Difference between revisions of "Spirit"

<div> '''1: '''''Πνεῦμα''''' ''' (Strong'S #4151 — Noun Neuter — pneuma — pnyoo'-mah ) </div> <p> primarily denotes "the wind" (akin to pneo, "to breathe, blow"); also "breath;" then, especially "the spirit," which, like the wind, is invisible, immaterial and powerful. The NT uses of the word may be analyzed approximately as follows: </p> &nbsp;John 3:8&nbsp; Hebrews 1:7&nbsp;Amos 4:13&nbsp;2—Thessalonians 2:8&nbsp;Revelation 11:11&nbsp;13:15&nbsp;Job 12:10&nbsp;Luke 8:55&nbsp;Acts 7:59&nbsp;1—Corinthians 5:5&nbsp;James 2:26&nbsp;Ecclesiastes 12:7&nbsp;2—Corinthians 5:3,4&nbsp;Luke 24:37,39&nbsp;Hebrews 12:23&nbsp;1—Peter 4:6&nbsp;1—Corinthians 15:45&nbsp;1—Timothy 3:16&nbsp;1—Peter 3:18&nbsp;Matthew 5:3&nbsp;26:41&nbsp;Mark 2:8&nbsp;Luke 1:47,80&nbsp;Acts 17:16&nbsp;20:22&nbsp;1—Corinthians 2:11&nbsp;5:3,4&nbsp;14:4,15&nbsp;2—Corinthians 7:1&nbsp;Genesis 26:35&nbsp;Isaiah 26:9&nbsp;Ezekiel 13:3&nbsp;Daniel 7:15&nbsp;2—Corinthians 12:18&nbsp;Philippians 1:27&nbsp;Ephesians 4:23&nbsp;Revelation 19:10&nbsp;Ezra 1:5&nbsp;Psalm 78:8&nbsp;Daniel 5:12&nbsp;1—Corinthians 16:18&nbsp;Genesis 6:3&nbsp;2&nbsp;2—Timothy 4:22&nbsp;Philemon 1:25&nbsp;Psalm 139:7&nbsp;3&nbsp;2—Corinthians 7:13&nbsp;Isaiah 40:13&nbsp;Luke 1:17&nbsp;Romans 1:4&nbsp;Numbers 14:24&nbsp;Romans 8:15&nbsp;Isaiah 61:3&nbsp;Romans 11:8&nbsp;Isaiah 29:10&nbsp;2—Timothy 1:7&nbsp;Joshua 5:1&nbsp;Romans 8:15&nbsp;Psalm 51:12&nbsp;1—Corinthians 4:21&nbsp;Proverbs 16:19&nbsp;2—Corinthians 4:13&nbsp;1—Peter 3:4&nbsp;Proverbs 14:29&nbsp; Matthew 4:1&nbsp; Luke 4:18&nbsp;Romans 7:22&nbsp;2—Corinthians 4:16&nbsp;Ephesians 3:16&nbsp;Romans 8:4-6,10,16&nbsp;Hebrews 12:9&nbsp;Psalm 51:10&nbsp;Matthew 8:16&nbsp;Luke 4:33&nbsp;1—Peter 3:19&nbsp;1—Samuel 18:10&nbsp;Hebrews 1:14&nbsp;Acts 12:15&nbsp;1—Corinthians 14:12,32&nbsp;2—Thessalonians 2:2&nbsp;1—John 4:1-3&nbsp;John 6:63&nbsp;Romans 2:29&nbsp;7:6&nbsp;2—Corinthians 3:6&nbsp;Revelation 1:10&nbsp;4:2&nbsp;17:3&nbsp;21:10&nbsp;Matthew 14:26&nbsp;Mark 6:49Apparition.[[Soul]]&nbsp;Matthew 22:43&nbsp;Hebrews 9:14&nbsp;Matthew 4:1&nbsp;Matthew 1:18&nbsp;Matthew 28:19&nbsp;Matthew 12:32&nbsp;Ephesians 1:13&nbsp;Romans 8:9&nbsp;2—Corinthians 3:3&nbsp;1—Corinthians 2:11&nbsp;1—Corinthians 6:11&nbsp;Ephesians 4:30&nbsp;1—Peter 4:14&nbsp;Romans 8:11&nbsp;Matthew 10:20&nbsp;Galatians 4:6&nbsp;Acts 8:39&nbsp;Acts 5:9&nbsp;2—Corinthians 3:18&nbsp;Acts 16:7&nbsp;Romans 8:9&nbsp;Philippians 1:19&nbsp;Romans 8:15&nbsp;John 14:17&nbsp;Romans 8:2&nbsp;Hebrews 10:29&nbsp;Matthew 22:43&nbsp; Mark 12:36&nbsp;Acts 4:25&nbsp;Romans 14:17&nbsp;1—Corinthians 2:4&nbsp;Galatians 5:25&nbsp; 1—Peter 1:2&nbsp;John 7:39&nbsp;John 14:26&nbsp;Luke 3:22&nbsp;Galatians 3:3&nbsp;Galatians 4:29&nbsp; Galatians 5:17&nbsp;Matthew 12:32&nbsp;Mark 3:29&nbsp;12:36&nbsp;13:11&nbsp;Luke 2:26&nbsp;10:21&nbsp; John 14:26&nbsp;Acts 1:16&nbsp;5:3&nbsp;7:51&nbsp;10:44,47&nbsp;13:2&nbsp;15:28&nbsp;19:6&nbsp;20:23,28&nbsp;21:11&nbsp;28:25&nbsp;Ephesians 4:30&nbsp;Hebrews 3:7&nbsp;9:8&nbsp;10:15&nbsp;John 14:26&nbsp;15:26&nbsp;16:8,13,14&nbsp;Romans 8:16,26

