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== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_56875" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_56875" /> == | ||
<p> 1. Etymology.-The word is most probably of [[Persian]] origin, and passed into Greek through Xenophon, and into [[Hebrew]] during the period of Persian influence. The | <p> 1. Etymology.-The word is most probably of [[Persian]] origin, and passed into Greek through Xenophon, and into [[Hebrew]] during the period of Persian influence. The [[Lxx_]] translators adopted the word as the translation of the Hebrew name for the [[Garden]] of Eden. Hence the term ‘Paradise’ is associated with the various lines of development connected with the conception of the primal [[Golden]] Age and the Garden of Delights. For a fuller discussion of the etymology see the art._ ‘Paradise’ in [[Hdb_,]] and EBi_, also Oxf. Heb. Lex. s.v. </p> <p> 2. History of the conception.-A full discussion of the growth of the conception does not fall within the scope of this article. For this the reader is referred to the artt._ mentioned above, and to the list of literature there appended. It is necessary here to notice the main lines of development, in order to understand the place which the conception of [[Paradise]] has in the [[Apostolic]] Age. </p> <p> (a) Primitive conceptions.-Paradise, or the Garden of Eden, belongs to one important group of motifs which comparative religion shows to be present in nearly all primitive religions, the group of ideas associated with a Golden Age, a time of supernatural fertility and prosperity, lost in the past and to be restored in the future. This with other groups of fundamental motifs existed in primitive Hebrew religion, possibly in a form derived from [[Babylonian]] religion, but was taken up and used by the prophets as the form into which their visions of the coming [[Kingdom]] of God were cast. </p> <p> (b) Later spiritualization.-In the development of later Judaism, the conceptions of Paradise and the Tree of Life became spiritualized, and they were used as symbols of spiritual felicity and moral excellence, especially in [[Alexandrian]] Judaism. </p> <p> (c) Mystic realism.-In Palestinian Judaism, Rabbinical theology developed these symbols along the line of a naive realism. The term ‘paradise,’ apart from a few passages in which it means ‘garden’ or ‘park,’ as in late Hebrew, always has the technical sense of mystic theology or speculation, including trance and other ecstatic experiences. On the other hand, the Hebrew phrase ‘Garden of Eden’ is kept to describe the earthly or the heavenly place of bliss commonly denoted by the name ‘Paradise.’ The Rabbis developed a transcendental doctrine of Paradise, holding that it was one of the seven things (sometimes six), created before the world (Ber. Rabba, 20). There was also some doubt as to whether the earthly and the heavenly Paradise were to be identified or not. </p> <p> (d) [[Special]] apocalyptic development.-In the [[Jewish]] apocalyptic literature Paradise, by a combination of elements from (a) and (c), came to be conceived of as one of the abodes of the righteous after death. It was in the third heaven (see art._ Heaven), where God’s throne was situated. The references are not always consistent, as there was no clear-cut consistent scheme of the future life in Jewish eschatology. The principal references for our period occur in the [[Apocalypse]] of Moses, more correctly known as the Books of Adam and Eve, in 4 Ezra , 2 Baruch; there is also one reference in the Testaments of the Twelve [[Patriarchs]] (‘Levi,’ xviii. 10). </p> <p> The most important passages in the Books of Adam and [[Eve]] and the parallel Apocalypse of Moses are: Ad. et Ev. xxv. 3: ‘the Paradise of righteousness,’ where God is seen sitting encompassed by angels; xxviii. 4: ‘the paradise of “vision” and of God’s command’; xlii. 5: ‘Christ, descending on earth shall lead thy father Adam to Paradise to the tree of mercy’ (this passage is an interpolation from the [[Christian]] apocryphal [[Gospel]] of Nicodemus); Apoc. Mos. xxxvii. 5: ‘Lift him up into Paradise unto the third Heaven, and leave him there until that fearful day of my reckoning,’ etc.; here Paradise in the third heaven is contrasted with Paradise on earth where Adam’s body is lying (xxxviii. 5; so also xl. 2). While there is apparently some confusion of thought, the central idea is that, in the Resurrection, Adam will be restored to Paradise, and that meanwhile his spirit (apparently) is in the heavenly Paradise, in the third heaven. Hence the conception of Paradise as an intermediate abode appears here. </p> <p> There are several important passages in 4 Ezra, especially 4 Ezra 3:6, Paradise created before the world; 4:8, Paradise in heaven; 7:36, the Paradise of delight manifested in the last day over against [[Gehenna]] (so also 7:123). In 8:52, ‘for you is opened Paradise, planted the Tree of life, the future Age prepared,’ the conception of Paradise is parallel with that of Revelation 2:7; Revelation 22:2. The reader may be referred to [[G.]] [[H.]] Box, The Ezra Apocalypse, London, 1912, p. 195 f. </p> <p> There are several important passages in 2 Enoch: viii and ix., where Paradise is described as in the third heaven, the place where God rests, with all kinds of sensuous delights, and reserved for the eternal abode of the righteous; lxv. 8, 10, at the completion of the Age, the righteous are collected and Paradise becomes their eternal dwelling-place; cf. also xlii. 3 and 2 Bar. li. 11, lix. 8. </p> <p> (e) NT.-Thus we find the background of the conceptions which appear in the three passages in which the word occurs in the [[Nt-]] </p> <p> (1) In Luke 23:43, as in the Books of Adam and Eve, Paradise is conceived of as a place of intermediate abode, though whether in heaven or in [[Sheol]] is not clear. </p> <p> (2) In 2 Corinthians 12:4 we have a combination of the Rabbinical conception of Paradise as denoting mystic contemplation and the trance-state, with the conception of Paradise as in the third heaven and the abode of God. </p> <p> (3) In Revelation 2:7 as in 4 Ezra Paradise is presented as a reward in the future age for the righteous. </p> <p> The probable reason for the scanty reference to Paradise in the [[Nt]] has been pointed out in the art._ Heaven. The movement of thought was clearly away from the sensuous and material side of Jewish eschatological expectation, even though in the later development of thought in the Church there was a return to this element, and a corresponding loss of the vitality and freshness characteristic of [[Pauline]] and Johannine eschatology. This return, however, lies beyond our period, and begins to be seen in the references of Irenaneus and Tertullian. </p> <p> Literature.-See under art._ Heaven. </p> <p> [[S.]] [[H.]] Hooke. </p> | ||
== Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary <ref name="term_48457" /> == | == Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary <ref name="term_48457" /> == | ||
