Difference between revisions of "Deuteronomy"

<p> <strong> [[Deuteronomy]] </strong> </p> <p> 1. Structure, Origin, [[Influence]] . The book consists of three speeches (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:6 to &nbsp; Deuteronomy 4:40; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 4:5-26; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 4:28; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 29:2 to &nbsp; Deuteronomy 30:20 ) and two poems (chs. 32, 33), all of which are represented as having been uttered by Moses on the plains of [[Moab]] before the crossing of Jordan. The slight narrative (chs. 27, 31, 34) is concerned mainly with the last days of Moses. [[Chapters]] 1 3, however, contain an historical sketch cast into the form of a speech. </p> <p> Chs. 5 26, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:1-46 are a unity with a formal opening (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 4:44-49 ) and close (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 29:1 ); and this section, apart from some later additions, is homogeneous. Thus chs. 5 11 elaborate those principles concerning [[Jahweh]] and His relation to His people which give a peculiar character to the [[Hebrew]] polity; chs. 12 26 develop these into a code of law; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 28:1-46 pronounces blessings on obedience, curses on disobedience. This section, it is now agreed, was the Law-book found in the [[Temple]] in the 18th year of [[Josiah]] (b.c. 622 621), which formed the basis of the reform described in &nbsp; 2 Kings 22:1-20 f. Thus Josiah abolished the high places in Judah and [[Jerusalem]] (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:8; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:13 ), and confined legitimate worship to the sanctuary at Jerusalem; and this centralization of the cult is the dominating idea of &nbsp; Deuteronomy 5:1-33; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:1-25; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 7:1-26; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 8:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 9:1-29; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 10:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 11:1-32; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:1-32; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 13:1-18; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 14:1-29; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 15:1-23; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 16:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 17:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 18:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 19:1-21; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 20:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 21:1-23; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:1-30; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 23:1-25; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 24:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 25:1-19; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 26:1-19 . Again, Josiah purified the Jahweh-worship from baser elements, destroying the [[Asherah]] (&nbsp; 2 Kings 23:6 , cf. &nbsp; Deuteronomy 16:21 f.) and the houses of sodomy (&nbsp; 2 Kings 23:7 , cf. &nbsp; Deuteronomy 23:17 f.). His opposition to idolatry was directed against the same forms as those denounced in Deut. (cf. the sun-worship, &nbsp; 2 Kings 23:5; &nbsp; 2 Kings 23:11 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 17:3; and the worship of Milcom, &nbsp; Deuteronomy 23:10; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 23:13 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:31 ). The Passover, celebrated in his day at Jerusalem, is stated to have been unique (&nbsp; 2 Kings 23:21 ff.); and Deut. forbids the celebration of the [[Passover]] elsewhere than in Jerusalem (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 16:5 f.). The king abolished the superstitious means of learning the [[Divine]] will (&nbsp; 2 Kings 23:24 ), which Deut. forbids (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 18:10 ff.). The demands of the Law-book and the performance of the king are parallel. </p> <p> It is, however, a more difficult question how far the reforms which Josiah instituted in obedience to Deut. were new, and how far they were a return to older practices from which the nation had degenerated during the early monarchy. Three other codes can be distinguished in the Pentateuch, and a comparison of these with Deut. helps to determine its place in the development of Israel’s religion. An examination of the social legislation in Deut. leads to the conclusion that it is later than the Book of the [[Covenant]] (&nbsp;Exodus 20:1 to &nbsp; Exodus 23:33 ). Though we are not justified in calling Deut. a deliberate expansion of this legislation, it certainly represents a more developed state of society, as is seen, <em> e.g. </em> , in its numerous laws about contracts. And in one particular it controls the cult at a cardinal point which Exod. left vague: the ‘every place where Jahweh records his name’ (&nbsp; Exodus 20:24 ) has become ‘the place which Jahweh shall choose to put his name there’ (Deut. <em> passim </em> ). When Deut. is compared with the Law of [[Holiness]] (&nbsp; Leviticus 17:1-16; &nbsp; Leviticus 18:1-30; &nbsp; Leviticus 19:1-37; &nbsp; Leviticus 20:1-27; &nbsp; Leviticus 21:1-24; &nbsp; Leviticus 22:1-33; &nbsp; Leviticus 23:1-44; &nbsp; Leviticus 24:1-23; &nbsp; Leviticus 25:1-55; &nbsp; Leviticus 