for the restoration of a reign of righteousness; (9) originally for the destruction of the kingdom of arrogancy (= the heathen powers): after the Bar Cochba war, however, it was changed into a curse of the heretics and (Christian) informers in the service of Rome; (10) prayer for the leading authorities, the Zaddîḳîm, the Ḥasîdîm, the elders, the remnant of the Sôferîm, and the proselytes; (11) originally a prayer for the restoration of the Davidic dynasty in Jerusalem, afterwards divided into a prayer for Jerusalem’s restoration as the city of God and another for the [[Branch]] of David-hence arose nineteen instead of eighteen week-day prayers (cf. Tôs. Ber. ii. 25, Jer. Ber. ii. 4d-5d, iv. 8ac, Rôsh hash. iv. 49c; Lekaḥ [[Tob]] Waëthḥanan; Yalḳûṭ on 1 Samuel 2; Ber. 28bf.); (12) prayer for the acceptance of all petitions (see Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 540). As to the age of these prayers in their original form, the mention of the Sanhedrin, elders, and the remnant of the Sôferîm in the 10th (resp. 13th) prayer indicates the Maccabaean, if not the pre-Maccabaean, time (cf. also [[Sirach]] 51:12 and Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 542 n.[Note: . note.], 156). The three opening and three concluding benedictions have been preserved in a more elaborate and original form in the ancient Church liturgy that came down under the name of [[Clement]] (Apost. Const. vii. 33-35, 37-38, viii. 37), the opening and concluding formulas being almost identical (see article‘Didascalia’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 593 ff.). The Sabbath and Holy-day benediction (Apost. Const. vii. 36) has also the original Jewish character. All these prayers evidently originated in Hasidaean circles, and were only afterwards reduced in length to suit the people at large, as the synagogue became a common institution (see also L. Zunz, Göttesdienstliche Vorträge der Juden2, Frankfort a.M., 1892, pp. 379-383, and G. Dalman, Die Worte Jesu, Leipzig, 1898, p. 299 ff.). As a matter of fact, the entire angelology of the first Shema’ benediction and of the third of the eighteen benedictions is, like those in the ancient Church liturgy, altogether Essene in character, intended only for the initiated into the ‘higher wisdom,’ and the popularization of these prayers was as much the work of the synagogue as was the propagation of religious knowledge among the people-a work begun by the Levites (Nehemiah 8:7; Nehemiah 9:5, 2 Chronicles 19:8; 2 Chronicles 31:2; 2 Chronicles 35:3; Test. Levi, viii. 7; Yômâ, 26a; Tanḥ. Waëra, 4; Num. R., i., iii., v.) and achieved in the course of centuries through the synagogue by the [[Pharisees]] (see R. T. Herford, Pharisaism, London, 1912, pp. 80-83). </p> <p> The reading from the Law introduced by Ezra (Nehemiah 8:5) became soon afterwards a fixed custom for each Sabbath, and so the Pentateuch was completed at first in triennial (possibly originally septennial [cf. Deuteronomy 31:10]) and later in annual cycles (Zunz, op. cit., p. 3 f.), it having been divided at first into 154 and afterwards into 54 sections accordingly. The seven men called up for public reading seem to have been originally identical with the seven leading men of each community (Meg. 26a; Jos. Ant. IV. viii. 14, Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. xx. 5), probably the Ḥeber‛Îr (Tôs. Bik. iii. 12, Ber. iv. 7, and elsewhere), but were afterwards chosen from among all the members of the synagogue. The reading from the [[Prophets]] which followed that from the Pentateuch (Acts 13:15) is probably of an older origin than the latter; its selection was left to the preacher of the day (Luke 4:17), but afterwards the selection for each Sabbath and Holy-day was fixed so as to correspond with the character of the day or the Pentateuch section. </p> <p> <b> 7. Women in the synagogue. </b> -Women could not be members of the synagogue, though they seem to have performed synagogal functions of their own, and so prominent women were elected as mothers of the synagogue (‘Mater Synagogae’ [Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]iii.4 88]). They attended the service (Acts 16:13, Ab. Zârâ 38b, Sôṭâ 22a), but could take no part in the common service (Tôs. Meg. iv. 11, Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Meg. 23a). They were without doubt at all times (Tôs. Suk. iv. 11, Bab.