Difference between revisions of "War"

<p> or WARFARE, the attempt to decide a contest or difference between princes, states, or large bodies of people, by resorting to extensive acts of violence, or, as the phrase is, by an appeal to arms. The Hebrews were formerly a very warlike nation. The books that inform us of their wars display neither ignorance nor flattery; but are writings inspired by the Spirit of truth and wisdom. Their warriors were none of those fabulous heroes or professed conquerors, whose business it was to ravage cities and provinces, and to reduce foreign nations under their dominion, merely for the sake of governing, or purchasing a name for themselves. They were commonly wise and valiant generals, raised up by God "to fight the battles of the Lord," and to exterminate his enemies. Such were Joshua, Caleb, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, David, Josiah, and the Maccabees, whose names alone are their own sufficient encomiums. Their wars were not undertaken upon slight occasions, or performed with a handful of people. Under Joshua the affair was of no less importance than to make himself master of a vast country which God had given up to him; and to root out several powerful nations that God had devoted to an anathema; and to vindicate an offended Deity, and human nature which had been debased by a wicked and corrupt people, who had filled up the measure of their iniquities. Under the Judges, the matter was to assert their liberty, by shaking off the yoke of powerful tyrants, who kept them in subjection. </p> <p> Under Saul and David the same motives prevailed to undertake war; and to these were added a farther motive, of making a conquest of such provinces as God had promised to his people. Far was it from their intention merely to reduce the power of the Philistines, the Ammonites, the Moabites, the Idumeans, the Arabians, the Syrians, and the several princes that were in possession of those countries. In the later times of the kingdoms of [[Israel]] and Judah, we observe their kings bearing the shock of the greatest powers of Asia, of the kings of [[Assyria]] and Chaldea, Shalmaneser, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Nebuchadnezzar, who made the whole east tremble. Under the [[Maccabees]] a handful of men opposed the whole power of the kings of Syria, and against them maintained the religion of their fathers, and shook off the yoke of their oppressors, who had a design both against their religion and liberty. In still later times, with what courage, intrepidity, and constancy, did they sustain the war against the Romans, who were then masters of the world! </p> <p> We may distinguish two kinds of wars among the Hebrews: some were of obligation, as being expressly commanded by the Lord; but others were free and voluntary. The first were such as God appointed them to undertake: for example, against the [[Amalekites]] and the Canaanites, which were nations devoted to an anathema. The others were undertaken by the captains of the people, to revenge some injuries offered to the nation, to punish some insults or offences, or to defend their allies. Such was that which the Hebrews made against the city of Gibeah, and against the tribe of Benjamin, which would support them in their fault; that which David made against the Ammonites, whose king had affronted his ambassadors; and that of Joshua against the kings of the Canaanites, to protect the Gibeonites. Whatever reasons authorize a nation or a prince to make war against another, obtained, likewise, among the Hebrews; for all the laws of Moses suppose that the [[Israelites]] might make war, and might defend themselves, against their enemies. When a war was resolved upon, all the people that were capable of bearing arms were collected together, or only part of them, according as the exigence of the existing case and the necessity and importance of the enterprise required. For it does not appear that, before the reign of King David, there were any regular troops or magazines in Israel. A general rendezvous was appointed, a review was made of the people by tribes and by families, and then they marched against the enemy. When Saul, at the beginning of his reign, was reformed of the cruel proposal that the [[Ammonites]] had made to the men of the city of Jabesh-Gilead, he cut in pieces the oxen belonging to his plough, and sent them through the country, saying, "Whosoever cometh not forth after Saul and Samuel, to the relief of Jabesh-Gilead, so shall it be done unto his oxen," &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:7 . In ancient times, those that went to war generally carried their own provisions along with them, or they took them from the enemy. Hence these wars were generally of short continuance; because it was hardly possible to subsist a large body of troops for a long time with such provisions as every one carried along with him. When David, Jesse's younger son, stayed behind to look after his father's flocks while his elder brothers went to the wars along with Saul, [[Jesse]] sent David to carry provisions to his brothers, &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:13 . We suppose that this way of making war prevailed also under Joshua, the Judges, Saul, David at the beginning of his reign, the kings of Judah and Israel who were successors to [[Rehoboam]] and Jeroboam, and under the Maccabees, till the time of Simon Maccabaeus, prince and high priest of the Jews, who had mercenary troops, that is, soldiers who received pay, 1Ma_14:32 . Every one also provided his own arms for the war. The kings of the Hebrews went to the wars in person, and, in earlier times, fought on foot, as well as the meanest of their soldiers; no horses being used in the armies of Israel before David. The officers of war among the Hebrews were the general of the army, and the princes of the tribes or of the families of Israel beside other princes or captains, some of a thousand, some of a hundred, some of fifty, and some of ten, men. They had also their scribes, who were a kind of commissaries that kept the muster roll of the troops; and these had others under them who acted by their direction. </p> <p> Military fortifications were at first nothing more than a trench or ditch, dug round a few cottages on a hill or mountain, together with