26:1-46 ), the codes are seen to be framed for different purposes Leviticus as a handbook for priests, Deut. as a layman’s manual. But their legislation is parallel. [[Compared]] with P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , Deut. is earlier, for questions left uncertain in Deut. are decided in P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] . See further, art. Hexateuch. </p> <p> The few references in Deut. to events in Israel’s history bear out the conclusion thus reached, for they are dependent on JE [Note: [[Jewish]] Encyclopedia.] , but show no acquaintance with P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ’s history. It is difficult, <em> e.g. </em> , to explain the absence of [[Korah]] in &nbsp; Deuteronomy 11:6 , if the author read &nbsp; Numbers 16:1-50 in its present form, where Korah from P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] has been woven into the early story. When chs. 1 3 (see below) are included in this scrutiny, they support the inference that Deut. was an independent book, before P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] was incorporated with JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] . </p> <p> There are further indications of the date at which this code was introduced. Thus Deut. insists throughout on one sanctuary, at which legitimate worship can be offered to Jahweh. </p> <p> The extent to which this dominates the code is not to be measured merely by the number of times the command is repeated. Older customs are recast in consequence of this change. The Passover alters its character from a family to a national festival (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 16:5 f.). A central tribunal is set up to replace the decisions at the local shrines (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 17:8 f.). Asylums for the manslayer are needed (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 19:1 ff.), since the village altars where he once found safety (&nbsp; Exodus 21:14 ) are abolished, etc. </p> <p> Now this was an innovation in Israel. Elijah, far from condemning the high places, is indignant at the sacrilege which has thrown down the altars of Jahweh (&nbsp;1 Kings 19:10 ). When he leaves the polluted land to seek Jahweh, he makes his way not to Jerusalem, but to [[Horeb]] (contrast &nbsp; Isaiah 2:2 f.). Hosea and Amos find much to condemn in the worship which was practised at [[Bethel]] and Dan, but never suggest that any worship offered at these shrines was <em> ipso facto </em> illegitimate. Yet these were the religious teachers of the nation. Deut., again, forbids the erection of pillars beside Jahweh’s altars (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:3 f.); it is difficult to understand how Isaiah (&nbsp; Isaiah 19:19 ) could have associated a pillar with Jahweh-worship, had this law been accepted in his day. The worship of the host of heaven one of the few forms of idolatry specified in Deut. is not mentioned till it receives severe blame from the prophets of the 7th cent. (&nbsp; Jeremiah 8:2; &nbsp; Jeremiah 19:13; &nbsp; Jeremiah 32:29 , &nbsp; Zephaniah 1:3 ). But this [[Assyrian]] cult became a real danger to Israel’s religion, when [[Manasseh]] came under Eastern influences. </p> <p> [[Hezekiah]] is the first king of whom we learn that he attempted to remove the high places (&nbsp;2 Kings 18:14 ). Evidently, however, this was an unpopular step, for the [[Rabshakeh]] was able to appeal to the conservative instincts of the nation against a king who practised such questionable innovations (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 18:22 ). What impelled Hezekiah was a religious, not a political, motive. The splendid monotheistic teaching of Isaiah carried with it the Inference ‘One God, one sanctuary.’ Besides, the abuses which were associated with the local shrines compelled the religious leaders of the nation, who had been influenced by the teaching of Hosea and Amos, to go to the root and abolish such worship altogether. The one means of purifying their worship was to sever it from the high places with their [[Canaanite]] associations. Political events helped them. The fall of N. [[Israel]] (b.c. 722) carried with it the condemnation of the worship which was practised there, and swept away the worshippers who were attached to it. The deliverance of Jerusalem from [[Sennacherib]] threw a glory round the sanctuary of which Jahweh had so signally vindicated the inviolability. Probably a body of reformers framed their code in Hezekiah’s later years. They did not create a new legislation, they recast and put a new spirit into an older code. It would have been impossible to secure the acceptance of a brand-new code from a whole people. </p> <p> Efforts have been made to break up &nbsp;Deuteronomy 5:1-33; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:1-25; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 7:1-26; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 8:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 9:1-29; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 10:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 11:1-32; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:1-32; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 13:1-18; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 14:1-29; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 15:1-23; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 16:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 17:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 18:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 