[Note: Babylonian.]Suk. 51b; cf. Philo, ad. Mangey, ii. 482; Ḳid. 81a; Chrysos. Hom. 74 in Matt., quoted by Lcew) separated from the men by some sort of wall or barrier (against Lcew, Gesammelte Schriften, iv. 62 f., and Bacher, loc. cit.). See also Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 521, 527, where the emporium found in the ruins of the ancient synagogue is correctly assigned by him to the women. </p> <p> <b> 8. Schoolhouse. </b> -The synagogue was at the outset the place for public instruction (Philo, ed. Mangey, ii. 168: ‘Their houses of worship are nothing but schools of wisdom and virtue’; and Jos. c. Apion. ii. 17-18), and at an early time elementary schools for the young were established therein, or near by (Jer. Keth. xiii. 35c; M.K. iii. 31d; Bab.[Note: Babylonian.]Ḳid. 30a; Ber. 17a; Meg. 28b; B.B. 21; Giṭṭ. 58a). </p> <p> <b> 9. Other uses of the synagogue. </b> -To eat, drink, or sleep in the synagogue was regarded as profanation, but it was used for funeral addresses (Tôs. Meg. iii. 7; Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Meg. 28b), for public announcement, especially of charity donations (Lev. R. xxxii. 6; Schürer’s quotation of Matthew 6:2 refers to the Temple [see articles ‘Alms’ in Jewish Encyclopediai. and ‘Didascalia,’ ib. iv. 591d-592a]). The ancient Ḥasîdîm or [[Essenes]] seem to have had their meals in, or near, the synagogue, and the poor were housed and fed in rooms adjoining it (Pes. 101a; Kohler, MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxvii. 494). [[Punishment]] by scourging was inflicted in the synagogue (Matthew 10:17; Matthew 23:34, Acts 26:11). </p> <p> <b> 10. The synagogue discipline. </b> -The maintenance of the synagogue community required certain disciplinary measures to keep obnoxious or hostile elements out. The following were the different forms of exclusion or excommunication used against unsubmissive members. </p> <p> (1) Ḥerem, anathema-a term used since 2 [[Esdras]] 10:8 (see articles ‘Anathema’ and ‘Ban’ in Jewish Encyclopedia) in the sense of absolute exclusion from the congregation (M.Ḳ. 16a; 1 Corinthians 16:22, where the Greek ἀνάθεμα is followed by the Aramaic formula Mârân athâ [‘thou art accursed’] Galatians 1:8), for which also the term ἀποσυνάγωγος is used (John 9:22; John 12:42; John 16:2; Apost. Const. II. xliii. 1, III. viii. 3, IV. viii. 3; the [[Syrian]] Didascalia is less exact). </p> <p> (2) Niddûy, conditional or temporary exclusion-a term used chiefly in Mishna (Ta’an. iii. 8, M.Ḳ. iii. 1-2; ‛Çdûy. v. c; Midd. 112; Jer. M.Ḳ. 81a; Bab[Note: ab Babylonian.]. Ber. 19a; M.Ḳ 16-17; B.Ḳ. 112b ff.; Ned. 7b, and elsewhere). It corresponds with ἀφορίζειν (Luke 6:22; Apost. Const. II. xvi. 3, 4; xxi. 3, 7; xxviii. 2, 4; xl. 2; xlvi., xlvii. 3; xlviii. 1; III. viii. 2; VI. xliii. and VII. ii. 8; also in the later ecclesiastical rules [VIII. xxviii. 3, 7, 8; xxxii. 5; xlvii. 5, 8ff.]); probably also with ἐκβάλλειν ἐκ τῆς ἐκκλησίας, 3 John 1:10. </p> <p> (3) Nezîphâh, severe public reprimand implying a seven days’ seclusion in accord with Numbers 12:14 (cf. Sifrç, ad loc.; M.Ḳ. 16a; Shab. 115a), found as early as the 1st cent. b.c. in Apost. Const. II. xvi. 3-4; cf. article‘Didascalia’ in Jewish Encyclopediaiv. 589d, against Hamburger, article‘Bann,’ p. 150. </p> <p> (4) Shammatâ, handing over to desolation (from shammâinion with another lady called Euodiaemâmâh = παραδοῦναι τῷ Σατανᾷ, 1 Corinthians 5:5; cf. Jos. Bellum Judaicum (Josephus)II. viii. 8 and Jewish Encyclopediai. 561-562; M.