View source for Persian Language And Literature (Ancient):


Persian Language And Literature (Ancient): <ref name="term_7058" />
<p> ''''' pûr´shan ''''' , pûr´zhan </p> <p> I. [[Language]] (Introductory) </p> <p> Dialects </p> <p> II. Old [[Persian]] [[Inscriptions]] </p> <p> III. Medic Dialect </p> <p> 1. [[Ordinary]] Ayestic </p> <p> 2. Gathic </p> <p> IV. [[Zoroaster]] </p> <p> 1. His Date, etc. </p> <p> 2. Date of Avesta </p> <p> 3. [[Divisions]] of the present Avesta </p> <p> (1) The Yasna </p> <p> (2) The [[Vispered]] </p> <p> (3) The [[Vendidad]] </p> <p> (4) The Yashts </p> <p> (5) The Khorda Avesta </p> <p> V. Pahlavi </p> <p> 1. Literature </p> <p> 2. [[Comparison]] </p> <p> [[Literature]] . </p> I. Language: (Introductory). <p> The Persian language, ancient and modern alike, is an <i> ''''' Āryan ''''' </i> tongue. In its ancient forms it is more closely connected with Vedic [[Sanskrit]] than with any other language except Armenian. Most of its roots are to be found also in Slavonic, Greek, Latin and other tongues of the same stock. </p> <p> <b> Dialects: </b> </p> <p> There were two main dialects in the ancient language of [[Iran]] ( <i> ''''' Airyanem ''''' </i> ), (1) that of the [[Persians]] proper, and (2) that of the Medes. The former is known to us from the inscriptions of the Achemenian kings, the latter from the <i> Avesta </i> , and a few [[Median]] words preserved for us by [[Herodotus]] and other Greek writers. </p> II. Old Persian Inscriptions. <p> These fall between 550,330 BC, and contain about 1,000 lines and 400 words. They are carved upon the rocks in a cuneiform character, simplified from that of the neo-Susian, which again comes from the neo-Babylonian syllabary. In Old Persian inscriptions only 44 characters are employed, of which 7 are ideographs or contractions. The remaining 37 phonetic signs are syllabic, each consisting of an open syllable and not merely of a single letter, except in case of separate vowels. The syllabary, though much simpler than any other cuneiform system, does not quite attain therefore to being an alphabet. It was written from left to right, like the other cuneiform syllabaries. Of [[Cyrus]] the Great only one Persian sentence has been found: <i> ''''' Adam Kurush Khshāyathiya Hakhāmanishiya ''''' </i> , "I am Cyrus the King, the Achemenian." [[Darius]] I has left us long inscriptions, at <i> ''''' Behistān ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' Besitūn ''''' </i> ), Mt. Alvand, Persepolis, <i> ''''' Naqsh i Rustam ''''' </i> , etc., and one at Suez, the latter mentioning his conquest of Egypt and the construction of the first (?) [[Suez]] canal: </p> <p> <i> ''''' Adam niyashtāyam imām yuviyām kañtanaiy hacā Pirāva nāma rauta tya Mudrāyaiy danauvatiy abiy daraya tya hacā Pārsā aiti ''''' </i> . </p> <p> ("I commanded to dig this canal from the river named the Nile, which flows through Egypt, to the sea which comes from Persia.") </p> <p> We have also inscriptions of Xerxes at [[Persepolis]] and many short ones of [[Artaxerxes]] I, Artaxerxes <i> ''''' Mnēōn ''''' </i> , and Artaxerxes <i> ''''' Ochus ''''' </i> . From them all taken together we learn much concerning the history and the religion of the Achemenian period. It is from Achemenian or Old Persian, and not from the Medic or Avestic, that modern Persian has sprung through <i> ''''' Pahlavı̄ ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' Darı̄ ''''' </i> as intermediate stages. This is probably due to the political supremacy which the Persians under the Achaemenides gained over the Medes. The few words in the inscriptions which might otherwise be doubtful can be understood through comparison with Armenian and even with the modern Pets, e.g. <i> ''''' yuviya ''''' </i> in the above inscription is the modern vulgar Persian <i> ''''' jûb ''''' </i> . </p> III. Medic Dialect. <p> <b> 1. Ordinary Avestic: </b> </p> <p> The Medic dialect is represented in literature by the <i> Avesta </i> or sacred books of the Zoroastrians (Parsis). The word <i> Avesta </i> does not occur in the book itself and is of uncertain meaning and signification. It is probably the <i> ''''' Abashta ''''' </i> of <i> Beh </i> . <i> Inscr </i> ., IV, 64, and means either (1) an interview, meeting (Sanskrit <i> ''''' avashta ''''' </i> , "appearance before a judge"; At. <i> ''''' ava ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' stā ''''' </i> , "to stand near"), or (2) a petition (Pahl. <i> ''''' apastan ''''' </i> , "petition"; Arm. <i> ''''' apastan ''''' </i> , "refuge," "asylum"), in either case deriving its name from Zoroaster's drawing near to Ahura Mazda in worship. </p> <p> This dialect represents a much greater decadence in grammar and vocabulary than does the Old Persian. Many of its consonants and most of its vowels are weakened. Its verbs have almost entirely lost the augment; its declensional system shows extreme confusion. It stands to Old Persian grammatically somewhat as English does to German Its alphabet, consisting of 43 letters, is derived from the [[Syriac]] (probably the Estrangela), and is written from right to left. As a specimen of the language of most of the <i> Avesta </i> we give the following extract ( <i> Yasna </i> Lxiv , 15(61)): </p> <p> <i> ''''' Dāidi mōi ''''' </i> , <i> yé gãm tashó apasca urvarw̄sca </i> </p> <p> <i> Ameretātā </i> , <i> ''''' haurvātā ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Spéništā Mainyū Mazdā ''''' </i> , </p> <p> <i> ''''' Tévı̄shı̄ ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' utayūitı̄ ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Manaǹhā Vōhū ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' séǹhē ''''' </i> . </p> <p> "Give me, [[O]] thou who didst make the bull (earth), and the waters and the plants, immortality, health - O most [[Bountiful]] Spirit, Mazda - strength, might, through Vohu Mano, I say.") </p> <p> <b> 2. Gathic: </b> </p> <p> There is a sub-dialect of Medic (Avestic) known as the Gatha-dialect, from the fact that the Gathas or "Hymns" ( <i> Yasna </i> Xxviii-Xxxiv , Xlii-L , Lii ), and also the prayers ( <i> ''''' Yathá Ahú Vairyó ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Ashem Vōhū ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Airyamā Ishyō ''''' </i> , and originally <i> ''''' Yēǹhé Hālãm ''''' </i> , and a few scattered passages elsewhere) are composed in it. This represents, speaking generally, an older form of the Avestic. It is probably the old language of Bactria or of Margiana <i> ''''' Gāthā ''''' </i> I, 2, runs thus: </p> <p> <i> ''''' Yé vw̄ ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Mazdā Ahurā ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' pairijasāi Vōhū Manaǹhā ''''' </i> , </p> <p> <i> ''''' Maibyō dāvōi ahvw̄ ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' astivatasca hyaTca manaǹhō ''''' </i> ) </p> <p> <i> ''''' Āyaptā Ashāṭ hacā ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yāiš rapeñtō daidı̄ṭ hvāthrē ''''' </i> . </p> <p> ("To me, O A hura Mazda, who approach you two through Vohu Mano, grant the benefits from Asha, (those) of both worlds, both of the material (world) and of that which is of the spirit, through which (benefits) may (Asha) place in glory those who please him.") </p> <p> The meter of the <i> ''''' Gāthās ''''' </i> , like that of the other Avestic poems, is based on the number of syllables in a line, with due regard to the caesura. But the condition of the text is such that there is great difficulty in recovering the original reading with sufficient accuracy to enable us to lay down rules on the subject with any certainty. The first <i> ''''' Gāthā ''''' </i> is composed of strophes of 3 lines each (as above). Each line contains 16 syllables, with a caesura after the 7th foot. </p> IV. Zoroaster. <p> <b> 1. His Date, Etc.: </b> </p> <p> Many of the <i> ''''' Gāthās ''''' </i> are generally ascribed to Zoroaster himself, the rest to his earliest disciples. They compose the most ancient part of the <i> Avesta </i> . It is now becoming a matter of very great probability that Zoroaster lived at earliest in the middle of the 7th century BC, more probably a century later. The <i> ''''' Artā ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Vı̄rāf ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Nāmak ''''' </i> says that his religion remained