<p> We find this word three times in the New Testament, (Luke 23:43; 2 Corinthians 12:4; Revelation 2:7) but the word is not used in the Old. But as the word itself is derived from the Hebrew or Chaldee, it signifies forest or garden of trees; and the same meaning is annexed to what Nehemiah useth for the king's forest, Nehemiah 2:8; and what [[Solomon]] saith, Ecclesiastes 2:5, about his gardens and orchards; and of the church it has the same meaning when Jesus commending her saith, "Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates"—that is, a very paradise. </p> <p> We are apt to confine our ideas of the word paradise to the garden of Eden, as being so during our first parents' innocence; and this being lost, we now look forward to the possession of a better paradise in the kingdom of glory. What the Lord Jesus said to the dying thief upon the cross, (Luke 23:43) and to the church of Ephesus, (Revelation 2:7) have tended much to establish this opinion. It is sufficient however for all the purposes of knowledge concerning the word itself, that it means a place of unspeakable happiness and delight; and our Lord's promise to the dying thief decidedly settles the point. I would only beg to observe upon that sweet promise of Jesus, in what he plainly shewed, and by his own words, in the manner of expression, that the blessedness of paradise consisted. The happiness of the poor pardoned sinner was not in the place, not simply as paradise, for this he might have been, and in the company of angels also, and yet not blessed. This was not the chief blessing spoken of by the Lord Jesus; but the felicity of which paradise was made up, and which formed the sum and substance of all joy, was Christ. Verily, (said Jesus) "I say unto thee, this day shalt thou be with me in paradise." </p> <p> Shall I be indulged with subjoining one thought more on the subject of paradise in general, and the ease of this highly-favoured pardoned sinner in particular, just to remark that this promise of Jesus to him, that that very day he should be with Christ in paradise, carries with it a conviction of the truth of that doctrine, that the souls of the redeemed pass instantly to glory on their separation from the body. The voice John heard from heaven, commanding him to write "Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord; from henceforth," that is, immediately, instantly, the bodies rest from their labours, until the resurrection of the just, and then the solemn events Jesus speaks of will take place. (John 5:28-29) But to be to-day with Jesus in paradise, carries with it a palpable demonstration of immediate consciousness and unspeakable felicity. I beg the reader to connect with this what the [[Holy]] | <p> We find this word three times in the New Testament, ( Luke 23:43; 2 Corinthians 12:4; Revelation 2:7) but the word is not used in the Old. But as the word itself is derived from the Hebrew or Chaldee, it signifies forest or garden of trees; and the same meaning is annexed to what Nehemiah useth for the king's forest, Nehemiah 2:8; and what [[Solomon]] saith, Ecclesiastes 2:5, about his gardens and orchards; and of the church it has the same meaning when Jesus commending her saith, "Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates"—that is, a very paradise. </p> <p> We are apt to confine our ideas of the word paradise to the garden of Eden, as being so during our first parents' innocence; and this being lost, we now look forward to the possession of a better paradise in the kingdom of glory. What the Lord Jesus said to the dying thief upon the cross, ( Luke 23:43) and to the church of Ephesus, ( Revelation 2:7) have tended much to establish this opinion. It is sufficient however for all the purposes of knowledge concerning the word itself, that it means a place of unspeakable happiness and delight; and our Lord's promise to the dying thief decidedly settles the point. [[I]] would only beg to observe upon that sweet promise of Jesus, in what he plainly shewed, and by his own words, in the manner of expression, that the blessedness of paradise consisted. The happiness of the poor pardoned sinner was not in the place, not simply as paradise, for this he might have been, and in the company of angels also, and yet not blessed. This was not the chief blessing spoken of by the Lord Jesus; but the felicity of which paradise was made up, and which formed the sum and substance of all joy, was Christ. Verily, (said Jesus) [["I]] say unto thee, this day shalt thou be with me in paradise." </p> <p> Shall [[I]] be indulged with subjoining one thought more on the subject of paradise in general, and the ease of this highly-favoured pardoned sinner in particular, just to remark that this promise of Jesus to him, that that very day he should be with Christ in paradise, carries with it a conviction of the truth of that doctrine, that the souls of the redeemed pass instantly to glory on their separation from the body. The voice John heard from heaven, commanding him to write "Blessed are the dead which die in the Lord; from henceforth," that is, immediately, instantly, the bodies rest from their labours, until the resurrection of the just, and then the solemn events Jesus speaks of will take place. ( John 5:28-29) But to be to-day with Jesus in paradise, carries with it a palpable demonstration of immediate consciousness and unspeakable felicity. [[I]] beg the reader to connect with this what the [[Holy]] Ghost hath said by the prophet of the consciousness of the opposite character entering eternity. ( Isaiah 14:9-10) In the person of the impious king of Babylon, the sacred writer thus addresseth him: "Hell from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy coming; it stirreth up the dead for thee, even all the chief ones of the earth; it hath raised up from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All they shall speak, and say unto thee, Art thou also become weak as we? art thou become like unto us?" Now here we see not only a state of living consciousness described, but the miserable already departed speaking to the miserable now come among them, and giving them the horrible gratulation of partnership in endless woe. Let the reader compare both descriptions; that which Jesus said to the penitent thief, and that which is here described by the prophet; and let him then form his own judgment whether the happiness and misery of the eternal world to the different characters is not immediate on death. </p> | ||
== Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_53375" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_53375" /> == | ||