Ḳ. 17a). </p> <p> (5) Lûṭ, execration-a milder form of shammatâ resorted to by the Talmudic leader in Babylonia (see articleלוט in Levy, Wörterbuch; M.K. 16d; cf. Judges 5:23, Deuteronomy 27:15-26). </p> <p> (6) [[Corporal]] punishments such as the thirty-nine stripes for transgression of Mosaic commandments (Deuteronomy 25:3, 2 Corinthians 11:24) or beating for rebelliousness against the Rabbinical authorities-Makkath Mardûth (Nâzîr iv. 3, 2 Corinthians 11:25, Acts 16:22). The entire disciplinary system, which in the course of time became rather less severe in the same measure as heresy and antagonism ceased within the synagogue (M.Ḳ. 16ab), was no longer clearly understood in Talmudic times; it receives better light, however, from the Essene Church rules preserved in the Apost. Const. II. xl. 2-43 and 47, as shown above. It is from the ancient Hasidaean synagogue that the Christian Church adopted her own disciplinary system. </p> <p> Literature.-E. Schürer, GJV[Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]ii.4 [Leipzig, 1907] 497-541, where the entire literature is given; W. Bacher, article‘Synagogue,’ in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols). Especially to be mentioned are L. Lcew, Der synagogale Ritus (= Gesammelte Schriften, Szegedin, 1889-1900, iv. 1-71, v. 21-33); K. Kohler, ‘Ueber die Ursprünge und Grundformen der synagogalen Liturgie,’ in MGWJ[Note: GWJ Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums.]xxxvii. [1893] 441-451, 489-497; W. O. E. Cesterley and G. H. Box, The [[Religion]] and [[Worship]] of the Synagogue, London, 1907; W. Bousset, Religion des Judentums2, Berlin. 1906, pp. 83, 197f., 197 ff.; J. Wellhausen, Israelitische und jüdische Geschichte6, do., 1907, pp. 193 f., 199f.; I. Elbogen, Der jüdische Gottesdienst in seiner geschichtlichen Entwicklung, Leipzig, 1913. </p> <p> K. Kohler. </p>

<p> συναγωγη , "an assembly," Revelation 2:9; Revelation 3:9 . The word often occurs in the Gospels and in the Acts, because Jesus Christ and his [[Apostles]] generally went to preach in those places. Although the sacrifices could not be offered, except in the tabernacle or the temple, the other exercises of religion were restricted to no particular place. Accordingly we find that the praises of God were sung, at a very ancient period, in the schools of the prophets; and those who felt any particular interest in religion, were assembled by the seers on the Sabbath, and the new moons, for prayers and religious instruction, 1 Samuel 10:5-11; 1 Samuel 19:18-24; 2 Kings 4:23 . During the [[Babylonish]] captivity, the Jews, who were then deprived of their customary religious privileges, were wont to collect around some prophet or other pious man, who taught them and their children in religion, exhorted to good conduct, and read out of the sacred books, Ezekiel 14:1; Ezekiel 20:1; Daniel 6:11; Nehemiah 8:18 . These assemblies, or meetings, became, in progress of time, fixed to certain places, and a regular order was observed in them. Such appears to have been the origin of synagogues. In speaking of synagogues, it is worthy to be noticed, that there is nothing said in respect to the existence of such buildings in Palestine, during the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes. They are, therefore, by some supposed to have been first erected under the Maccabean princes, but that, in foreign countries, they were much more ancient. Whether this statement be correct or not, it is nevertheless certain, that in the time of the Apostles, there were synagogues wherever there were Jews. They were built, in imitation of the temple of Jerusalem, with a court and porches, as is the case with the synagogues in the east at the present day. In the centre of the court is a chapel, supported by four columns, in which, on an elevation prepared for it, is placed the book of the law, rolled up. This, on the appointed days, is publicly read. In addition to the chapel, there is erected within the court a large covered hall or vestry, into which the people retire, when the weather happens to be cold and stormy, and each family has its particular seat. The uppermost seats in the synagogue, that is, those which were nearest the chapel where the sacred books were kept, were esteemed peculiarly honourable, Matthew 23:6; James 2:3 . The "proseuchae," προσευχαι , are understood by some to be smaller synagogues, but by others