pure for 300 years, and connects its corruption with the alleged destruction of much of the <i> Avesta </i> in the palace burned by [[Alexander]] at Persepolis, 324.BC. This traditional indication of date is confirmed by other evidence. Zoroaster's prince <i> ''''' Vishtāspa ''''' </i> (in Greek <i> ''''' Hustáspēs ''''' </i> ) bears the same name as the father of Darius I, and was probably the same person. Vishtaspa's queen Hutaosa, who also protected and favored Zoroaster, bears the same name (in Greek <i> ''''' Atóssa ''''' </i> ) as Cambyses' sister who afterward married Darius, and probably belonged to the same family. [[Zoroastrianism]] comes to the fore under Darius, whereas Cyrus in his inscriptions speaks as a decided polytheist. Hence, we conclude that the earliest part of the <i> Avesta </i> belongs to circa 550 BC. Of Zoroaster himself we learn much from the <i> Avesta </i> , which traces his genealogy back for 10 generations. It mentions his wife's name (Hvovi), and tells of his 3 sons and 3 daughters. His first disciple was Frashaostra, his wife's natural uncle. His own name means "Owner of the yellow camel," and has none of the higher meanings sometimes assigned to it by those who would deny his existence. Tradition says he was born at Ragha ( <i> ''''' Raga ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Rai ''''' </i> ) about 5 1/2 miles South of the present Tehran, though some think his native place was Western Atropatene ( <i> ''''' Āzarbāı̄jān ''''' </i> ). [[Rejected]] by his own tribe, the Magi, he went to Vishtispa's court in Bactria. The faith which he taught spread to the Persian court (very naturally, if Vishtispa was identical with Darius' father) and thence throughout the country. Tradition ( <i> Yasht </i> Xix , 2, etc.) says that the <i> Avesta </i> was revealed to Zoroaster on Mt. Ushi-darena ("intellect-holding") in Sistan. But it is not the composition of one man or of one age. </p> <p> <b> 2. Date of Avesta: </b> </p> <p> Herodotus makes no mention of Zoroaster, but speaks of the [[Magi]] (whom he calls a Median tribe (i. 101)) as already performing priestly functions. His description of their repetition of charms and theological compositions (i. 132) would agree very well with recitation of the <i> ''''' Gāthās ''''' </i> and <i> Yasna </i> . [[Mention]] of controversies with Gautama, Buddha's disciples ( <i> Yasht </i> Xiii , 16) who probably reached [[Persia]] in the 2nd century BC, is another indication of date. The fact that in both the <i> Yasna </i> and the <i> ''''' Vendı̄dād ''''' </i> heretics ( <i> ''''' zañda ''''' </i> ) are mentioned who preferred the commentary ( <i> ''''' zañd ''''' </i> ) on the <i> Avesta </i> to the <i> Avesta </i> itself, is a sign of late date. [[Names]] of certain persons found in the <i> Avesta </i> (e.g. <i> ''''' Atare ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' pāta ''''' </i> , a <i> ''''' Dastūr ''''' </i> who lived under Hormuzd I, 273 AD, and <i> ''''' Rāštare ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Yagheñti ''''' </i> , whom the <i> ''''' Dı̄nkart ''''' </i> identifies with the chief Mobed of Sapor II, 309-379 AD, <i> ''''' Āderpād ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Mārespand ''''' </i> , and who, according to the <i> ''''' Patēt ''''' </i> , section 28, "purified" the revelation made to Zoroaster, i.e. revised the text of the earlier parts of the <i> Avesta </i> ) enable us to prove that certain portions of the work as we now have it were composed as late as near the end of the 4th century of our era. It is said that the text was in confusion in the time of Vologases I (51-78 (?) [[Ad). A]]  reccnsion was then begun, and continued with much zeal by <i> ''''' Ardashı̄r ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Pāpakān ''''' </i> , 226-240 AD. According to Geldner ( <i> Prolegomena </i> , xlvi) the final recension took place some considerable time after <i> ''''' Yezdigird ''''' </i> 3 (overthrown 642 AD). In the times of the <i> ''''' Sāsānides ''''' </i> there were, it is said, 21 Naskas or volumes of the <i> Avesta </i> , and the names of these are given in the <i> ''''' Dı̄nkart ''''' </i> (Book