19:1-21; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 20:1-20; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 21:1-23; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:1-30; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 23:1-25; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 24:1-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 25:1-19; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 26:1-19 into several sections, and to trace their origin. These have not been very convincing: they have relied too much on a proof of difference of origin derived from the use of the singular or the plural number in forms of address to the people. But they have proved that older elements and varied elements have been fused together into this Law-book. </p> <p> Under Manasseh there followed a strong reaction, which resorted even to persecution. The reformers’ Law-book was forgotten, the reformers themselves may have been martyred. But the code itself survived to be discovered under Josiah, and to become the basis of a pregnant reform. </p> <p> [[Opinion]] is divided as to whether chs. 1 3 are by the hand which wrote the main work. The fact that in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:2 ff. Moses is represented as speaking to men who had witnessed the Exodus, while in &nbsp; Deuteronomy 2:14 ff. that generation is represented as dead, seems decisive that they are not. The chapters may have been added as an historical introduction to a separate edition of the code. The fact that their history is based on JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] proves that this must have been early. </p> <p> Chapters &nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:1-40; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 4:29 f. belong together, and are a later addition in view of new circumstances, viz., the prospect or the reality of exile. </p> <p> The Song (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:1-43 ), with its double introduction (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 31:16-22; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 31:30 ) and close (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 32:44 ), is a didactic poem, giving an interpretation of Israel’s entire history, and bearing traces of influence from the Wisdom literature. It may date from the 7th cent. or the Exile. </p> <p> The Blessing (ch. 33) dates from a time when N. Israel in the flush of its vigour could anticipate further conquests (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:17 ), since Eastern Israel had regained part of its lost territory (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 32:20 ). It may belong to the reign of [[Jeroboam]] II. (b.c. 782 43), by whom the [[Syrians]] of [[Damascus]] were defeated. </p> <p> Ch. 27 is difficult to assign. It evidently breaks the connexion of 26 and 28, and as evidently is composite. The [[Levites]] in &nbsp;Leviticus 27:14 ff. carry out what in &nbsp; Leviticus 27:12 ff. the tribes are commissioned to do, and there are no blessings uttered at all. There may be early elements in &nbsp; Leviticus 27:4 ff., but it is best to confess that the chapter is still a <em> crux </em> . </p> <p> <strong> 2. Main principles </strong> . ( <em> a </em> ) The fundamental principle of the book is the <em> unity of Jahweh </em> , who is God of the whole earth (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 10:14 ), and who is more than the God of Israel, since He has relations to other nations apart from their relations to Israel (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 9:5 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:31 ). This carries with it the consequence that idolatry is the supreme sin (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:14 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 17:2 ff. etc.). To avoid even the possibility of such a crime, intercourse with other nations is severely restrained (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 7:1 ff. etc.), and older customs of worship are forbidden (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 16:21 etc.). ( <em> b </em> ) As He is God of the whole earth, Jahweh’s <em> will </em> is the moral law, and in connexion with its requirements He rewards and punishes (cf. the teaching of Amos). As God of Israel, the fundamental principles of His relation to His people are also ethical. ( <em> c </em> ) Yet Jahweh is not merely a lifeless moral principle or glorified code. His <em> love </em> to His people was shown, before they could prove any desert (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 9:4 f. etc.). He gave them their land a gift they must not imagine themselves to have merited (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 8:7 ff.). Hence love is the supreme return for His love (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:4 f. etc., and cf. Hosea). Hence also there is room for worship and for prayer. Their cult, an expression of their loving gratitude, is to be joyous in character, not like the darker superstitions to which national disaster and foreign rites were making them incline (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:18 etc.). ( <em> d </em> ) A religion, the heart of which is loving gratitude, naturally expresses itself in <em> humanity </em> towards all with whom men live, and even towards the lower animals (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:1 f. etc. &nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:6 f. etc.). A religion also with so strong a sense of the Divine personality brings with