the mound, which was formed by the sand dug out of it; except, perhaps, there might have sometimes been an elevated scaffolding for the purpose of throwing stones with the greater effect against the enemy. In the age of Moses and Joshua, the walls which surrounded cities were elevated to no inconsiderable height, and were furnished with towers. The art of fortification was encouraged and patronized by the [[Hebrew]] kings, and [[Jerusalem]] was always well defended, especially Mount Zion. In later times, the temple itself was used as a castle. The principal parts of a fortification were, </p> <p> <strong> 1. </strong> The wall, which, in some instances, was triple and double, &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 32:5 . [[Walls]] were commonly made lofty and broad, so as to be neither readily passed over nor broken through, &nbsp;Jeremiah 51:58 . The main wall terminated at the top in a parapet for the accommodation of the soldiers, which opened at intervals in a sort of embrasures, so as to give them an opportunity of fighting with missile weapons. </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> Towers, which were erected at certain distances from each other on the top of walls, and ascended to a great height, terminated at the top in a flat roof, and were surrounded with a parapet, which exhibited openings similar to those in the parapet of the walls. [[Towers]] of this kind were erected, likewise, over the gates of cities. In these towers guards were kept constantly stationed; at least, this was the case in the time of the kings. It was their business to make known any thing that they discovered at a distance; and whenever they noticed an irruption from an enemy, they blew the trumpet, to arouse the citizens, &nbsp; 2 Samuel 13:34; &nbsp;2 Samuel 18:26-27; &nbsp;2 Kings 9:17-19; &nbsp;Nahum 2:1; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 17:2 . Towers, likewise, which were somewhat larger in size, were erected in different parts of the country, particularly on places which were elevated; and these were guarded by a military force, &nbsp;Judges 8:9; &nbsp;Judges 8:17; &nbsp;Judges 9:46; &nbsp;Judges 9:49; &nbsp;Judges 9:51; &nbsp;Isaiah 21:6; &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:1; &nbsp;Hosea 5:8; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:6 . We find, even to this day, that the circular edifices of this sort, which are still erected in the solitudes of [[Arabia]] Felix, bear their ancient name of castles or towers. </p> <p> <strong> 3. </strong> The walls were erected in such a way as to curve inward; the extremities of them, consequently, projected outward, and formed a kind of bastions. The object of forming the walls so as to present such projections, was to enable the inhabitants of the besieged city to attack the assailants in flank. We learn from the history of Tacitus, that the walls of Jerusalem, at the time of its being attacked by the Romans, were built in this manner. These projections were introduced by King Uzziah, B.C. 810, and are subsequently mentioned in &nbsp; Zephaniah 1:16 . </p> <p> <strong> 4. </strong> The digging of a fosse put it in the power of the inhabitants of a city to increase the elevation of the walls, and of itself threw a serious difficulty in the way of an enemy's approach, &nbsp; 2 Samuel 20:15; &nbsp;Isaiah 26:1; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:8; &nbsp;Psalms 48:13 . The fosse, if the situation of the place admitted it, was filled with water. This was the case at Babylon. </p> <p> <strong> 5. </strong> The gates were at first made of wood, and were small in size. They were constructed in the manner of valve doors, and were secured by means of wooden bars. Subsequently, they were made larger and stronger; and, in order to prevent their being burned, were covered with plates of brass or iron. The bars were covered in the same manner, in order to prevent their being cut asunder; but it was sometimes the case that they were made wholly of iron. The bars were secured by a sort of lock, &nbsp; Psalms 107:16; &nbsp;Isaiah 45:2 . </p> <p> Previously to commencing war, the [[Heathen]] nations consulted oracles, soothsayers, necromancers, and also the lot, which was ascertained by shooting arrows of different colours, &nbsp;1 Samuel 28:1-10; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:21-24; &nbsp;Ezekiel 25:11 . The Hebrews, to whom things of this kind were interdicted, were in the habit, in the early part of their history, of inquiring of God by means of [[Urim]] and Thummim, &nbsp;Judges 1:1; &nbsp;Judges 20:27-28; &nbsp;1 Samuel 23:2; &nbsp;1 Samuel 28:6; &nbsp;1 Samuel 30:8 . After the time of David, the kings who reigned in [[Palestine]] consulted, according to the different characters which they sustained, and the feelings which they exercised, sometimes true prophets, and sometimes false, in respect to the issue of war, &nbsp;1 Kings 22:6-13; &nbsp;2 Kings 19:2 , &c. [[Sacrifices]] were also offered, in reference to which the soldiers were said to consecrate themselves to the war, &nbsp;Isaiah 13:3; &nbsp;Jeremiah 6:4; &nbsp;Jeremiah 51:27; &nbsp;Joel 3:9; &nbsp;Obadiah 1:1 . There are instances of formal declarations of war, and sometimes of previous negotiations, &nbsp;2 Kings 14:8; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:27; &nbsp;Judges 11:12-28; but ceremonies of this kind were not always observed, &nbsp;2 Samuel 10:1-12 . When the enemy made a sudden incursion, or when the war was unexpectedly commenced, the alarm was given to the people by messengers rapidly sent forth, by the sound of warlike trumpets, by standards floating on the loftiest places, by the clamour of many voices on the mountains, that echoed from summit to summit, &nbsp;Judges 3:27; &nbsp;Judges 6:34; &nbsp;Judges 7:22; &nbsp;Judges 19:29-30; &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:7-8; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:26; &nbsp;Isaiah 13:2; &nbsp;Isaiah 18:3; &nbsp;Isaiah 30:17; &nbsp;Isaiah 49:2; &nbsp;Isaiah 62:10 . Military expeditions commonly commenced in the spring, &nbsp;2 Samuel 11:1 , and were continued in the summer, but in the winter the soldiers went into quarters. The firm persuasion that God fights for the good against the wicked, discovers itself in the Old Testament, and