<p> <strong> | <p> <strong> [[Paradise.]] </strong> [[A]] Persian word for ‘park’ or ‘garden’ (see Orchard), used in later Jewish and Christian thought to represent the abode of the blessed dead. </p> <p> <strong> 1. In the [[Ot.]] </strong> While the word <em> pardçs </em> occurs only 3 times in the [[Ot]] ( Song of Solomon 4:12 , Ecclesiastes 2:5 , Nehemiah 2:3 ), and then with no reference to the <strong> Garden of Eden </strong> , it is unquestionable that Eden serves as the basis for the later conception. The transition from the usage of [[Genesis]] to one less literal is to be seen in Ezekiel 31:1-18 , which is doubtless modified to a considerable degree by Babylonian conceptions. These, undoubtedly, are also to be seen in the Genesis picture of Eden. The significance of Ezekiel’s conception is that it shows the anticipation of the apocalyptic conception of Eth. [[Enoch]] (chs. 23 28) and other apocalypses both Jewish and Christian. </p> <p> <strong> 2. In Jewish apocalyptic literature and in the [[Nt.]] </strong> In the apocalypses there are elaborate descriptions (particularly Eth. Enoch, Apoc. [Note: Apocalypse, Apocalyptic.] Bar 4:1-37 , and 2Es 8:52 ) of Paradise as the opposite of <strong> Gehenna </strong> . In the Rabbinical conception of the universe, Paradise is the abode of the blessed dead. There is the tree of life, and there also the righteous feast. Gehenna and Paradise are, according to the Rabbis, close together, being separated only by a handbreadth. This view, however, is difficult to harmonize with other conceptions, and the adjustment is probably to be made by the other view of a twofold Paradise, one in Sheol and the other in Heaven. Such a view would harmonize with the conception that the righteous would rise from the nether Paradise to the heavenly. The word is never used by Jesus or St. Paul except in Luke 23:43 and 2 Corinthians 12:4 . From some points of view it would be more natural to make these two passages refer to the two Paradises respectively, but a final conclusion is prevented by lack of evidence. The reference of Paul ( 2 Corinthians 12:4 ) is undoubtedly to the upper Paradise that is, the third heaven. Here again, however, it is not safe to derive dogma from what may be a merely conventional expression. </p> <p> <strong> 3. In Christian theology </strong> the term is commonly used as identical with ‘ <strong> heaven </strong> ,’ although in some cases it is distinguished as the ‘temporary abode of the saints, either in some place on earth or above the earth. It has been particularly developed in connexion with the speculation as to <strong> the intermediate state </strong> as the place where the righteous live between their death and the Parousia. [[Lack]] of data, however, makes it impossible to reach certainty in the matter, and the most modern theology maintains an attitude of reverent agnosticism regarding the state of the dead, and uses the term ‘Paradise’ as a symbol rather than with precise definition. </p> <p> Shailer Mathews. </p> | ||
== Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_18118" /> == | == Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_18118" /> == | ||
<p> Persian loanword for "an area enclosed by a wall" or "garden." Its three uses in the Hebrew | <p> Persian loanword for "an area enclosed by a wall" or "garden." Its three uses in the Hebrew Bible ( Nehemiah 2:8; Ecclesiastes 2:5; Song of Solomon 4:13 ) retain this meaning. The [[Septuagint]] uses the Greek <i> paradeisos </i> [ Isaiah 51:3; and Ezekiel 28:13 ). </p> <p> The intertestamental literature completes the transition of the word to a religious term. Human history will culminate in a divine paradise. Since [[Israel]] had no immediate access to the garden at history's origin or conclusion, paradise, sometimes called Abraham's Bosom, was associated with the realm of the righteous dead awaiting the resurrection of the body. </p> <p> The New [[Testament]] understands paradise in terms of its Jewish heritage. In Luke 23:43 Jesus promises the penitent thief: "Today you will be with me in paradise." The intermediate state was transformed by Jesus' emphasis on being with him "today." No longer is paradise just an anticipatory condition awaiting the messianic presence at the end of the age. Those who die in faith will "be with Christ" ( Philippians 1:23 ). The dead in Christ will not experience life diminished, but life enhanced, as Jesus' words to [[Martha]] in John 11:23-26 imply. </p> <p> According to Revelation 2:7 , the overcoming church will eat from the tree of life in the eschatological garden. [[Sin]] and death through redemption are now cast out of human experience. The way is open for the faithful to return to the garden of God. Paradise is the Christian's final home. </p> <p> Paul's glimpse of paradise ( 2 Corinthians 12:4 ) likely refers to the intermediate state. If so, it is one source of Paul's confidence that Christ is present among the righteous dead, even though he does not relish the unnatural state of death ( 2 Corinthians 5:1-10 ). Yet it is quite possible that the dead in Christ more clearly see the paradise at history's conclusion than do earth-bound believers. Thus, Paul tells the Thessalonians that it is a matter of small consequence if one dies in the Lord or is still alive at the second coming ( 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 ). Christ's presence pervades both the intermediate state and the final kingdom. </p> <p> Luke [[L.]] Keefer, Jr. </p> <p> <i> See also </i> [[Abraham'S Bosom]]; [[Intermediate State]] </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . [[V.]] [[R.]] Gordon, <i> [[Isbe,]] </i> 3:660-61; [[J.]] Jeremias, <i> [[Tdnt,]] </i> 5:765-73. </p> | ||
== Fausset's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_36985" /> == | == Fausset's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_36985" /> == | ||
<p> (See | <p> (See [[Eden.)]] From [[Sanskrit]] paradesa , "a foreign ornamental garden" attached to a mansion ( Nehemiah 2:8; Ecclesiastes 2:5 "gardens," Song of Solomon 4:13 "orchard," pardes ). An earthly paradise can never make up for losing a heavenly paradise ( Revelation 2:7; Revelation 22:1-2; Revelation 22:14). Compare the Holy Land turned from a garden of Eden into a wilderness, with Israel's wilderness made like Eden the garden of [[Jehovah]] ( Numbers 24:6; Joel 2:3; Isaiah 51:3; Ezekiel 36:35; contrast Ezekiel 28:13). Paradise is the blessed resting place with Jesus to which the penitent thief's soul was received until the resurrection of the body ( Luke 23:43). </p> <p> Paul in a trance was caught up even to the third heaven, into paradise ( 2 Corinthians 12:2; 2 Corinthians 12:4). In Eden Adam and Eve lived solitary, exhibiting the perfection of the individual. The heavenly home shall be not merely a garden, but a city, the perfect communion of saints ( Hebrews 12:22; Revelation 21; 22). [[Earthly]] cities, Nineveh, Babylon, and Thebes, rested on mere force; [[Athens]] and [[Corinth]] on intellect, art, and refinement, divorced from morality; [[Tyre]] on gain; even [[Jerusalem]] on religious privileges more than on love, truth, righteousness, and holiness of heart before God. But the coming city shall combine all that was excellent of the first Eden, with the perfect polity that rests on Christ the chief corner stone, in which symmetry, grace, power, and the beauty of holiness shall shine for ever. </p> | ||
== Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78696" /> == | == Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78696" /> == | ||
<div> 1: | <div> '''1: παράδεισος ''' (Strong'S #3857 Noun Masculine paradeisos par-ad'-i-sos ) </div> <p> is an Oriental word, first used by the historian Xenophon, denoting "the parks of Perisian kings and nobles." It is of Persian origin (Old Pers. pairidaeza, akin to Gk. peri, "around," and teichos, "a wall") whence it passed into Greek. See the Sept., e.g., in Nehemiah 2:8; Ecclesiastes 2:5; Song of Song of Solomon 4:13 . The Sept. translators used it of the garden of Eden, Genesis 2:8 , and in other respects, e.g., Numbers 24:6; Isaiah 1:30; Jeremiah 29:5; Ezekiel 31:8,9 . </p> Luke 23:43 2 Corinthians 12:4 Hebrews 4:14Rv Revelation 2:7 Genesis 2:8 | ||
== American Tract Society Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_16860" /> == | == American Tract Society Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_16860" /> == | ||
<p> A Greek word signifying a park, or garden with trees. The Hebrew word | <p> [[A]] Greek word signifying a park, or garden with trees. The Hebrew word [[Gan,]] garden, issued in a similar way, Nehemiah 2:8 Ecclesiastes 2:5 Song of Song of Solomon 4:13 . </p> <p> The Septuagint uses the word Paradise when speaking of the Garden of Eden, in which the Lord placed Adam and Eve. This famous garden is indeed commonly known by the name of "the terrestrial paradise," and there is hardly any part of the world in which it has not been sought. See [[Eden.]] </p> <p> In the New Testament, "paradise" is put, in allusion to the paradise of Eden, for the place where the souls of the blessed enjoy happiness. Thus our [[Savior]] tells the penitent thief on the cross, "Today shalt thou be with me in paradise;" that is, in the state of the blessed, Luke 23:43 . Paul speaking of himself in the third person, says, [["I]] knew a man that was caught up into paradise, and heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter," 2 Corinthians 12:4 . And in Revelation 2:7 22:14 , the natural features of the scene where innocence and bliss were lost, are used to depict the world where these are restored perfectly and forever. </p> | ||
== Charles Buck Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_20282" /> == | == Charles Buck Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_20282" /> == | ||
<p> The garden of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed. It is also used to denote heaven, Luk_23:1-56. As to the terrestrial paradise, there have been many inquiries about its situation. It has been placed in the third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon itself, in the middle region of the air, above the earth, under the earth, in the place possessed by the Caspian sea, and under the arctic pole. The learned Huetius places it upon the river that is produced by the conjunction of the [[Tigris]] and Euphrates, now called the river of the Arabs, between this conjunction, and the division made by the same river before it falls into the Persian sea. Other geographers have placed it in Armenia, between the sources of the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Araxes, and the Phasis, which they suppose to be the four rivers described by Moses. But concerning the exact place, we must necessarily be very uncertain, if, indeed, it can be thought at all to exist at present, considering the many changes which have taken place on the surface of the earth since the creation. </p> <p> See | <p> The garden of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed. It is also used to denote heaven, Luk_23:1-56. As to the terrestrial paradise, there have been many inquiries about its situation. It has been placed in the third heaven, in the orb of the moon, in the moon itself, in the middle region of the air, above the earth, under the earth, in the place possessed by the Caspian sea, and under the arctic pole. The learned Huetius places it upon the river that is produced by the conjunction of the [[Tigris]] and Euphrates, now called the river of the Arabs, between this conjunction, and the division made by the same river before it falls into the Persian sea. Other geographers have placed it in Armenia, between the sources of the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Araxes, and the Phasis, which they suppose to be the four rivers described by Moses. But concerning the exact place, we must necessarily be very uncertain, if, indeed, it can be thought at all to exist at present, considering the many changes which have taken place on the surface of the earth since the creation. </p> <p> See [[Man.]] </p> | ||
== Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_81268" /> == | == Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_81268" /> == | ||
<p> according to the original meaning of the term, whether it be of Hebrew, Chaldee, or Persian derivation, signifies, "a place enclosed for pleasure and delight." The | <p> according to the original meaning of the term, whether it be of Hebrew, Chaldee, or Persian derivation, signifies, "a place enclosed for pleasure and delight." The [[Lxx,]] or Greek translators of the Old Testament, make use of the word paradise, when they speak of the garden of Eden, which Jehovah planted at the creation, and in which he placed our first parents. There are three places in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament where this word is found, namely, Nehemiah 2:8; Song of Solomon 4:13; Ecclesiastes 2:5 . The term paradise is obviously used in the New Testament, as another word for heaven; by our Lord, Luke 23:43; by the [[Apostle]] Paul, 2 Corinthians 12:4; and in the Apocalypse, Revelation 2:7 . See [[Eden]] . </p> | ||
== Morrish Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_68113" /> == | == Morrish Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_68113" /> == | ||
<p> The word παράδεισος appears to have had an oriental origin. It is said of the king of [[Persia]] that he had gardens which were called <i> paradises </i> , full of everything beautiful and good that the earth could produce. The | <p> The word παράδεισος appears to have had an oriental origin. It is said of the king of [[Persia]] that he had gardens which were called <i> paradises </i> , full of everything beautiful and good that the earth could produce. The [[Lxx,]] adopting this word for the garden of Eden, which signifies 'delights,' accounts for Eden being often called paradise, and may account for the use of the word in the [[N.T.]] as denoting some place of happiness and blessing in the heavens. The Lord on the cross called the place where the thief would be with Him that day Paradise. Luke 23:43 . The name is also given to 'the third heaven,' to which Paul was caught up, 2 Corinthians 12:4; and to the paradise of God, where there is the tree of life (type of Christ), of which the overcomer in the church at [[Ephesus]] would have authority to eat. Revelation 2:7 . </p> | ||