it respect for human personality (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 24:10 f.). ( <em> e </em> ) As personal and loving, Jahweh can and does <em> reveal Himself </em> . Through His self-revelation He is the historic God of Israel. This is emphasized in contrast with the baalim, who, as gods of Canaan, had no historic connexion with Israel. Jahweh has made known Himself and His will by the deeds He has wrought for and among His people. (Hence it was a right instinct which led to the addition of chs. 1 3 with their record of Jahweh’s past guidance.) ( <em> f </em> ) This element enters now into the <em> cult </em> . It gives fresh historic associations to the national festivals and weds them to the great events of their past. See especially ch. 26, where all Israel’s past is made to enter into the worship of the individual Israelite, and where also emphasis is laid on the truth that the fruits of the land are not from the baalim, but from Jahweh’s bounty (cf. &nbsp; Hosea 2:8 ). ( <em> g </em> ) Such a religion, with its strong sense of the historic unity of God’s dealings with His nation, and its conviction of the reasonableness of God’s demands, can and ought to be <em> taught </em> . [[Children]] are to have it explained to them (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:6 f., &nbsp; Deuteronomy 11:19 ); and means are to be used to bring it to men’s thoughts daily (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 6:9 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 11:20 ). Most of the outward observances are thus brought into connexion with great vivifying principles, so that this code becomes the finest illustration of an effort made to bring religious principles home to a nation in its entire work and life. </p> <p> A. C. Welch. </p>

<p> After receiving the law at Mt Sinai, Israel spent almost forty years in the wilderness region between [[Sinai]] and Canaan. During this time the adults died and a new generation grew up (cf. &nbsp;Numbers 14:28-35). Moses’ repetition of the law for this new generation is recorded in the book called Deuteronomy (from two Greek words, deuteros, meaning ‘second’, and nomos, meaning ‘law’). [[Concerning]] the authorship of the book and its relation to the previous four books see [[Pentateuch]] . </p> <p> '''Characteristic style''' </p> <p> Deuteronomy does more than simply repeat the law; it expounds the law, giving it a new emphasis. It shows that God wants more than legal correctness. He wants his people to obey him because they want to, not because they are forced to. He wants the relationship with his people to be one of warmth and love (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:3; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:5-7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:7-8; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:11; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:5). The book’s style is that of the preacher rather than the lawgiver; its audience is the people as a whole rather than the priests and judges (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:8-9; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:6; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 10:12-13). </p> <p> The basis of Deuteronomy is the covenant between [[Yahweh]] and his people. In his sovereign grace, God chose Israel to be his people, and promised them [[Canaan]] for a national homeland (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:1; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:4-5). Israel could do nothing but accept God’s grace and promise to serve him with loving obedience (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 5:6-7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:1-3; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 10:12-13; see [[Covenant]] ). </p> <p> In form Deuteronomy is similar to the normal covenant documents of the ancient Near East. When a sovereign overlord made a covenant with his subject peoples, he prepared a treaty document that declared his sovereignty over them and laid down the order of life he required of them. This is what God did with his people Israel, using Moses as his mediator. </p> <p> '''Contents of the covenant document''' </p> <p> Usually a treaty document began with an historical introduction in which the overlord, after announcing his name, recounted all he had done for his people. Deuteronomy opens with God’s recounting all he had done for Israel (1:1-3:29) and urging the people to be loyal to him in return (4:1-43). </p> <p> After the introduction came a statement of the covenant’s basic requirements. For Israel the basic principles were in the form of ten commandments (4:44-5:33). Love would enable the people to do God’s will. There was to be no treachery through forming alliances with foreign powers (foreign gods) (6:1-25). God was giving his people a good land, but they had to remember that life depends on more than the food people eat. It depends on spiritual forces found only in God (7:1-8:20). The people therefore were not to be stubborn (9:1-10:11), but were to have humble purity of heart towards God and towards their fellows (10:12-11:32). </p> <p> Having established the basic principles, the treaty document then set out the detailed laws. [[Ancient]] custom allowed treaties to be updated from time to time to suit changing circumstances. In the case of the Israelites, they would no longer be together as a vast crowd moving through the wilderness, but would split up, spread out and settle down in an agriculturally fertile country. Moses’ repetition of the law therefore