IX). Of these we now possess only one entire <i> ''''' Naska ''''' </i> , the <i> ''''' Vendı̄dād ''''' </i> , and portions of three others. </p> <p> <b> 3. Divisions of the [[Present]] Avesta: </b> </p> <p> The present <i> Avesta </i> is divided into 5 parts: </p> (1) The Yasna <p> The <i> ''''' Yasna ''''' </i> (root <i> ''''' yaz ''''' </i> , Sanskrit <i> ''''' yaj ''''' </i> , "to invoke," "to praise") contains 72 chapters of hymns for use at sacrifices, etc., including the "Older <i> ''''' Yasna ''''' </i> " or <i> ''''' Gāthās ''''' </i> . </p> (2) The Vispered <p> The <i> Vispered </i> ( <i> ''''' vı̄spa ''''' </i> , "every," "all," and <i> ''''' rādha ''''' </i> , "a lord") is divided into 24 chapters in Geldner's edition; it is supplementary to the <i> Yasna </i> . </p> (3) The Vendidad <p> The <i> ''''' Vendı̄dād ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' van ''''' </i> plus <i> ''''' daēva ''''' </i> plus <i> ''''' dāta ''''' </i> , "law for " vanquishing the demons") contains 22 chapters. The first chapter contains the Iranian myth about the order in which the provinces of the Iranian world were created by Ahura Mazda. It tells how the Evil Spirit, Anro Mainyus, created plagues, sins and death, to destroy the good creatures of the Good Spirit. The greater part of the book contains ceremonial laws and formulas, some of them loathsome and all rather petty and superstitious in character. </p> (4) The Yashts <p> The Yashts, 21 in all, are hymns, telling many mythological tales about Mithra, Tishtriya, etc. </p> (5) The Khorda Avesta <p> The <i> ''''' Khorda ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Avesta ''''' </i> ("Little <i> Avesta </i> ") consists of a number of short compositions, hymns, etc., compiled by the <i> ''''' Āderpād Mārespand ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' Ādharpādh Mahraspand ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Ātarobāt Mānsarspendān ''''' </i> ) already mentioned, in Sapor II's reign. </p> <p> Much of the <i> Avesta </i> is said to have been destroyed by the <i> ''''' Khalı̄fah ‛Umar ''''' </i> ' <i> ''''' s ''''' </i> orders when Persia was conquered by the Arabs after the battle of <i> ''''' Nahāvand ''''' </i> (642 AD). [[Certainly]] <i> ''''' ‛Umar ''''' </i> ordered the destruction of Persian libraries, as we learn from the <i> ''''' Kashfu ''''' </i> ' <i> ''''' z ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Zunūn ''''' </i> (p.341). </p> V. Pahlavi. <p> <b> 1. Literature: </b> </p> <p> Under ancient Persian literature may be classed the <i> ''''' Pahlavı̄ ''''' </i> (a) inscriptions of Sapor at <i> ''''' Hājı̄ābād ''''' </i> and elsewhere, (b) legends on <i> ''''' Sāsānian ''''' </i> coins, (c) translations of certain parts of the <i> Avesta </i> , made under the <i> ''''' Sāsānides ''''' </i> for the most part, (d) such books as the <i> ''''' Artā Vı̄rāf Nāmak ''''' </i> , the <i> ''''' Zād Sparam ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Dı̄nkart ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Ōrmazd Yasht ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Patēt ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Būndı̄shnı̄h ''''' </i> , etc. These are mostly of religious import. The <i> ''''' Artā Vı̄rāf Nāmak ''''' </i> gives a description of the visit of the young <i> ''''' dastūr Artā Virāf ''''' </i> , to the Zoroastrian heaven. The <i> ''''' Būndihı̄shnı̄h ''''' </i> ("creation") tells how <i> ''''' Ōrmazd ''''' </i> and [[Ahriman]] came into being, and treats of the 9,000 years' struggle between them. <i> ''''' Pahlavı̄ ''''' </i> , as <i> written </i> (the so-called <i> ''''' Huzvaresh ''''' </i> ), contains an immense number of [[Aramaic]] words, but the Persian terminations attached to these show that they were <i> read </i> as Persian: thus <i> ''''' yehabūnt ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ano ''''' </i> is written, and <i> ''''' dāt ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ano ''''' </i> ("to give") is read. <i> ''''' Pahlavı̄ ''''' </i> works that are no longer extant are the sources of the <i> ''''' Vı̄s o Rāmı̄n ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Zarātusht