are supposed to be particular places under the open sky, where the Jews assembled for religious exercise. But Josephus calls the proseucha of Tiberias a large house, which held very many persons. See PROSEUCHAE. The Apostles preached the [[Gospel]] in synagogues and proseuchae, and with their adherents performed in them all the religious services. When excluded, they imitated the Jews in those places, where they were too poor to erect these buildings, and held their religious meetings in the houses of individuals. Hence we not only hear of synagogues in houses in the Talmud, but of churches in houses in the New Testament, Romans 16:5; 1 Corinthians 16:19; Colossians 4:15; Philippians 2; Acts 3:46; Acts 5:42 . The Apostles sometimes hired a house, in which they performed religious services, and taught daily, Acts 19:9; Acts 20:8 . Συναγωγη means literally a convention or assembly, but by metonymy, was eventually used for the place of assembling; in the same way that εκκλησια , which means literally a calling together, or convocation, signifies also at the present time the place of convocation. Synagogues were sometimes called by the Jews schools; but they were careful to make an accurate distinction between such, and the schools, properly so called, the מדרשים , or "sublimer schools," in which the Talmud was read, while the law merely was read in the synagogues, which they placed far behind the Talmud. </p> <p> The mode of conducting religious instruction and worship in the primitive Christian churches, was derived for the most part from the practice which anciently prevailed in synagogues. But there were no regular teachers in the synagogues, who were officially qualified to pronounce discourses before the people; although there were interpreters who rendered into the vernacular tongue, namely, the <em> Hebraeo-aramean, </em> the sections, which had been publicly read in the Hebrew. </p> <p> The "synagogue preacher," דרשן , whose business it is, in consequence of his office, to address the people, is an official personage that has been introduced in later times; at least we find no mention of such a one in the New Testament. On the contrary, in the time of Christ, the person who read the section for the Sabbath, or any other person who was respectable for learning and had a readiness of speech, addressed the people, Luke 4:16-21; Acts 13:5; Acts 13:15; Acts 15:21; Matthew 4:23 . </p> <p> The other persons who were employed in the services and government of the synagogue, in addition to the one who read the Scriptures, and the person who rendered them into the vernacular tongue, were as follows: </p> <p> <strong> 1. </strong> "The ruler of the synagogue," αρχισυναγωγος , ראש הבגסת , who presided over the assembly, and invited readers and speakers, unless some persons who were acceptable voluntarily offered themselves, Mark 5:22; Mark 5:35-38; Luke 8:41; Luke 13:14-15; Acts 13:15 . </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> "The elders of the synagogue," וקנים , πρεσβυτεροι . They appear to have been the counsellors of the head or ruler of the synagogue, and were chosen from among the most powerful and learned of the people, and are hence called αρχισυναγωγοι , Acts 13:15 . The council of elders not only took a part in the management of the internal concerns of the synagogue, but also punished transgressors of the public laws, either by turning them out of the synagogue, or decreeing the punishment of thirty- nine stripes, John 12:42; John 16:2; 2 Corinthians 11:24 . </p> <p> <strong> 3. </strong> "The collectors of alms," גבאי צדקה , διακονοι , "deacons." Although every thing which is said of them by the Jews was not true concerning them in the time of the Apostles, there can be no doubt that there were such officers in the synagogues at that time, Acts 6. </p> <p> <strong> 4. </strong> "The servants of the synagogue," חזן , υπηρετης , Luke 4:20; whose business it was to reach the book of the law to the person who was to read it, and to receive it back again, and to perform other services. The ceremonies which prevail in the synagogues at