included adjustments to fit in with the people’s new way of life (e.g. 11:10-11; 12:20-22; 14:24-27; 18:6-8). </p> <p> The updated covenant document dealt with a number of matters, including faithfulness in worship (12:1-13:18), honesty in religious and social matters (14:1-16:17), justice in government (16:18-19:21), respect for human life (20:1-21:23), sexual purity (22:1-23:25), protection for the disadvantaged in society (24:1-25:4), and integrity in family relations, business dealings and religious duties (25:5-26:15). The two parties then declared their loyalty to the covenant (26:16-19). </p> <p> In keeping with the form of ancient treaties, the covenant also listed the rewards and punishments (blessings and cursings) that people could expect. If they were obedient, they would enjoy increased benefits from the overlord; if they were disobedient, they would suffer severe penalties (27:1-28:68). Having stated the conditions under which the covenant operated, Moses then formally renewed it (29:1-30:20). A further feature of the covenant was the twofold provision for its maintenance. First, the people had to assemble periodically to hear it read; second, the document had to be kept in the central shrine, where it served as an absolute standard of reference (31:1-29). </p> <p> Moses summarized the covenant’s contents in a song that the people were to memorize and sing (31:30-32:47). He brought the ceremony, and his leadership of Israel, to a fitting close by announcing prophetic blessings on each of Israel’s twelve tribes (32:48-33:29). After viewing the promised land, he died peacefully (34:1-12). </p>

<p> [[Deuteronomy]] ( ''Deû'Ter-Ŏn'O-My'' ), or ''The Second Law'' (so called from its repeating the law), is the fifth book of the Bible, and, except the last chapter, was probably written by Moses. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 1:5, comp. with &nbsp;Deuteronomy 34:1; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:4; &nbsp;Daniel 9:13; &nbsp;Mark 12:19; &nbsp;Acts 3:22. This book contains three addresses of Moses to the [[Israelites]] in the plain of Moab in the 11th month of the 40th year of their journeyings. The [[First]] address. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 1:1 to Deu_4:40. is a brief rehearsal of the history of the "Wandering," and plea to obedience. The ''Second'' address, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 5:1 to Deu_26:19, contains a recapitulation, with a few additions and alterations, of the law given on Sinai. The [[Third]] part of &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:1 to &nbsp;Deuteronomy 30:20, opens with the joint command of Moses and the elders to keep all the commandments, and, when they had crossed the Jordan, to write them upon the great plastered stones they were ordered to set up with appropriate ceremonies. Then follows the third address, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:11 to Deu_30:20, whose topic is, "The blessing and the curse." After these three addresses, in chapter 31 there follows the delivery of the law to Joshua and Moses' speech on the occasion, containing a command to read the law every seven years. In &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:1-52 we have the song of Moses; in chapter 33 Moses' blessing of the twelve tribes. These were the last written words of Moses, and most beautifully do they set forth the majesty of God and the excellency of Israel. The final verses of the book give an account of the death of Moses, and were, of course, written by another hand. </p>

<p> from δευτερος , <em> second, </em> and νομος ; <em> law; </em> the last book of the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses. As its name imports, it contains a repetition of the civil and moral law, which was a second time delivered by Moses, with some additions and explanations, as well to impress it more forcibly upon the Israelites in general, as in particular for the benefit of those who, being born in the wilderness, were not present at the first promulgation of the law. It contains also a recapitulation of the several events which had befallen the Israelites since their departure from Egypt, with severe reproaches for their past misconduct, and earnest exhortations to future obedience. The [[Messiah]] is explicitly foretold in this book; and there are many remarkable predictions interspersed in it, particularly in the twenty-eighth, thirtieth, thirty-second, and thirty-third chapters, relative to the future condition of the Jews. The book of Deuteronomy finishes with an account of the death of Moses, which is supposed to have been added by his successor, Joshua. </p>

<li> Its style and allusions are also strikingly consistent with the circumstances and position of Moses and of the people at that time. <p> This body of positive evidence cannot be set aside by the conjectures and reasonings of modern critics, who contended that the book was somewhat like a forgery, introduced among the [[Jews]] some seven or eight centuries after the Exodus. </p> <div> <p> '''Copyright Statement''' These dictionary topics are from M.G. Easton [[M.A., DD]]  Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, published by [[Thomas]] Nelson, 1897. Public Domain. </p> <p> '''Bibliography Information''' Easton, Matthew George. Entry for 'Deuteronomy'. Easton's Bible Dictionary. https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/ebd/d/deuteronomy.html. 1897. </p> </div> </li>