== Webster's Dictionary <ref name="term_153770" /> == | == Webster's Dictionary <ref name="term_153770" /> == | ||
<p> (1): (v. t.) To affect or exalt with visions of felicity; to entrance; to bewitch. </p> <p> (2): (n.) The garden of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed after their creation. </p> <p> (3): (n.) The abode of sanctified souls after death. </p> <p> (4): (n.) A churchyard or cemetery. </p> <p> (5): (n.) An open space within a monastery or adjoining a church, as the space within a cloister, the open court before a basilica, etc. </p> <p> (6): (n.) A place of bliss; a region of supreme felicity or delight; hence, a state of happiness. </p> | <p> '''(1):''' ''' (''' v. t.) To affect or exalt with visions of felicity; to entrance; to bewitch. </p> <p> '''(2):''' ''' (''' n.) The garden of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed after their creation. </p> <p> '''(3):''' ''' (''' n.) The abode of sanctified souls after death. </p> <p> '''(4):''' ''' (''' n.) [[A]] churchyard or cemetery. </p> <p> '''(5):''' ''' (''' n.) An open space within a monastery or adjoining a church, as the space within a cloister, the open court before a basilica, etc. </p> <p> '''(6):''' ''' (''' n.) [[A]] place of bliss; a region of supreme felicity or delight; hence, a state of happiness. </p> | ||
== Smith's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_74385" /> == | == Smith's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_74385" /> == | ||
<p> Par'adise. This is a word of Persian origin, and is used in the Septuagint ( | <p> '''Par'adise.''' This is a word of Persian origin, and is used in the Septuagint [[(Lxx)]] as the translation of '''Eden.''' It means ''"an orchard of pleasure and fruits," "a garden"'' or ''"a pleasure ground",'' something like an English park. It is applied figuratively, to the celestial dwelling of the righteous, in allusion to the garden of Eden. 2 Corinthians 12:4; Revelation 2:7. It has, thus, come into familiar use to denote both that garden, and the heaven of the just. ''See '' '''Eden, 1''' ''.'' </p> | ||
== Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18921" /> == | == Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18921" /> == | ||
<p> Originally the word translated ‘paradise’ in English versions of the Bible meant ‘a garden’. The word was used of the Garden of Eden (Genesis 2:8-10; Ezekiel 28:13). This association with a place of beauty and perfection was probably the reason why the word in later times was used of heaven (Luke 23:43; 2 Corinthians 12:3; Revelation 2:7; cf. Revelation 22:1-5; see | <p> Originally the word translated ‘paradise’ in English versions of the Bible meant ‘a garden’. The word was used of the Garden of Eden ( Genesis 2:8-10; Ezekiel 28:13). This association with a place of beauty and perfection was probably the reason why the word in later times was used of heaven ( Luke 23:43; 2 Corinthians 12:3; Revelation 2:7; cf. Revelation 22:1-5; see [[Heaven).]] </p> | ||
== Holman Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_43099" /> == | == Holman Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_43099" /> == | ||
Nehemiah 2: | Nehemiah 2:8 Ecclesiastes 2:5 Song of Solomon 4:13 Luke 23:43 2 Corinthians 12:4 Revelation 2:7 Genesis 2-3 <i> gehenna </i> Genesis 2-3 Genesis 2-3 | ||
== King James Dictionary <ref name="term_61989" /> == | == King James Dictionary <ref name="term_61989" /> == | ||
<p> | <p> [[Par'Adise,]] n. Gr. The garden of Eden, in which Adam and Eve were placed immediately after their creation. </p> 1. [[A]] place of bliss a region of supreme felicity or delight. <p> The earth </p> <p> Shall all be paradise-- </p> 2. Heaven, the blissful seat of sanctified souls after death. <p> This day shalt thou be with me in paradise. Luke 23 . </p> 3. Primarily, in Persia, a pleasure-garden with parks and other appendages. | ||
== Easton's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_33040" /> == | == Easton's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_33040" /> == | ||
Luke 23: | Luke 23:43 2 12:4 Revelation 2:7 Genesis 2:8 | ||
== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_54304" /> == | == Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_54304" /> == | ||
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== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_7143" /> == | == International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_7143" /> == | ||
<p> ''''' par´a ''''' - ''''' dı̄s ''''' ( פּרדּס , <i> ''''' pardēṣ ''''' </i> ; παράδεισος , <i> ''''' parádeisos ''''' </i> ): </p> 1. Origin and Meaning: <p> A word probably of Persian origin meaning a royal park. See [[Garden]] . The word occurs in the Hebrew [[Scriptures]] but 3 times: Song of Solomon 4:13 , where it is translated "an orchard"; Nehemiah 2:8 , where it is translated "a forest" (the Revised Version margin "park"); Ecclesiastes 2:5 , where it is in the plural number (the King James Version "orchards," the Revised Version (British and American) "parks"). But it was early introduced into the Greek language, being made specially familiar by Xenophon upon his return from the expedition of [[Cyrus]] the [[Younger]] to [[Babylonia]] (see <i> [[Anab]] </i> . i. 2, section 7; 4, section 9; <i> Cyrop </i> . i. 3, section 14). In Septuagint the word is of frequent use in translating other terms of kindred significance. The Garden of Eden became "the paradise of pleasure or luxury" (Genesis 2:15; Genesis 3:23; Joel 2:3 ). The valley of the Jordan became 'the paradise of God' (Genesis 13:10 ). In Ezekiel 31:8 , Ezekiel 31:9 , according to Septuagint, there is no tree in the 'paradise of God' equal to that which in the prophet's vision symbolizes the glory of Assyria. The figures in the first 9 verses of this chapter may well have been suggested by what the prophet had himself seen of parks in the Persian empire. </p> 2. Use in Jewish Literatare: <p> In the apocryphal and pseudepigraphical literature the word is extensively used in a spiritual and symbolia sense, signalizing the place of happiness to be inherited by the righteous in contrast to Gehenna, the place of punishment to which the wicked were to be assigned. In the later Jewish literature "Sheol" is represented as a place where preliminary rewards and punishments are bestowed previous to the final judgment (see [[Apocalyptic Literature]]; [[Eschatology Of The Old Testament]]; and compare 2 [[Esdras]] 2:19; 8:52). But the representations in this literature are often vague and conflicting, some holding that there were 4 divisions in Sheol, one for those who were marryred for righteousness' sake, one for sinners who on earth had paid the penalty for their sins, one for the just who had not suffered martyrdom, and one for sinners who had not been punished on earth (En 102:15). But among the Alexandrian