the present day in presenting the law were not observed in the time of our Saviour. </p> <p> <strong> 5. </strong> "The messenger or legate of the synagogue," שליה צבור . This was a person who was sent from synagogues abroad, to carry alms to Jerusalem. The name, messenger of the synagogue, was applied likewise to any person, who was commissioned by a synagogue, and sent forth to propagate religious knowledge. A person likewise was denominated the messenger, or angel, αγγελλος , της αγγελλος εκκλησιας , &c, who was selected by the assembly to recite for them the prayers; the same that is called by the Jews of modern times the synagogue singer, or cantilator, Revelation 2:1; Revelation 2:8; Revelation 2:12; Revelation 2:18; Revelation 3:1; Revelation 3:7; Revelation 3:14 . </p> <p> The Jews anciently called those persons who, from their superior erudition, were capable of teaching in the synagogue, פרנסים , "shepherds," or "pastors." They applied the same term, at least in more recent times, to the elders of the synagogue, and also to the collectors of alms, or deacons. The ground of the application of this term in such a way, is as follows: the word פרנם is, without doubt, derived from the Greek word πυρνος , "bread," or "a fragment of bread;" and, as it is used in the Targums, it corresponds to the [[Hebrew]] verb רעה , "to feed." It is easy to see, therefore, how the word פרנס might be applied to persons who sustained offices in the synagogue, in the same way as רעה is applied to kings, &c. </p> <p> We do not find mention made of public worship in the synagogues, except on the Sabbath, Matthew 12:9; Mark 1:21; Mark 3:1; Mark 6:2; Luke 4:16; Luke 4:32-33; Luke 6:6; Luke 13:10; Acts 13:14; Acts 15:21; Acts 16:13-25; Acts 17:2; Acts 18:4 . What is said of St. Paul's hiring the school of one [[Tyrannus]] at Ephesus, and teaching in it daily, is a peculiar instance, Acts 19:9-10 . Yet there can be no doubt that those Jews who were unable to go to Jerusalem attended worship on their festival days, as well as on the Sabbath, in their own synagogues. Individuals sometimes offered their private prayers in the synagogue. When an assembly was collected together for worship, the services began, after the customary greeting, with a doxology. A section was then read from the Mosaic law. Then followed, after the singing of a second doxology, the reading of a portion from the prophets, Acts 15:31; Luke 4:16 . The person whose duty it was to perform the reading, placed upon his head, as is done at the present day, a covering called <em> tallith, </em> to which St. Paul alludes, 2 Corinthians 3:15 . The sections which had been read in the Hebrew were rendered by an interpreter into the vernacular tongue, and the reader or some other man then addressed the people, Luke 4:16; Acts 13:15 . It was on such occasions as these, that Jesus, and afterward the Apostles, taught the Gospel. The meeting, as far as the religious exercises were concerned, was ended with a prayer, to which the people responded Amen, when a collection was taken for the poor. </p> <p> The customs which prevail at the present day, and which Vitringa has treated of, were not all of them practised in ancient times. The readers, for instance, were not then, as they are at the present day, called upon to perform, but presented themselves voluntarily, Luke 4:16; the persons also who addressed the people were not rabbins expressly appointed for that purpose, but were either invited from those present, or offered themselves, Acts 13:15; Luke 4:17 . The parts to be publicly read, likewise, do not appear to have been previously pointed out, although the book was selected by the ruler of the synagogue, Luke 4:16 . Furthermore, the forms of prayer that are used by the Jews at the present time do not appear to have been in existence in the time of Christ; unless this may perhaps have been the case in respect to the substance of some of them, especially the one called שמפּ? קרי , concerning which the Talmudists, at a very early period, gave many precepts. </p> <p> It was by ministering in synagogues that the Apostles