<p> Deuteron´omy, the Greek name given by the [[Alexandrian]] Jews to the fifth book of Moses. It comprises that series of addresses which the Lawgiver delivered (orally and by writing,; , etc.) to assembled Israel in the second month of the fortieth year of their wandering through the desert, when the second generation was about to cross the Jordan, and when the parting hour of Moses had nearly arrived. </p> <p> The speeches begin with the enumeration of the wonderful dealings of God with the chosen people in the early period of their existence. Moses clearly proves to them the punishment of unbelief, the obduracy of Israel, and the faithfulness of Jehovah with regard to his promises, which were now on the point of being accomplished. Fully aware of the tendencies of the people, and foreseeing their alienations, Moses conjures them most impressively to hold fast the commands of the Lord, and not to forget his revelations, lest curses should befall them instead of blessings (Deuteronomy 1-4). The Lawgiver then expatiates on the spirit of the law, and its reception into the hearts of men, both in a positive and negative way. Fear, he says, is the primary effect of the law, as also its aim. As Israel had once listened to the announcement of the fundamental laws of the theocracy with a sacred fear, in like manner should man also receive, through the whole system of the law, a lively and awful impression of the holiness and majesty of God (Deuteronomy 5). But as the essence and sum of the law is love to Jehovah, the only and true God, man shall by the law be reminded of the Divine mercy, so variously manifested in deeds; and this reflection is calculated to rouse in man's heart love for God. This love is the only and true source from which proper respect and obedience to the law can proceed (Deuteronomy 6). </p> <p> There were, however, two tempting deviations, in following which the people were sure to be led astray. The law, in its strict rigor, was but too apt to tempt them to desert Jehovah, and to yield to idolatry (the very approval of which even in thought polluted the heart), by discontinuing to bear the heavy yoke of the law. Hence the most impressive warnings against Canaan's inhabitants and idols; and hence the declarations that Israel, in placing themselves on a par with the heathens, should have to endure an equal fate with them, and be repulsed from the presence of Jehovah . </p> <p> The other, not less dangerous, deviation is that of self-righteousness—the proud fancy that all the favors Jehovah had shown to his people were merely in consequence of their own deservings. Therefore Jehovah tells them that it was not through their own worthiness and purity of heart that they inherited the land of the heathens. It was only through His free favor; for their sins bore too strong and constant testimony how little they ought to take credit to themselves for it (Deuteronomy 9). </p> <p> The history of the people, before and after the exile, shows these two deviations in their fullest bearings. [[Idolatry]] we find to have been the besetting sin before that period, and presumptuous pride of heart after it; a proof how intimately acquainted the Lawgiver was with the character and disposition of his people, and how necessary therefore those warnings had been. </p> <p> Therefore, adds Moses, turn to that which Jehovah, in giving you the tables of the law, and establishing the Tabernacle and priesthood, has intimated as a significant symbol, 'to circumcise the foreskin of your heart,' and to cherish love in your inward soul. Think of Jehovah, the just and merciful, whose blessings and curses shall be set before your eyes as a lasting monument upon the mounts Ebal and Gerizim (Deuteronomy 10-11). </p> <p> The mention of that fact leads the Lawgiver to the domestic and practical life of the people when domesticated in their true home, the Land of Promise; which he further regulates by a fixed and solid rule, by new laws, which for this, their new design and purport, form a sort of complement to the laws already given. There, in the land of their forefathers, Jehovah will appoint one fixed place for His lasting sanctuary, when every other place dedicated to the worship of idols is to be destroyed. At that chosen spot alone are the sacrifices to be killed, while cattle in general, which are not destined for sacred purposes, but merely for food, may be slaughtered at all places according to convenience—a regulation which still leaves in full force the previous laws concerning the eating of blood, and the share of Jehovah in slaughtered cattle. This sanctuary was to be considered as the central point for all sacred objects. The whole land was, by means of the sanctuary established in the midst of it, consecrated and dedicated to Jehovah. This consecration was incompatible with any defilement whatsoever. On that account the Canaanites must be exterminated, and all idolatrous abominations destroyed, since nothing ought to be added to or taken from the laws of God (Deuteronomy 12). For the same reason (i.e. for the sake of the holiness of the land, diffused from the sacred center), no false prophets or soothsayers are to be tolerated, as they may turn the minds of the people from the law, by establishing a different one, and therefore even a whole town given to the worship of idols must be demolished by force of arms (Deuteronomy 13). Neither, in like manner, must the heathen customs of mourning be imitated, or unclean beasts eaten; but the people must always remain true to the previous laws concerning food, etc. and show their real attachment to Jehovah and his religion by willingly paying the tithe as ordained by the law (Deuteronomy 14). To the same end likewise shall the regulations concerning the years of release and the festivals of Jehovah (to be