accounts for the fact, that, not only in the Hebrew, but also in the Arabic, Syriac, and Chaldaic languages, words, which originally signify justice, innocence, or uprightness, signify likewise victory; and that words, whose usual meaning is injustice or wickedness, also mean defeat or overthrow. The same may be said in respect to words which signify help or aid, inasmuch as the nation which conquered received aid from God, and God was its helper, Psalm 7:9; 9:9; 20:6; 26:1; 35:24; 43:1; 44:5; 75:3; 76:13; 78:9; 82:8; &nbsp;1 Samuel 14:45; &nbsp;2 Kings 5:1; &nbsp;Isaiah 59:17; &nbsp;Habakkuk 3:8 . </p> <p> The attack of the orientals in battle has always been, and is to this day, characterized by vehemence, and impetuosity. In case the enemy sustain an unaltered front, they retreat, but it is not long before they return again with renewed ardour. It was the practice of the Roman armies to stand still in the order of battle, and to receive the shock of their opposers. To this practice there are allusions in the following passages: &nbsp;1 Corinthians 16:13; &nbsp;Galatians 5:1; &nbsp;Ephesians 6:14; Php_1:27; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 3:8; &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:15 . The Greeks, while they were yet three or four furlongs distant from the enemy, commenced the song of war; something resembling which occurs in &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:21 . They then raised a shout, which was also done among the Hebrews, &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:52; &nbsp;Joshua 6:6; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:29-30; &nbsp;Isaiah 17:12; &nbsp;Jeremiah 4:19; &nbsp;Jeremiah 25:30 . The war shout in &nbsp;Judges 7:20 , was as follows, "The sword of the Lord and of Gideon." In some instances it seems to have been a mere yell or inarticulate cry. The mere march of armies with their weapons, chariots, and trampling coursers, occasioned a great and confused noise, which is compared by the prophets to the roaring of the ocean, and the dashing of the mountain torrents, &nbsp;Isaiah 17:12-13; &nbsp;Isaiah 27:2 . The descriptions of battles in the Bible are very brief; but although there is nothing especially said, in respect to the order in which the battle commenced and was conducted, there is hardly a doubt that the light- armed troops, as was the case in other nations, were the first in the engagement. The main body followed them, and, with their spears extended, made a rapid and impetuous movement upon the enemy. Hence swiftness of foot in a soldier is mentioned as a ground of great commendation, not only in Homer, but in the Bible, &nbsp;2 Samuel 2:19-24; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 12:8; &nbsp;Psalms 18:33 . Those who obtained the victory were intoxicated with joy; the shout of triumph resounded from mountain to mountain, &nbsp;Isaiah 42:11; &nbsp;Isaiah 52:7-8; &nbsp;Jeremiah 50:2; &nbsp;Ezekiel 7:7; &nbsp;Nahum 1:15 . The whole of the people, not excepting the women, went out to meet the returning conquerors with singing and with dancing, &nbsp;Judges 11:34-37; &nbsp;1 Samuel 18:6-7 . Triumphal songs were uttered for the living, and elegies for the dead, &nbsp;2 Samuel 1:17-18; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 35:25; &nbsp;Judges 5:1-31; &nbsp;Exodus 15:1-21 . [[Monuments]] in honour of the victory were erected, &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:13; &nbsp;Psalms 60:1; and the arms of the enemy were hung up as trophies in the tabernacle, &nbsp;1 Samuel 31:10; &nbsp;2 Kings 11:10 . The soldiers who conducted themselves meritoriously were honoured with presents, and had the opportunity of entering into honourable matrimonial connections, Joshua 14; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:25; &nbsp;1 Samuel 28:17; &nbsp;2 Samuel 18:11 . See [[Armies]] , and See [[Arms]] . </p>

<p> Conflicts between nations occur for a variety of reasons, but always they are evidence of sin in the world. Some nations go to war because they are aggressive, others because they have to defend themselves against aggression. But in neither case do nations have unlimited right to do as they like. This applies even when nations are God’s instrument to carry out his judgment on the wicked (&nbsp;Isaiah 10:5-14; &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:12-13; &nbsp;Habakkuk 2:16-17). </p> <p> '''Instructions for Israel''' </p> <p> According to God’s plan for Israel, the conquest of [[Canaan]] was not merely for political or material gain, but had a moral and religious purpose. God had given the [[Canaanites]] time to repent but they had consistently refused. Finally, their sin reached the extent where God could postpone judgment no longer (&nbsp;Genesis 15:16; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:5). The destruction of the Canaanites along with their idols, and at times their animals and possessions, was also of significance in God’s purposes for Israel. It helped to protect Israel from the corrupt religion, moral filth and physical disease that characterized life throughout Canaan (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:1-2; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:16; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:25-26; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:16-18). </p> <p> This policy of total destruction applied only to Israel’s conquest of Canaan. The Israelites were not to destroy non-Canaanite cities unless the people refused Israel’s terms of peace. They attacked only when all else failed. Even then they were to attack only the soldiers, not the women and children (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:10-15; cf. &nbsp;Judges 11:12-28), and they were not to destroy the natural environment (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:19-20). They were to treat prisoners of war well, and if they took any of the captive women as wives, they had to treat them with consideration and respect (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 21:10-14; cf. &nbsp;2 Kings 6:21-22). </p> <p> Not all [[Israelite]] men were required to fight for their country. Those excused from military service included any who had recently committed themselves to some undertaking that could be ruined if they