Nāmah ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Shāhnāmah ''''' </i> , etc. </p> <p> <b> 2. Comparison: </b> </p> <p> In order to understand the relation in which the Persian dialects and stages in the history of the language stand to one another, it may be well to subjoin a list of words in Old Persian, Avestic, <i> ''''' Pahlavı̄ ''''' </i> and modern Persian. It will be seen that Ayestic is not the source of the <i> ''''' Āryan ''''' </i> part of the present tongue. </p> <table> [[Border]] > <tr> <td> <p> Meaning </p> </td> <td> <p> Avestic </p> </td> <td> <p> Old Persian </p> </td> <td> <p> Pahlavi </p> </td> <td> <p> Modern Persian </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Friend </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> zušta </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> daushtā </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> dōst </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> dūst </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Hand </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> zasta </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> dasta </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> dast </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> dast </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Bactreia </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> Bākhdhi </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> Bākhtri </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> Bāhr </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> [[Balkh]] </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Straight]] </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> ''''' drva ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' šta ''''' </i> )* </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> ''''' duruva ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' šta ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> drust </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> durust </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Greatest]] </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> ''''' mazišta ''''' </i> * </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> mathishta </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> mahist </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> mahı̄n </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Most right </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> ''''' razišta ''''' </i> * </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> rāsta </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> rāst </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> rāst </i> </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Abode]] </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> ''''' nmāna ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' Gāthic demāna ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> māniya </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> mān </i> </p> </td> <td> <p> <i> mān </i> - <i> ''''' dan ''''' </i> ("to remain") </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> *superlatives </p> Literature. <p> Achaemenian inscriptions, Korsowitz, Spiegel, Rawlinson: Geiger and Kuhn (editors), <i> Grundriss der iranischen Philologie </i> ; Darmesteter, <i> Etudes iraniennes </i> ; Spiegel, <i> Eranische Altertumskunde; Noldeke, Aufsatze zur persischen Geschichte </i> ; W. Geiger, <i> Ostiranische Kultur im Alterium </i> ; Geldner's edition of <i> Avesta </i> ; Professor Browne, <i> Literary History of Persia </i> ; De Harlez, <i> Manuel de la langue de l' Avesta </i> , <i> Manuel de la langue Pehlevie </i> , and <i> Introduction to the Avesta </i> ; Haug, <i> Book of Artd Viraf </i> ; Cook, <i> Origins of [[Religion]] and Language </i> . </p>

== References ==
<references>
<ref name="term_7058"> [https://bibleportal.com/encyclopedia/international-standard-bible-encyclopedia/persian+language+and+literature+(ancient): Persian Language And Literature (Ancient): from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia]</ref>
</references>