solemnized in the place of the new-chosen Sanctuary) be most scrupulously observed (Deuteronomy 15-16). Only unblemished sacrifices shall be offered, for all idol-worshippers must irrevocably be put to death by stoning. For the execution of due punishment, honest judges must govern the nation, while the highest tribunal shall exist in the place chosen for the Sanctuary, consisting of the priests and judges of the land. If a king be given by God to the people, he shall first of all accommodate himself to the laws of God, and not lead a heathen life. Next to the regal and judicial dignities, the ecclesiastical power shall exist in its full right; and again, next to it, the prophetic order (Deuteronomy 17-18). Of all these institutions, the duties of the judicial power are most clearly defined; for Jehovah does as little suffer that in His land the right of the innocent shall be turned aside, as that indulgence shall be shown to the evil-doer (Deuteronomy 19). The exposition of the civil law is followed by that of the martial law, which has some bearing upon the then impending war with Canaan, as the most important war and representing that with the heathen nations in general (Deuteronomy 20). These are again followed by a series of laws in reference to the preceding, and referring chiefly to hard cases in the judicial courts, by which Moses obviously designed to exhibit the whole of the civil life of his people in its strict application to the theocratic system of law and right. Therefore the form of prayer to be spoken at the offering up of the firstlings and tithe—the theocratic confession of faith—by which every Israelite acknowledges in person that he is what God has enjoined and called him to be, forms a beautiful conclusion of the whole legislation (Deuteronomy 21-26). </p> <p> The blessings and curses of Jehovah, the two opposite extremes which were to be impressed upon the minds of the people at their entrance into Canaan, and which have hitherto been spoken of only in general terms, are now set forth in their fullest detail, picturing in the most lively colors the delightful abundance of rich blessings on the one hand, and the awful visitations of Heaven's wrath on the other. The prophetic speeches visibly and gradually increase in energy and enthusiasm, until the perspective of the remotest future of the people of God lies open to the eye of the inspired Lawgiver in all its checkered details, when his words resolve themselves into a flight of poetical ecstasy, into the strains of a splendid triumphal song in which the tone of grief and lamentation is as heart-rending as the announcement of divine salvation therein is jubilant (Deuteronomy 27-28). The history of the law concludes with a supplement concerning him who was deemed worthy by the Lord to transmit his law to Israel (Deuteronomy 34). </p> <p> Thus much regarding the contents and connection of the book of Deuteronomy. </p> <p> The date, however, of the composition of the book, as well as its authenticity, has given rise to a great variety of opinion, more especially among those who are opposed to the authorship of Moses. The older critics considered Deuteronomy as the latest production of all the books of the Pentateuch; while the more recent critics have come to just the contrary opinion, and declare it to be the earliest of the Mosaic writings. </p> <p> A very strong proof of the genuineness of the book lies in its relation to the later writings of the prophets. Of all the books of the Pentateuch, Deuteronomy has been made most use of by the prophets, simply because it is best calculated to serve as a model for prophetic declarations, as also because of the inward harmony that exists between the prophecies and the laws upon which they are based. </p> <p> Among the arguments advanced against the authenticity of Deuteronomy, are: </p> <p> 1. The contradictions said to exist between this and the other books of Moses; </p> <p> 2. Certain anachronisms committed by the author. </p> <p> These contradictions are more especially alleged to exist in the festival laws, where but arbitrary and unwarranted views are mostly entertained by such critics with regard to the nature and original meaning of the festivals, which they identify altogether with natural or season festivals, and without lending to them a more spiritual character and signification. </p> <p> 3. That the Sinai of the other books is always called Horeb in Deuteronomy.—They forget, however, that Horeb is the general name of the whole mountain, while Sinai is the special name of a particular part of it. This distinction is, indeed, most scrupulously observed everywhere in the Pentateuch. </p> <p> 4. That in are mentioned the Amorites, instead of the Amalekites, as in .—Here also they have forgotten to notice that, in the sequel of the very passage alluded to in Deuteronomy, both the Amorites and Amalekites are mentioned. </p> <p> 5. That the cause of the punishment of Moses is differently stated in , and .