suddenly abandoned it (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:1-7). If any went out to battle but then became afraid, they were to be sent home (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:8; cf. &nbsp;Judges 7:3). </p> <p> Israel’s leaders usually consulted priests or prophets before going to war, to ensure they were acting with God’s approval (&nbsp;1 Samuel 30:7-8; &nbsp;2 Kings 3:11). They could be confident of victory if God was on their side (&nbsp;Joshua 23:10; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:15; &nbsp;Psalms 68:1). They could celebrate their triumphs with victory songs (&nbsp;Exodus 15:1-3; &nbsp;Judges 5:1-5; &nbsp;Psalms 18:1-6), but they were not to delight in war, and neither were their enemies (&nbsp;Psalms 68:30). God gained no pleasure from bloodshed, even when it resulted in victory (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:8; &nbsp;Psalms 11:5). He preferred to work for peace (&nbsp;Isaiah 9:6-7; &nbsp;Micah 4:3-4; &nbsp;Zechariah 9:9-10). </p> <p> '''The Old [[Testament]] record''' </p> <p> In the early days of their settlement in Canaan, the Israelites enjoyed a fairly peaceful existence and saw no need for a regular army. Later, when hostile neighbours began to invade Israel’s territory, a local leader would arise to assemble a fighting force and drive out the enemy (&nbsp;Judges 3:1-3; &nbsp;Judges 5:14-15; &nbsp;Judges 6:33-35; &nbsp;Judges 7:24; &nbsp;Judges 10:18; see JUDGES, BOOK OF). </p> <p> With the appointment of Saul as Israel’s first king, a regular army was established (&nbsp;1 Samuel 11:6-8; &nbsp;1 Samuel 13:2; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:2). At that time most of Israel’s fighting was done by foot soldiers who used swords, spears, and bows and arrows (&nbsp;1 Samuel 31:1-4; &nbsp;2 Samuel 2:23; see [[Armour]] ; [[Weapons]] ). Armies set up their bases in well protected camps (&nbsp;1 Samuel 17:20; &nbsp;1 Samuel 25:13), and usually went to war in spring or summer, when weather conditions were favourable (&nbsp;2 Samuel 11:1; &nbsp;2 Kings 13:20). </p> <p> David improved Israel’s army till it was the strongest among the nations of the region (2 Samuel 8). As he seized the chariot forces of conquered enemies, Israel’s army began to use chariots. The next king, Solomon, enlarged Israel’s chariot force considerably (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:4; &nbsp;2 Samuel 15:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:26; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:22; &nbsp;1 Kings 10:26; cf. &nbsp;1 Kings 22:35; see [[Chariot]] ). A later king, Uzziah, further modernized the army by providing it with better armour and weapons, including special equipment for use against besieging armies (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:14-15). </p> <p> [[Siege]] was a common part of warfare, and was often considered essential if an aggressor failed to take a city in a surprise attack or head-on assault. The more powerful armies had huge pieces of siege equipment, some of which were designed to shoot over the city walls, others to break down the walls. The attackers usually heaped earth against the walls to enable them to get closer to the top, where the walls were thinner and easier to break through (&nbsp;2 Kings 6:24; &nbsp;2 Kings 25:1; &nbsp;Ezekiel 4:2). Meanwhile, people inside the city slowly starved to death or died of disease (&nbsp;2 Kings 25:2-3; &nbsp;Jeremiah 32:24; &nbsp;Lamentations 2:10-12; &nbsp;Lamentations 2:19-21; &nbsp;Lamentations 4:4-9). The victorious siege often ended with senseless butchery, rape, plunder and destruction (&nbsp;2 Kings 25:4-17; &nbsp;Psalms 74:4-8; &nbsp;Psalms 79:1-3; &nbsp;Lamentations 5:11-12; &nbsp;Nahum 2:5-9; &nbsp;Nahum 3:1-3). </p> <p> '''Christians and war''' </p> <p> As long as there is sin in the world there will be war (&nbsp;Matthew 24:6; &nbsp;James 4:1), and governments will be forced to protect their people from aggression. The Old Testament record seems to support the view that this use of force by a government is within the authority given it by God. That authority allows it to punish wrongdoers and preserve the well-being of its citizens (&nbsp;Romans 13:4; &nbsp;1 Timothy 2:1-2; &nbsp;1 Peter 2:13-14; see [[Government]] ). </p> <p> Christians, however, should never try to expand or defend the kingdom of God through war (&nbsp;Matthew 26:52-54; &nbsp;John 18:36). God alone has the right to impose his kingdom by force, and he will exercise that right when Jesus Christ returns and finally destroys all enemies (Revelation 16; &nbsp;Revelation 17:14; &nbsp;Revelation 19:11-21; see [[Kingdom Of God]] ). </p> <p> In the meantime, [[Christians]] live in a world where they are members of God’s kingdom and at the same time members of earthly nations (see [[Nation]] ). God’s kingdom is of a different kind from the ‘kingdoms’ of the world, and Christians must not apply the legal procedures of civil government to their personal behaviour. Civil law requires legal retaliation for wrongdoing, and therefore imposes a punishment to suit the offence. [[Christian]] morality requires believers to forgive those who do them wrong (&nbsp;Matthew 5:38-42; cf. &nbsp;Romans 12:17-21 with &nbsp;Romans 13:1-6). </p> <p> War is one of those cases where Christians at times see tension between these two responsibilities. In the New Testament, as in the Old, believers seem to have had no objection to engaging in military service themselves or accepting the protection that those in military service provided for them (&nbsp;Luke 3:14; &nbsp;Luke 7:2-9; &nbsp;Acts 10:1-4; &nbsp;Acts 23:17-35; &nbsp;Hebrews 11:33-34). But in the century immediately following the apostolic era, most Christians were strongly pacifist. They believed all war to be wrong and they refused to participate in military service. </p> <p> Throughout the history of the church, sincere Christians have held a variety of views ranging from total pacifism to total commitment to military service. Some Christians, while not believing all involvement in war to be wrong, believe it to be wrong for Christians to take part in war. Others, still condemning war, consider that when the state of affairs becomes so bad that the ideal is no longer possible, they may be forced to accept the lesser of two wrongs (cf. &nbsp;Matthew 19:8). While refusing to initiate aggression themselves, they consider that to resist an evil attacker is not as bad as allowing the evil to triumph unhindered. They do not enjoy such action, but at the same time they do not believe they should leave the protection of the defenceless entirely to non-Christians (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 1:17). </p> <p> Even if Christians believe it is right for them to take part in war, they must not accept the decisions of their government without question. [[Governments]] can make decisions that are so unjust or immoral that Christians may feel they must disobey them if they are to remain obedient to God. God alone can demand absolute obedience (cf. &nbsp;Daniel 3:17-18; &nbsp;Acts 4:19; &nbsp;Acts 5:29). Whatever the circumstances, Christians must, like their God, work to achieve justice and peace (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 2:4; &nbsp;Isaiah 9:2-7; &nbsp;Isaiah 11:1-9; &nbsp;Matthew 5:6; &nbsp;Matthew 5:9; see [[Justice]] ; [[Peace]] ). </p>

<p> Israel at its Exodus from Egypt went up "according to their armies," "harnessed," literally, "arranged in five divisions," van, center, two wings, and rearguard (Ewald): &nbsp;Exodus 6:26; &nbsp;Exodus 12:37; &nbsp;Exodus 12:41; &nbsp;Exodus 13:18. Pharaoh's despotism had supplied them with native officers whom they obeyed (&nbsp;Exodus 5:14-21). Moses had in youth all the training which a warlike nation like Egypt could give him, and which would enable him to organize Israel as an army not a mob. [[Jehovah]] as "a man of war" was at their head (&nbsp;Exodus 15:1; &nbsp;Exodus 15:3; &nbsp;Exodus 13:20-22); under Him they won their first victory, that over [[Amalek]] (&nbsp;Exodus 17:8-16). The 68th Psalm of David takes its starting point from Israel's military watchword under Jehovah in marching against the enemy (&nbsp;Numbers 10:35-36). In &nbsp;Joshua 5:13-6;&nbsp;Joshua 5:5. </p> <p> Jehovah manifests Himself in human form as "the [[Captain]] of the host of the Lord." Antitypically, the spiritual Israel under Jehovah battle against Satan with spiritual arms (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 10:4-5; &nbsp;Ephesians 6:10-17; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:8; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 6:12; &nbsp;2 Timothy 2:3; &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:7; &nbsp;Revelation 6:2). By the word of His mouth shall He in person at the head of the armies of heaven slay antichrist and his hosts in the last days (&nbsp;Revelation 17:14; &nbsp;Revelation 19:11-21). The [[Mosaic]] code fostered a self defensive, not an aggressive, spirit in Israel. All Israelites (with some merciful exemptions, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:5-8) were liable to serve from 20 years and upward, thus forming a national yeomanry (&nbsp;Numbers 1:3; &nbsp;Numbers 1:26; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:5). The landowners and warriors being the same opposed a powerful barrier to assaults from without and disruption from within. </p> <p> The divisions for civil purposes were the same as for military (&nbsp;Exodus 18:21, compare &nbsp;Numbers 31:14); in both cases divided into thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens, and the chiefs bearing the same designation (sariy ). In &nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:9 Vulgate, Syriac, etc., translated "the captains at the head of the people shall array them." But if "captains" were subject to the verb and not, as KJV object, the article might be expected. In KJV the captains meant are subordinate leaders of smaller divisions. National landholders led by men already revered for civil authority and noble family descent, so long as they remained faithful to God, formed an army ensuring alike national security and a free constitution in a free country. [[Employed]] in husbandry, and attached to home, they had no temptation to war for conquest. The law forbidding cavalry, and enjoining upon all males attendance yearly at the three great feasts at Jerusalem, made war outside Palestine almost impossible. </p> <p> [[Religion]] too treated them as polluted temporarily by any bloodshed however justifiable (&nbsp;Numbers 19:13-16; &nbsp;Numbers 31:19; &nbsp;1 Kings 5:3; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 28:3). A standing army was introduced under Saul (&nbsp;1 Samuel 13:2; &nbsp;1 Samuel 14:47-52; &nbsp;1 Samuel 18:5). (See [[Army]] .) Personal prowess of individual soldiers determined the issue, as they fought hand to hand (&nbsp;2 Samuel 1:28; &nbsp;2 Samuel 2:18; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 12:8; &nbsp;Amos 2:14-16), and sometimes in single combat (1 Samuel 17; &nbsp;2 Samuel 2:14-17). The trumpet by varied notes sounded for battle or for retreat (&nbsp;2 Samuel 2:28; &nbsp;2 Samuel 18:16; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:22; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 14:8). </p> <p> The priests blew the silver trumpets (&nbsp;Numbers 10:9; &nbsp;Numbers 31:6). In sieges, a line of circumvallation was drawn round the city, and mounds were thrown out from this, on which towers were erected from whence slingers and archers could assail the defenders (&nbsp;Ezekiel 4:2; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:15; &nbsp;2 Kings 19:32; &nbsp;2 Kings 25:1). The Mosaic law mitigated the severities of ancient warfare. Only males in arms were slain; women and children were spared, except the Canaanites who were doomed by God (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:13-14; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 21:10-14). </p> <p> Israel's mercy was noted among neighbouring nations (&nbsp;1 Kings 20:31; &nbsp;2 Kings 6:20-23; &nbsp;Isaiah 16:5; contrast &nbsp;Judges 16:21; &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:2; &nbsp;2 Kings 25:7). [[Abimelech]] and [[Menahem]] acted with the cruelty of usurpers (&nbsp;Judges 9:45; &nbsp;2 Kings 15:16). Amaziahacted with exceptional cruelty (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:12). Gideon's severity to the oppressor [[Midian]] (Judges 7-8), also Israel's treatment of the same after suffering by Midian's licentious and idolatrous wiles, and David's treatment of [[Moab]] and [[Ammon]] (probably for some extraordinary treachery toward his father and mother), are not incompatible with Israel's general mercy comparatively speaking. </p>