Jews the view prevailed that the separation of the righteous from the wicked took place immediately after death (see The Wisdom of Song of Solomon 3:14; 4:10; 5:5,17; Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xviii , i, 3; <i> Bj </i> , | <p> ''''' par´a ''''' - ''''' dı̄s ''''' ( פּרדּס , <i> ''''' pardēṣ ''''' </i> ; παράδεισος , <i> ''''' parádeisos ''''' </i> ): </p> 1. Origin and Meaning: <p> [[A]] word probably of Persian origin meaning a royal park. See [[Garden]] . The word occurs in the Hebrew [[Scriptures]] but 3 times: Song of Solomon 4:13 , where it is translated "an orchard"; Nehemiah 2:8 , where it is translated "a forest" (the Revised Version margin "park"); Ecclesiastes 2:5 , where it is in the plural number (the King James Version "orchards," the Revised Version (British and American) "parks"). But it was early introduced into the Greek language, being made specially familiar by Xenophon upon his return from the expedition of [[Cyrus]] the [[Younger]] to [[Babylonia]] (see <i> [[Anab]] </i> . i. 2, section 7; 4, section 9; <i> Cyrop </i> . i. 3, section 14). In Septuagint the word is of frequent use in translating other terms of kindred significance. The Garden of Eden became "the paradise of pleasure or luxury" ( Genesis 2:15; Genesis 3:23; Joel 2:3 ). The valley of the Jordan became 'the paradise of God' ( Genesis 13:10 ). In Ezekiel 31:8 , Ezekiel 31:9 , according to Septuagint, there is no tree in the 'paradise of God' equal to that which in the prophet's vision symbolizes the glory of Assyria. The figures in the first 9 verses of this chapter may well have been suggested by what the prophet had himself seen of parks in the Persian empire. </p> 2. Use in Jewish Literatare: <p> In the apocryphal and pseudepigraphical literature the word is extensively used in a spiritual and symbolia sense, signalizing the place of happiness to be inherited by the righteous in contrast to Gehenna, the place of punishment to which the wicked were to be assigned. In the later Jewish literature "Sheol" is represented as a place where preliminary rewards and punishments are bestowed previous to the final judgment (see [[Apocalyptic Literature]]; [[Eschatology Of The Old Testament]]; and compare 2 [[Esdras]] 2:19; 8:52). But the representations in this literature are often vague and conflicting, some holding that there were 4 divisions in Sheol, one for those who were marryred for righteousness' sake, one for sinners who on earth had paid the penalty for their sins, one for the just who had not suffered martyrdom, and one for sinners who had not been punished on earth (En 102:15). But among the Alexandrian Jews the view prevailed that the separation of the righteous from the wicked took place immediately after death (see The Wisdom of Song of Solomon 3:14; 4:10; 5:5,17; Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xviii , i, 3; <i> Bj </i> , [[Ii,]] viii, 14). This would seem to be the idea underlying the use of the word in the New Testament where it occurs only 3 times, and then in a sense remarkably free from sensuous suggestions. </p> 3. Used by Christ: <p> Christ uses the word but once ( Luke 23:43 ), when He said to the penitent thief, "Today shalt thou be with me in Paradise" (see [[&Abraham'S]] [[Bosom]] (compare [[Hades]] )). This was no time to choose words with dialectical precision. The consolation needed by the penitent thief suffering from thirst and agony and shame was such as was symbolized by the popular conception of paradise, which, as held by the Essenes, consisted of "habitations beyond the ocean, in a region that is neither oppressed with storms of rain, or snow, or with intense heat, but that this place is such as is refreshed by the gentle breathin of a west wind, that is perpetually blowing from the ocean" (Josephus, <i> [[Bj]] </i> , [[Ii,]] viii, 11). See [[Eschatology Of The New Testament]] . </p> 4. Other Forms and Uses: <p> Nowhere in His public teaching did Christ use the word "Paradise." He does indeed, when speaking in parables, employ the figure of the marriage supper, and of new wine, and elsewhere of Abraham's bosom, and of houses not made by hands, eternal in the heavens; but all these references are in striking contrast to the prevailing sensuous representations of the times (see 2 Esdras 2:19; 8:52), and such as have been introduced into Mohammedan literature. Likewise Paul ( 2 Corinthians 12:4 ) speaks of having been "caught up into Paradise" where he "heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter." See [[Eschatology Of The New Testament]] . But in 2 Corinthians 12:2 this is referred to more vaguely as "the third heaven." In Revelation 2:7 it is said to the members of the church at Ephesus who should overcome, [["I]] (will) give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the Paradise of God," where the Eden of Genesis 2:8 is made the symbol of the abode of the righteous, more fully described without the words in the last chapter of the book. The reticence of the sacred writers respecting this subject is in striking contrast to the profuseness and crudity both of rabbinical writers before Christ and of apocryphal writers and Christian commentators at a later time. "Where the true Gospels are most reticent, the mythical are most exuberant" (Perowne). This is especially noticeable in the Gospel of Nicodemus, the <i> Acta Philippi </i> , the writings of Tertullian ( <i> De [[Idol]] </i> . c. 13; <i> De [[Anim]] </i> . c. 55; Tertullian's treatise <i> De Paradiso </i> is lost), [[Clement]] of [[Alexandria]] (Frag. 51), and John of [[Damascus]] ( <i> De Orthod. Fid </i> ., ii, 11). In modern literature the conception of Paradise is effectually sublimated and spiritualized in Faber's familiar hymn: </p> <p> [["O]] Paradise, [[O]] [[P]] aradise, </p> <p> [[I]] greatly long to see </p> <p> The special place my dearest Lord </p> <p> Is destining for me; </p> <p> Where loyal hearts and true </p> <p> [[Stand]] ever in the light, </p> <p> All rapture thro' and thro', </p> <p> In God's most holy sight." </p> Literature. <p> The articles in the great Dicts., especially Herzog, <i> [[Re]] </i> ; <i> Hdb </i> ; Alger, <i> Critical History of the [[Doctrine]] of a Future Life </i> ; Schodde, <i> Book of Enoch </i> ; Lightfoot, <i> Hor. Heb </i> . on Luke 23:43; Salmond, <i> The Christian Doctrine of [[Immortality]] </i> , 346 ff. For a good account of Jewish and patristic speculation on Paradise, see Professor Plumptre's article in Smith's <i> [[Db]] </i> , [[Ii,]] 704 ff. </p> | ||
== Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature <ref name="term_16401" /> == | == Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature <ref name="term_16401" /> == | ||