gathered the churches. They retained also essentially the same mode of worship with that of the synagogues, excepting that the Lord's Supper was made an additional institution, agreeably to the example of Christ, Acts 2:42; Acts 20:7-11; 1 Corinthians 11:16-34 . They were at length excluded from the synagogue and assembled at evening in the house of some Christian, which was lighted for the purpose with lamps, Acts 20:7-11 . The Apostle, with the elders, when engaged in public worship, took a position where they would be most likely to be heard by all. The first service was merely a salutation or blessing, namely, "The Lord be with you," or, "Peace be with you." Then followed the doxologies and prelexions, the same as in the synagogues. The Apostle then addressed the people on the subject of religion, and urged upon them that purity of life which it required. [[Prayer]] succeeded, which was followed by the commemoration of the Saviour's death in the breaking and distribution of bread. The meeting was ended by taking a collection for the poor, especially those at Jerusalem, 2 Corinthians 9:1-15 . </p> <p> Those who held some office in the church were the regularly qualified instructers in these religious meetings; and yet laymen had liberty to address their brethren on these occasions the same as in the synagogues; also to sing hymns, and to pray; which, in truth, many of them did, especially those who were supernaturally gifted, not excepting the women. </p> <p> Those females who were not under a supernatural influence were forbidden by the Apostle Paul to make an address on such occasions, or to propose questions; and it was enjoined on those who did speak, not to lay aside their veils, 1 Corinthians 11:5; 1 Corinthians 14:34-40 . The reader and the speaker stood; the others sat; all arose in the time of prayer. Whatever was stated in a foreign tongue was immediately rendered by an interpreter into the speech in common use. This was so necessary, that Paul enjoined silence on a person who was even endowed with supernatural gifts, provided an interpreter was not at hand, 1 Corinthians 14:1-33 . It was the practice among the Greek Christians to uncover their heads when attending divine service, 1 Corinthians 11:11-16; but in the east, the ancient custom of worshipping with the head covered was retained. Indeed, it is the practice among the oriental Christians to the present day, not to uncover their heads in their religious meetings, except when they receive the eucharist. </p> <p> It is affirmed that in the city of Jerusalem alone there were no less than four hundred and sixty or four hundred and eighty synagogues. Every trading company had one of its own, and even strangers built some for those of their own nation. Hence we find synagogues of the Cyrenians, Alexandrians, Cilicians, and Asiatics, appointed for such as came up to Jerusalem from those countries, Acts 6:9 . </p>

<p> The synagogue was the place where Jews gathered for instruction and worship in the New Testament period. The Greek word <i> synagoge </i> [ James 2:2 ) or to the building in which they gather (Luke 7:5 ). The origins of the synagogue are obscure, but they probably extend back at least to the period of Ezra. At the time of the New Testament, synagogues were found throughout the Roman [[Empire]] as local centers for the study of the law and for worship. As such, they served a different role in the life of the Jewish people than did the Jerusalem temple, with its focus on the sacrificial cult. </p> <p> Synagogue services included prayers, the reading of Scripture, and, usually, a sermon explaining the Scripture. The chief administrative officer was the synagogue ruler (Mark 5:22; Luke 13:14; Acts 13:15; 18:8,17 ), who was assisted by an executive officer who handled the details of the synagogue service (Luke 4:20 ). Laypeople were allowed to participate in the services, especially in the reading of the prayers and the [[Scripture]] (Luke 4:16-20 ). Visiting sages could be invited to provide the sermon (Luke 4:21; Acts 13:15 ). Synagogues were attended by both men and women, as