—To this objection we reply, that both the guilt and punishment of Moses are described in both books as originating with the people; comp. also , etc. </p> <p> Among the anachronisms in Deuteronomy are reckoned the allusions made in it to the Temple (Deuteronomy 12; , sqq.), to the royal and prophetic powers (Deuteronomy 13; Deuteronomy 17-18), to the different modes of idol-worship , and to the exile (Deuteronomy 28, sq.). In suggesting these critical points, however, they do not consider that all these subjects are most closely and intimately connected with the spirit and principles of the law itself, and that all these regulations and prophecies appear here in Deuteronomy, as necessary finishing-points to the Law, so indispensable for the better consolidation of the subsequent and later relations of the theocracy. </p> <p> More anachronisms are said to be, </p> <p> 1. The sixty dwelling-places of [[Jair]] mentioned , sq. (comp. , sq.). We consider, however, that the men mentioned in the two passages are evidently different persons, though of the same name. Nor is it difficult to prove from other sources, that there really existed at the time of Moses a man by name Jair. </p> <p> 2. The notice concerning king Og, which looks more like a note of a subsequent writer in corroboration of the story told in the chapter. But this hypothesis falls to the ground when we consider that Moses did not write for his contemporaries merely, but also for late posterity. The book contains, moreover, not a small number of plain, though indirect traces, indicative of its Mosaic origin. We thus find in it: </p> <p> 1. Numerous notices concerning nations with whom the Israelites had then come in contact, but who, after the Mosaic period, entirely disappeared from the pages of history: such are the accounts of the residences of the kings of Bashan . </p> <p> 2. The appellation of 'mountain of the Amorites,' used throughout the whole book (;; ), while even in the book of Joshua, soon after the conquest of the land, the name is already exchanged for 'mountains of Judah' . </p> <p> 3. The observation , that the Emim had formerly dwelt in the plain of Moab: they were a great people, equal to the Anakim. This observation quite accords with . </p> <p> 4. A detailed account concerning the Horim and their relations to the Edomites. </p> <p> 5. An account of the Zamzummim , one of the earliest races of Canaan, though mentioned nowhere else. </p> <p> 6. A very circumstantial account of the Rephaim (, sq.), with whose concerns the author seems to have been well acquainted. </p> <p> The standing-point also of the author of Deuteronomy is altogether in the Mosaic time, and had it been assumed and fictitious, there must necessarily have been moments when the spurious author would have been off his guard, and unmindful of the part he had to play. But no discrepancies of this kind can be traced; and this is in itself an evidence of the genuineness of the book. </p> <p> A great number of other passages force us likewise to the conclusion, that the whole of Deuteronomy originated in the time of Moses. Such are the passages where </p> <p> 1. A comparison is drawn between Canaan and Egypt (, sq.), with the latter of which the author seems thoroughly acquainted. </p> <p> 2. Detailed descriptions are given of the fertility and productions of Egypt (, sq.). </p> <p> 3. Regulations are given relating to the conquest of Canaan (, sq.; 20:1, sq.), which cannot be understood otherwise than by assuming that they had been framed in the Mosaic time, since they could be of no use after that period. </p> <p> Besides, whole pieces and chapters in Deuteronomy, such as Deuteronomy 32-33, betray in form, language, and tenor, a very early period in Hebrew literature. Nor are the laws and regulations in Deuteronomy less decisive of the authenticity of the book. We are struck with the most remarkable phenomenon, that many laws from the previous books are here partly repeated and impressed with more energy, partly modified, and partly altogether abolished, according to the contingencies of the time, or as the new aspect of circumstances among the Jews rendered such steps necessary (comp. e.g. with; Deuteronomy 12 with Leviticus 17). Such pretensions to raise, or even to oppose his own private opinions to the authority of divine law, are found in no author of the subsequent periods, since the whole of the sacred literature of the later times is, on the contrary, rather the echo than otherwise of the Pentateuch, and is altogether founded on it. Add to this the fact, that the law itself forbids most impressively to add to, or take anything from it, a prohibition which is repeated even in Deuteronomy (comp.; ); and it is but too evident, that, if the opinion of the critics be correct, that this book contains nothing more than a gradual development of the law—it clashes too often with its own principles, and pronounces thus its own sentence of condemnation. </p> <p> The part of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 34) respecting the death of Moses requires a particular explanation. That the whole of this section is to be regarded as a piece altogether apart from what precedes it, or as a supplement from another writer, has already been maintained by the elder theologians; and this opinion is confirmed not only by the contents of the chapter, but also by the express declaration of the book itself on that event and its relations; for Deuteronomy 31 contains the conclusion of the work, where Moses describes himself as the author of the previous contents, as also of the Song (Deuteronomy 32), and the blessings (Deuteronomy 33) belonging to it. All that follows is, consequently, not from Moses, the work being completed and concluded with Deuteronomy 33. There is another circumstance which favors this opinion, namely, the close connection that exists between the last section of Deuteronomy and the beginning of Joshua (comp. with ), plainly shows that Deuteronomy 34 is intended to serve as a point of transition to the book of Joshua, and that it was written by the same author as the latter. The correct view of this chapter, therefore, is to consider it as a real supplement, but by no means as an interpolation. </p> <p> On the literature of Deuteronomy, compare the article Pentateuch. </p>