<p> One of the evil fruits of the fall, and an appalling manifestation of the depravity of mankind, &nbsp;Genesis 6:11-13 &nbsp; Isaiah 9:5 &nbsp; James 4:1-2 , often rendered apparently inevitable by the assaults of enemies, or commanded by God for their punishment. See Amalekites and Canaan . </p> <p> By this scourge, subsequently to the conquest of Canaan, God chastised both his own rebellious people and the corrupt and oppressive idolaters around them. In many cases, moreover, the issue was distinctly made between the true God and idols; as with the Philistines, &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:43-47; the Syrians, &nbsp;1 Kings 20:23-30; the Assyrians, &nbsp;2 Kings 19:10-19,35; and the Ammonites, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:1-30 . Hence God often raised up champions for his people, gave them counsel in war by Urim and by prophets, and miraculously aided them in battle. </p> <p> Before the period of the kings, there seems to have been scarcely any regular army among the Jews; but all who were able to bear arms were liable to be summoned to the field, &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:7 . The vast armies of the kings of Judah and Israel usually fought on foot, armed with spears, swords, and shields; having large bodies of archers and slingers, and comparatively few chariots and horsemen. See [[Arms.]] </p> <p> The forces were arranged in suitable divisions, with officers of tens, hundreds, thousands, etc., &nbsp;Judges 20:10 &nbsp; 1 Chronicles 13:1 &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 25:5 . The [[Jews]] were fully equal to the nations around them in bravery and the arts of war; but were restrained from wars of conquest, and when invaders had been repelled the people dispersed to their homes. A campaign usually commenced in spring, and was terminated before winter, &nbsp;2 Samuel 11:1 &nbsp; 1 Kings 20:22 . As the Jewish host approached a hostile army, the priests cheered them by addresses, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 20:2 &nbsp; 1 Samuel 7:9,13 , and by inspiring songs, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:21 . The sacred trumpets gave the signal for battle, &nbsp;Numbers 10:9,10 &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 13:12-15; the archers and slingers advanced first, but at length made way for the charge of the heavy-armed spearmen, etc., who sought to terrify the enemy, ere they reached them, by their aspect and war-cries, &nbsp;Judges 7:18-20 &nbsp; 1 Samuel 17:52 &nbsp; Job 39:25 &nbsp; Isaiah 17:12,13 . </p> <p> The combatants were soon engaged hand to hand; the battle became a series of duels; and the victory was gained by the obstinate bravery, the skill, strength, and swiftness of individual warriors, &nbsp;1 Chronicles 12:8 &nbsp; Psalm 18:32-37 . See Paul's exhortations to Christian firmness, under the assaults of spiritual foes, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 16:13 &nbsp; Ephesians 6:11-14 &nbsp; 1 Thessalonians 3:8 . The battles of the ancients were exceedingly sanguinary, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 28:6; few were spared except those reserved to grace the triumph or be sold as slaves. A victorious army of Jews on returning was welcomed by the whole population with every demonstration of joy, &nbsp;1 Samuel 18:6,7 . The spoils were divided after reserving an oblation for the Lord, &nbsp;Numbers 31:50 &nbsp; Judges 5:30; trophies were suspended in public places; eulogies were pronounced in honor of the most distinguished warriors, and lamentations over the dead. </p> <p> In besieging a walled city, numerous towers were usually erected around it for throwing missiles; catapults were prepared for hurling large darts and stones. Large towers were also constructed and mounds near to the city walls, and raised if possible to an equal or greater height, that by casting a movable bridge across access to the city might be gained. The battering-ram was also employed to effect a breach in the wall; and the crow, a long spar with iron claws at one end and ropes at the other, to pull down stones or men from the top of the wall. These and similar modes of assault the besieged resisted by throwing down darts, stones, heavy rocks, and sometimes boiling oil; but hanging sacks of chaff between the battering-ram and the wall; by strong and sudden sallies, capturing and burning the towers and enginery of the assailants, and quickly retreating into the city, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:14,15 . The modern inventions of gunpowder, rifles, bombs, and heavy artillery have changed all this. See [[Battering-Ram]] . </p> <p> As the influence of [[Christianity]] diffuses itself in the world, war is becoming less excusable and less practicable; and a great advance may be observed from the customs and spirit of ancient barbarism towards the promised universal supremacy of the Prince of peace, &nbsp;Psalm 46:9 &nbsp; Isaiah 2:4 &nbsp; Micah 4:3 . </p> <p> "Wars of the Lord" was probably the name of an uninspired book, long since lost, containing details of the events alluded to in &nbsp;Numbers 21:14-15 . </p>

<div> '''A — 1: πολεμέω ''' (Strong'S #4170 — Verb — polemeo — pol-em-eh'-o ) </div> <p> (Eng., "polemics"), "to fight, to make war," is used (a) literally, &nbsp;Revelation 12:7 (twice), RV; 13:4; 17:14; 19:11; (b) metaphorically, &nbsp; Revelation 2:16 , RV; (c) hyperbolically, &nbsp;James 4:2 . See [[Fight]] , B, Note (1). </p> <div> '''A — 2: στρατεύομαι ''' (Strong'S #4754 — Verb — strateuo — strat-yoo'-om-ahee ) </div> <p> used in the Middle Voice, "to make war" (from stratos, "an encamped army"), is translated "to war" in &nbsp;2 Corinthians 10:3; metaphorically, of spiritual "conflict," &nbsp;1 Timothy 1:18; &nbsp;2 Timothy 2:3 , AV; &nbsp;James 4:1; &nbsp;1 Peter 2:11 . See [[Soldier]] , B. </p> <div> '''A — 3: ἀντιστρατεύομαι ''' (Strong'S #497 — Verb — antistrateuomai — an-tee-strat-yoo'-om-ahee ) </div> <p> not found in the Active Voice antistrateuo, "to make war against" (anti), occurs in &nbsp;Romans 7:23 . </p> &nbsp;Luke 23:11Soldier <div> '''B — 1: πόλεμος ''' (Strong'S #4171 — Noun Masculine — polemos — pol'-em-os ) </div> <p> "war" (akin to A, No. 1), is so translated in the RV, for AV, "battle," &nbsp;1 Corinthians 14:8; &nbsp;Revelation 9:7,9; &nbsp;16:14; &nbsp;20:8; for AV, "fight," &nbsp;Hebrews 11:34; AV and RV in &nbsp;James 4:1 , hyperbolically of private "quarrels;" elsewhere, literally, e.g., &nbsp;Matthew 24:6; &nbsp;Revelation 11:7 . See Battle. </p>