<p> Par´adise, the term which by long and extensive use has been employed to designate the Garden of Eden, the first dwelling-place of human beings. The word was used by Xenophon and [[Plutarch]] to signify an extensive plot of ground, enclosed with a strong fence or wall, abounding in trees, shrubs, plants, and garden culture, and in which choice animals were kept in different ways of restraint or freedom, according as they were ferocious or peaceable; thus answering very closely to our English word park, with the addition of gardens, a menagerie, and an aviary. </p> <p> From its original meaning the term came by degrees to be employed as a metaphor for the abstract idea of exquisite delight, and then was transferred still higher to denote the happiness of the righteous in the future state. The origin of this application must be assigned to the Jews of the middle period between the Old and the New Testament. The Talmudical writings contain frequent references to Paradise as the immortal heaven, to which the spirits of the just are admitted immediately upon the liberation from the body. </p> <p> Hence we see that it was in the acceptation of the current Jewish phraseology that the expression was used by our Lord and the apostles: 'Today thou shalt be with me in Paradise;' 'He was caught up into Paradise:' 'The tree of life, which is in the Paradise of my God' (;; ). </p> <p> Eden is the most ancient and venerable name in geography, the name of the first district of the earth's surface of which human beings could have any knowledge. </p> <p> All that we know of it goes to show that Eden was a tract of country; and that in the most eligible part of it was the Paradise, the garden of all delights, in which the Creator was pleased to place his new and pre-eminent creature, with the inferior beings for his sustenance and solace. </p> <p> Upon the question of the exact geographical position of Eden, dissertations innumerable have been written. Many authors have given descriptive lists of them, with arguments for and against each. But we more than doubt the possibility of finding any locality that will answer to all the conditions of the problem. That Phrat is the Euphrates, and Hiddekel the Tigris, is agreed, with scarcely an exception; but in determining the two other rivers, great diversity of opinion exists; and, to our apprehension, satisfaction is and must remain unattainable, from the impossibility of making the evidence to cohere in all its parts. It has been remarked that this difficulty might have been expected, and is obviously probable, from the geological changes that may have taken place, and especially in connection with the deluge. This remark would not be applicable, to the extent that is necessary for the argument, except upon the supposition before mentioned, that the earlier parts of the book of Genesis consist of primeval documents, even antediluvian, and that this is one of them. There is reason to think that since the deluge the face of the country cannot have undergone any change approaching to what the hypothesis of a postdiluvian composition would require. But we think it highly probable that the principal of the immediate causes of the deluge, the 'breaking up of the fountains of the great deep,' was a subsidence of a large part or parts of the land between the inhabited tract (which we humbly venture to place in E. long. from Greenwich, 30° to 90°, and N. lat. 25° to 40°) and the sea which lay to the south; or an elevation of the bed of that sea. [[Either]] of these occurrences, produced by volcanic causes, or both of them conjointly or successively, would be adequate to the production of the awful deluge, and the return of the waters would be effected by an elevation of some part of the district which had been submerged; and that part could scarcely fail to be charged with animal remains. Now the recent geological researches of Dr. Falconer and Capt. Cautley have brought to light bones, more or less mineralized, of the giraffe in the Sewalik range of hills, which seems to be a branch of the Himalaya, westward of the river Jumna. But the giraffe is not an animal that can live in a mountainous region, or even on the skirts of such a region; its subsistence and its safety require 'an open country and broad plains to roam over.' The present position, therefore, of these fossil remains, lodged in ravines and vales among the peaks, at vast elevations, leads to the supposition of a late elevation of extensive plains. </p> <p> Thus we seem to have a middle course pointed out between the two extremes; the one, that by the deluge, the ocean and the land were made to exchange places for permanency; the other, that very little alteration was produced in the configuration of the earth's surface. Indeed, such alteration might not be considerable in places very distant from the focus of elevation; but near that central district it could not but be very great. An alteration of level, five hundred times less than that effected by the upthrow of the Himalayas, would change the beds of many rivers, and quite obliterate others. </p> <p> From all we can learn, then, of the Garden of Eden, it appears to have been a tract of country, the finest imaginable, lying probably between the 33rd and the 37th degree of N. latitude, of such moderate elevation, and so adjusted, with respect to mountain ranges and water sheds and forests, as to preserve the most agreeable and salubrious conditions of temperature and all atmospheric changes. Its surface must therefore have been constantly diversified by hill and plain. From its hill-sides, between the croppings out of their strata, springs trickled out, whose streamlets, joining in their courses, formed at the bottom small rivers, which again receiving other streams (which had in the same way flowed down from the higher grounds), became, in the bottom of every valley, a more considerable river. These valleys inosculated, as must consequently their contained streams; wider valleys or larger plains appeared; the river of each united itself with that of its next neighbor; others contributed their waters as the augmenting stream proceeded; and finally it departed from the land of Eden, to continue its course to some sea, or to lose its waters by the evaporation of the atmosphere or the absorption of the sandy desert. In the finest part of this land of Eden, the Creator had formed an enclosure, probably by rocks and forests and rivers, and had filled it with every product of nature conducive to use and happiness. [[Due]] moisture, of both the ground and the air, was preserved by the streamlets from the nearest hills, and the rivulets from the more distant; and such streamlets and rivulets, collected according to the levels of the surrounding country ('it proceeded from Eden') flowed off afterwards in four larger streams, each of which thus became the source of a great river. With regard to its locality, after the explication we have given it may seem the most suitable to look for the site of Paradise on the south of Armenia. From this opinion few, we think, will dissent. </p> | <p> Par´adise, the term which by long and extensive use has been employed to designate the Garden of Eden, the first dwelling-place of human beings. The word was used