well as by God-fearing [[Gentiles]] who were committed to learning more about the God of the Jews (Acts 17:4,12 ). </p> <p> In the New Testament synagogues are occasionally mentioned merely in their role as Jewish institutions. The people at Capernaum, for example, commend to Jesus a certain centurion as one who "loves our nation and has built our synagogue" (Luke 7:5 ). At the Jerusalem council James notes that "Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath" (Acts 15:21 ). Paul, at his trial before Felix, observes that his accusers "did not find me arguing with anyone at the temple, or stirring up a crowd in the synagogues or anywhere else" in Jerusalem (Acts 24:12 ). Indeed, in an early letter to Jewish Christians James even refers to their gatherings as "synagogues" (2:2). </p> <p> Yet for the most part synagogues take on a larger meaning in the New Testament. In particular, synagogues frequently serve as places of God's revelatory activity. At several points the Gospel writers' summaries of Jesus' ministry include preaching or teaching "in their synagogues" (Matthew 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:39; Luke 4:15; cf. Luke 4:44 ). Specifically, Jesus teaches in the synagogues at Nazareth (Matthew 13:53-58; Mark 6:1-6; Luke 4:16-30 ) and Capernaum (Mark 1:21-22; John 6:59 ), casts out an evil spirit from a man in the synagogue at Capernaum (Mark 1:23-27 ), heals a man with a withered hand in an unspecified [[Galilean]] synagogue (Matthew 12:9-14; Mark 3:1-6; Luke 6:6-11 ), and heals a woman crippled for eighteen years in another (Luke 13:10-17 ). Indeed, Luke's account of the Nazareth incident includes a programmatic self-revelation by Jesus of the very nature of his ministry (4:16-21). </p> <p> A similar situation holds in the Book of Acts. [[Stephen]] argues powerfully in the Synagogue of the Freedmen in Jerusalem (6:9-10); Paul preaches in the synagogues of Damascus shortly after his conversion (9:20-22); and [[Apollos]] preaches boldly in the synagogue of [[Ephesus]] (18:26). Indeed, once he begins his missionary journeys Paul consistently uses the synagogue as his initial platform for preaching the gospel as he moves from one city to the next. As was the case with Jesus' synagogue appearance in Luke 4 , so also Luke's account of Paul's teaching in the synagogue at Pisidian Antioch not only contains a prototypical sermon (13:16-46) but also a self-revelatory statement concerning Paul's role as missionary to the Gentiles (13:46-47). Clearly, synagogues are places where both Jews and Gentiles hear the Word of God proclaimed by God's chosen agents. </p> <p> Yet despite this display of divine power and teaching in the synagogues, the response of those who encounter Jesus and the apostles in them is mixed. To be sure, those in the Capernaum synagogue are amazed at Jesus' actions, recognize his unique authority, and spread the news about him (Mark 1:22,27-28 ). But in the Nazareth synagogue an initial amazement turns to offense and Jesus' own amazement at the people's lack of faith (Matthew 13:54-58; Mark 6:2-6; Luke 4:22-23 ). In Luke's account the people become so furious with Jesus that they try to throw him down the cliff (4:28-29). John's account of Jesus' bread of life discourse in the synagogue at Capernaum ends with a similar turning against Jesus, though not with violence (6:41-42,52, 60-61,66). The two synagogue healings occur on the Sabbath and thus raise the question of Jesus' understanding of the Sabbath commandment; after the one healing the synagogue ruler is indignant with Jesus (Luke 13:14 ), and as a result of the other the Pharisees begin to plot to kill Jesus (Matthew 12:14; Mark 3:6 ). </p> <p> Again the situation in Acts is similar. Paul's synagogue preaching frequently results in Jews and Gentiles coming to faith (13:42-44,48 [Pisidian Antioch]; 14:1 [Iconium]; 17:1-4 [Thessalonica], 10-12 [Berea]; cf. 18:4-8 [Corinth], 20 [Ephesus]). Yet members of the Synagogue of the Freedmen oppose Stephen and bring about his martyrdom (6:9-14); an initial astonishment on the part of the Jews in Damascus