<p> '''A. Noun. ''' </p> <p> <em> Milchâmâh </em> (מִלְחָמָה, Strong'S #4421), “war; battle; skirmish; combat.” This word has a cognate only in Ugaritic. Biblical Hebrew attests it 315 times and in all periods. </p> <p> This word means “war,” the over-all confrontation of two forces (Gen. 14:2). It can refer to the engagement in hostilities considered as a whole, the “battle”: “… And they joined battle with them in the vale of Siddim” (Gen. 14:8). This word is used not only of what is intended but of the hand-to-hand fighting which takes place: “And when Joshua heard the noise of the people as they shouted, he said unto Moses, There is a noise of war in the camp” (Exod. 32:17). <em> Milchâmâh </em> sometimes represents the art of soldiering, or “combat”: “The Lord is a man of war …” (Exod. 15:3). </p> <p> There are several principles which were supposed to govern “war” in the Old Testament. Unjust violence was prohibited, but “war” as a part of ancient life was led (Judg. 4:13) and used by God (Num. 21:14). If it was preceded by sacrifices recognizing His leadership and sovereignty (1 Sam. 7:9) and if He was consulted and obeyed (Judg. 20:23), Israel was promised divine protection (Deut. 20:1-4). Not one life would be lost (Josh. 10:11). God’s presence in “battle” was symbolized by the ark of the covenant (1 Sam. 4:3-11). His presence necessitated spiritual and ritualistic cleanliness (Deut. 23:9- 14). Before and during “battle,” trumpets were blown placing the cause before God in anticipation of the victory and gratitude for it (Num. 10:9-10), as well as to relay the orders of the commanders. A war cry accompanied the initiation of “battle” (Josh. 6:5). At the beginning Israel’s army consisted of every man over twenty and under fifty (Num. 1:2-3). Sometimes only certain segments of this potential citizens’ army were summoned (Num. 31:3-6). There were several circumstances which could exempt one from “war” (Num. 1:48-49; Deut. 20:5-8). Under David and Solomon there grew a professional army. It was especially prominent under Solomon, whose army was renowned for its chariotry. Cities outside Palestine were to be offered terms of surrender before being attacked. Compliance meant subjugation to slavery (Deut. 20:10-11). Cities and peoples within the [[Promised]] Land were to be utterly wiped out. They were under the ban (Deut. 2:34; 3:6; 20:16-18). This made these battles uniquely holy battles (a holy war) where everything was especially devoted and sacrificed to God. Israel’s kings were admonished to trust in God as their strength rather than in a great many horses and chariots (Deut. 17:16). Her armies were forbidden to cut down fruit trees in order to build siege equipment (Deut. 20:19-20). [[Soldiers]] were paid by keeping booty won in “battle” (Num. 31:21-31). The entire army divided the spoil—even those in the rear guard (Num. 31:26-47; Judg. 5:30). God, too, was appointed a share (Num. 31:28-30). </p> <p> '''B. Verb. ''' </p> <p> <em> Lâcham </em> (לָחַם, 3898), “to engage in battle, fight, wage war.” This verb occurs 171 times in biblical Hebrew. The first appearance is in Exod. 1:10: “Come on, let us deal wisely with them; lest they multiply, and it come to pass, that, when there falleth out any war, they join also unto our enemies, and fight against us, and so get them up out of the land.” </p>

<p> Under this head we may notice some of the usages of Hebrew warfare which have not been considered under other heads, referred to at the end of this article. </p> <p> The army of Israel was chiefly composed of infantry, formed into a trained body of spearmen, and, in greater numbers, of slingers and archers, with horses and chariots in small proportion, excepting during the periods when the kingdom extended over the desert to the Red Sea. The irregulars were drawn from the families and tribes, particularly Ephraim and Benjamin, but the heavy armed derived their chief strength from Judah, and were, it appears, collected by a kind of conscription, by tribes, like the earlier Roman armies; not through the instrumentality of selected officers, but by genealogists of each tribe, under the superintendence of the princes. Of those returned on the rolls, a proportion greater or less was selected, according to the exigency of the time; and the whole male population might be called out on extraordinary occasions. When kings had rendered the system of government better organized, there was a sort of muster-master, who had returns of the effective force, or number of soldiers ready for service, but who was a kind of secretary of state. These officers, or the shoterim, struck out, or excused from service:— 1st, those who had built a house without having yet inhabited it; 2nd, those who had planted an olive or vineyard, and had not tasted the fruit—which gave leave of absence for five years; 3rd, those who were betrothed, or had been married less than one year; 4th, the fainthearted, which may mean the constitutionally delicate, rather than the cowardly. </p> <p> The levies were drilled to march in ranks , and in column by fives abreast hence it may be inferred that they borrowed from the Egyptian system a decimal formation, two fifties in each division making a solid square, equal in rank and file: for twice ten in rank and five in file being told off by right hand and left hand files, a command to the left hand files to face about and march six or eight paces to the rear, then to front and take one step to the right would make the hundred a solid square, with only the additional distance between the right hand or unmoved files necessary to use the shield and spear without hindrance; while the depth being again reduced to five files, they could face to the right or left, and march firmly in column, passing every kind of ground without breaking or lengthening their order. </p> <p> With centuries thus arranged in masses, both movable and solid, a