by Xenophon and [[Plutarch]] to signify an extensive plot of ground, enclosed with a strong fence or wall, abounding in trees, shrubs, plants, and garden culture, and in which choice animals were kept in different ways of restraint or freedom, according as they were ferocious or peaceable; thus answering very closely to our English word park, with the addition of gardens, a menagerie, and an aviary. </p> <p> From its original meaning the term came by degrees to be employed as a metaphor for the abstract idea of exquisite delight, and then was transferred still higher to denote the happiness of the righteous in the future state. The origin of this application must be assigned to the Jews of the middle period between the Old and the New Testament. The Talmudical writings contain frequent references to Paradise as the immortal heaven, to which the spirits of the just are admitted immediately upon the liberation from the body. </p> <p> Hence we see that it was in the acceptation of the current Jewish phraseology that the expression was used by our Lord and the apostles: 'Today thou shalt be with me in Paradise;' 'He was caught up into Paradise:' 'The tree of life, which is in the Paradise of my God' (;; ). </p> <p> Eden is the most ancient and venerable name in geography, the name of the first district of the earth's surface of which human beings could have any knowledge. </p> <p> All that we know of it goes to show that Eden was a tract of country; and that in the most eligible part of it was the Paradise, the garden of all delights, in which the Creator was pleased to place his new and pre-eminent creature, with the inferior beings for his sustenance and solace. </p> <p> Upon the question of the exact geographical position of Eden, dissertations innumerable have been written. Many authors have given descriptive lists of them, with arguments for and against each. But we more than doubt the possibility of finding any locality that will answer to all the conditions of the problem. That Phrat is the Euphrates, and Hiddekel the Tigris, is agreed, with scarcely an exception; but in determining the two other rivers, great diversity of opinion exists; and, to our apprehension, satisfaction is and must remain unattainable, from the impossibility of making the evidence to cohere in all its parts. It has been remarked that this difficulty might have been expected, and is obviously probable, from the geological changes that may have taken place, and especially in connection with the deluge. This remark would not be applicable, to the extent that is necessary for the argument, except upon the supposition before mentioned, that the earlier parts of the book of Genesis consist of primeval documents, even antediluvian, and that this is one of them. There is reason to think that since the deluge the face of the country cannot have undergone any change approaching to what the hypothesis of a postdiluvian composition would require. But we think it highly probable that the principal of the immediate causes of the deluge, the 'breaking up of the fountains of the great deep,' was a subsidence of a large part or parts of the land between the inhabited tract (which we humbly venture to place in [[E.]] long. from Greenwich, 30° to 90°, and [[N.]] lat. 25° to 40°) and the sea which lay to the south; or an elevation of the bed of that sea. [[Either]] of these occurrences, produced by volcanic causes, or both of them conjointly or successively, would be adequate to the production of the awful deluge, and the return of the waters would be effected by an elevation of some part of the district which had been submerged; and that part could scarcely fail to be charged with animal remains. Now the recent geological researches of Dr. Falconer and Capt. Cautley have brought to light bones, more or less mineralized, of the giraffe in the Sewalik range of hills, which seems to be a branch of the Himalaya, westward of the river Jumna. But the giraffe is not an animal that can live in a mountainous region, or even on the skirts of such a region; its subsistence and its safety require 'an open country and broad plains to roam over.' The present position, therefore, of these fossil remains, lodged in ravines and vales among the peaks, at vast elevations, leads to the supposition of a late elevation of extensive plains. </p> <p> Thus we seem to have a middle course pointed out between the two extremes; the one, that by the deluge, the ocean and the land were made to exchange places for permanency; the other, that very little alteration was produced in the configuration of the earth's surface. Indeed, such alteration might not be considerable in places very distant from the focus of elevation; but near that central district it could not but be very great. An alteration of level, five hundred times less than that effected by the upthrow of the Himalayas, would change the beds of many rivers, and quite obliterate others. </p> <p> From all we can learn, then, of the Garden of Eden, it appears to have been a tract of country, the finest imaginable, lying probably between the 33rd and the 37th degree of [[N.]] latitude, of such moderate elevation, and so adjusted, with respect to mountain ranges and water sheds and forests, as to preserve the most agreeable and salubrious conditions of temperature and all atmospheric changes. Its surface must therefore have been constantly diversified by hill and plain. From its hill-sides, between the croppings out of their strata, springs trickled out, whose streamlets, joining in their courses, formed at the bottom small rivers, which again receiving other streams (which had in the same way flowed down from the higher grounds), became, in the bottom of every valley, a more considerable river. These valleys inosculated, as must consequently their contained streams; wider valleys or larger plains appeared; the river of each united itself with that of its next neighbor; others contributed their waters as the augmenting stream proceeded; and finally it departed from the land of Eden, to continue its course to some sea, or to lose its waters by the evaporation of the atmosphere or the absorption of the sandy desert. In the finest part of this land of Eden, the Creator had formed an enclosure, probably by rocks and forests and rivers, and had filled it with every product of nature conducive to use and happiness. [[Due]] moisture, of both the ground and the air, was preserved by the streamlets from the nearest hills, and the rivulets from the more distant; and such streamlets and rivulets, collected according to the levels of the surrounding country ('it proceeded from Eden') flowed off afterwards in four larger streams, each of which thus became the source of a great river. With regard to its locality, after the explication we have given it may seem the most suitable to look for the site of Paradise on the south of Armenia. From this opinion few, we think, will dissent. </p> | ||
==References == | ==References == | ||