turns into a conspiracy to kill Paul (9:21-24); and Jews oppose Paul's synagogue preaching in Pisidian Antioch (13:45), [[Corinth]] (18:6), and Ephesus (19:9). Jewish opposition is such that in Corinth and Ephesus Paul is forced to move his teaching outside the synagogue (18:7; 19:9), and in Pisidian Antioch he is even expelled from the region (13:50). In addition, in both Pisidian Antioch and Corinth Paul responds to the opposition by resolving to turn his attention to the Gentiles (13:46; 18:6). Thus, synagogues serve as places where both Jews and Gentiles respond positively to the Word of God, yet also where other Jews oppose it. They therefore serve a certain transition role as the proclamation of the gospel moves from a focus on Jews and God-fearing Gentiles (within the synagogue) to one directed primarily to Gentiles (outside the synagogue). </p> <p> The opposition that Paul encounters in certain synagogues is consistent with Jesus' warnings that synagogues will be places of persecution. Jesus tells his disciples that they will be delivered to synagogue authorities (Luke 12:11; 21:12 ), flogged in synagogues (Matthew 10:17; 23:34; Mark 13:9 ), and even put out of synagogues (John 16:2 ). The pre-Christian Paul himself travels from synagogue to synagogue in his relentless zeal to imprison, beat, and otherwise punish Christians (Acts 9:2; 22:19; 26:11 ). </p> <p> Despite such warnings and instances of persecution, certain synagogue rulers fare well in the New Testament. Jesus responds to Jarius' plea by raising his twelve-year-old daughter from the dead (Matthew 9:18-19,23-25; Mark 5:21-24,35-43; Luke 8:40-42,49-56 ); the synagogue rulers at Pisidian Antioch invite Paul and [[Barnabas]] to preach (Acts 13:15 ); and [[Crispus]] and his household are among the small number of Jews at Corinth who believe in the Lord (Acts 18:8 ). Yet one synagogue ruler is indignant when Jesus heals a crippled woman on the Sabbath (Luke 13:14 ), and another, [[Sosthenes]] (who may have become a Christian later cf. 1 Corinthians 1:1 ), is beaten by his fellow Jews at Corinth when their legal maneuvers against Paul fail (Acts 18:17 ). </p> <p> Some associated with synagogues do not fare as well as the synagogue rulers. Jesus criticizes those who flaunt their religiosity by seeking recognition in the synagogues for their almsgiving and prayer (Matthew 6:2,5 ) and loving the most important seats in the synagogue (Matthew 23:6; Mark 12:39; Luke 11:43; 20:46 ). These people are variously identified as teachers of the law (Mark 12:39; Luke 20:46 ), Pharisees (Luke 11:43 ), teachers of the law and Pharisees (Matthew 23:6 ), and hypocrites (6:2,5). Such criticism indicts neither synagogues nor the majority of the Jews who attend them, but it does show how synagogues could be misused by those concerned with self-promotion. </p> <p> The harshest words concerning synagogues are found in the Book of Revelation. In the letters to the seven churches Jesus twice speaks of the synagogue of [[Satan]] (2:9; 3:9). He notes that these people claim to be Jews, but are not; rather, they are liars and are guilty of slander. Such individuals will be responsible for the coming persecution of the church at [[Smyrna]] (2:10) and will be brought to fall down before the church at [[Philadelphia]] and acknowledge that Jesus has loved it (3:9). Such language seems to be indicative of the widening gulf between Judaism and Christianity by the end of the first century and of the tendency to view the church increasingly in terms formerly associated with the Jews (1:5-6; 7:3-17; 14:1-5; 21:9-22:5). </p> <p> [[Joseph]] L. Trafton </p> <p> <i> See also </i> [[The Church]]; [[Israel]]; [[Judaism Jews]]; [[Pharisees]] </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . J. Gutman, ed., <i> The Synagogue: Studies in Origins, Archaeology, and [[Architecture]] </i> ; L. I. Levine, ed., <i> [[Ancient]] Synagogues [[Revealed]] </i> ; idem, <i> The Synagogue in Late [[Antiquity]] </i> ; E. M. Meyers and R. Hachili, <i> ABD, </i> 6:251-63; S. Safrai, <i> The Jewish People in the First Century, </i> 2:908-44. </p>