front of battle could be formed in simple decimal progression to a thousand, ten thousand, and to an army at all times formidable by its depth, and by the facility it afforded for the light troops, chariots of war, and cavalry, to rally behind and to issue from thence to the front. Archers and slingers could ply their missiles from the rear, which would be more certain to reach an enemy in close conflict, than was to be found the case with the Greek phalanx, because from the great depth of that body missiles from behind were liable to fall among its own front ranks. These divisions were commanded, it seems, by ketsinim, officers in charge of one thousand, who, in the first ages, may have been the heads of houses, but in the time of the kings were appointed by the crown, and had a seat in the councils of war; but the commander of the host, such as Joab, Abner, Benaiah, etc. was either the judge, or under the judge or king, the supreme head of the army, and one of the highest officers in the state. He, as well as the king, had an armor-bearer, whose duty was not only to bear his shield, spear, or bow, and to carry orders, but, above all, to be at the chief's side in the hour of battle (;; ). Beside the royal guards, there was, as early at least as the time of David, a select troop of heroes, who appear to have had an institution very similar in principle to our modern orders of knighthood. </p> <p> In military operations, such as marches in quest of, or in the presence of, an enemy, and in order of battle, the forces were formed into three divisions, each commanded by a chief captain or commander of a corps, or third part, as was also the case with other armies of the east; these constituted the center, and right and left wing, and during a march formed the van, center, and rear. </p> <p> The war-cry of the Hebrews was not intonated by the ensign-bearers, as in the West, but by a Levite; for priests had likewise charge of the trumpets, and the sounding of signals; and one of them, called 'the anointed for war,' who is said to have had the charge of animating the army to action by an oration, may have been appointed to utter the cry of battle . It was a mere shout , or, as in later ages, Hallelujah! while the so-called mottoes of the central banners of the four great sides of the square, of Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, and Dan, were more likely the battle-songs which each of the fronts of the mighty army had sung on commencing the march or advancing to do battle . </p> <p> Before an engagement the Hebrew soldiers were spared fatigue as much as possible, and food was distributed to them; their arms were enjoined to be in the best order, and they formed a line, as before described, of solid squares of hundreds, each square being ten deep, and as many in breadth, with sufficient intervals between the files to allow of facility in the movements, the management of the arms, and the passage to the front or rear of slingers and archers. These lasts occupied posts according to circumstances, on the flanks, or in advance, but in the heat of battle were sheltered behind the squares of spearmen; the slingers were always stationed in the rear, until they were ordered forward to cover the front, impede an hostile approach, or commence an engagement. Meantime, the king, or his representative, appeared clad in holy ornaments, and proceeded to make the final dispositions for battle, in the middle of his chosen braves, and attended by priests, who, by their exhortations, animated the ranks within hearing, while the trumpets waited to sound the signal. It was now, with the enemy at hand, we may suppose, that the slingers would be ordered to pass forward between the intervals of the line, and, opening their order, would let fly their stone or leaden missiles, until, by the gradual approach of the opposing fronts, they would be hemmed in and recalled to the rear, or ordered to take an appropriate position. Then was the time when the trumpet-bearing priests received command to sound the charge, and when the shout of battle burst forth from the ranks. The signal being given, the heavy infantry would press forward under cover of their shields, the rear ranks might then, when so armed, cast their darts, and the archers, behind them all, shoot high, so as to pitch their arrows over the lines before them, into the dense masses of the enemy beyond. If the opposing forces broke through the line, we may imagine a body of charioteers reserve, rushing from their post, and charging in among the disjointed ranks of the enemy, before they could reconstruct their order; or wheeling round a flank, fall upon the rear; or being encountered by a similar maneuver, and perhaps repulsed, or rescued by Hebrew cavalry. The king, meanwhile, surrounded by his princes, posted close to the rear of his line of battle, and in the middle of showered missiles, would watch the enemy and strive to remedy every disorder. Thus it was that several of the sovereigns of Judah were slain , and that such an enormous waste of human life took place; for two hostile lines of masses, at least ten in depth, advancing under the confidence of breastplate and shield, when once engaged hand to hand, had difficulties of no ordinary nature to retreat; because the hindermost ranks not being exposed personally to the first slaughter, would not, and the foremost could not, fall back; neither could the commanders disengage the line without a certainty of being routed. The fate of the day was therefore no longer within the control of the chief, and nothing but obstinate valor was left to decide the victory. Sometimes a part of the army was posted in ambush, but this maneuver was most commonly practiced against the garrisons of cities . In the case of Abraham , when he led a small body of his own people, suddenly collected, and falling upon the guard of the captives, released them, and recovered the booty, it was a surprise, not an ambush; nor is it necessary to suppose that he fell in with the main army of the enemy. At a later period there is no doubt the Hebrews formed their armies, in imitation of the Romans, into more than one line of masses, and modeled their military institutions as near as possible upon the same system [ARMOR; ENCAMPMENTS; [[Engines]] OF WAR; FORTIFICATIONS; STANDARDS]. </p>