<p> The Hebrew word that in the Old Testament is usually translated ‘spirit’ is ruach. The equivalent New Testament Greek word, also usually translated ‘spirit’, is pneuma. Both ruach and pneuma had very broad meanings. They could mean, among other things, wind (&nbsp;1 Kings 18:45; &nbsp;John 3:8), breath (&nbsp;Genesis 7:15; &nbsp;Genesis 7:22; &nbsp;Acts 9:1), human emotion (&nbsp;Genesis 41:8; &nbsp;Numbers 5:14; &nbsp;John 13:21; &nbsp;Acts 18:25), human understanding (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:24; &nbsp;Mark 2:8), will-power (&nbsp;Jeremiah 51:11; &nbsp;Acts 19:21), human life itself (&nbsp;Genesis 45:27; &nbsp;Luke 8:55) and evil beings of the unseen world (&nbsp;1 Samuel 16:23; &nbsp;Mark 1:23; see [[Unclean Spirits]] ). Both words were also used of God’s Spirit, the living power of God at work (&nbsp;Judges 6:34; &nbsp;Acts 8:39; see [[Holy Spirit]] ). </p> <p> '''Relationship with God''' </p> <p> An examination of the usage of ruach in the Old Testament shows that its basic meaning has to do with something unseen and powerful that is full of life or life-giving. The word can be used of God who gives life to all human beings and animals (&nbsp;Job 33:4; &nbsp;Psalms 104:30) and of the life that God gives to all human beings and animals (&nbsp;Genesis 7:15; &nbsp;Genesis 7:22). </p> <p> According to this usage, ruach might be defined as the ‘life-force’ or ‘breath of life’ that God created. It belongs to him. He gives it to all people and animals for the time of their earthly existence and he takes it back at death (&nbsp;Numbers 16:22; &nbsp;Psalms 104:29; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 12:7). Pneuma can have a similar meaning in the New Testament (&nbsp;Hebrews 12:9; &nbsp;James 2:26). </p> <p> However, both ruach and pneuma may be used specifically of the human spirit. That is, they may refer to the human spirit in a way that makes it different from the general life principle that humans share with animals (&nbsp;Proverbs 11:13; &nbsp;Proverbs 15:13; &nbsp;Proverbs 16:2; &nbsp;Proverbs 16:18-19; &nbsp;Proverbs 16:32; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:11; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 7:1; &nbsp;1 Peter 3:4; see [[Humanity, Humankind]] ) The New Testament goes further and uses pneuma to refer to that higher aspect of human existence that enables people to communicate with God and have religious experiences (&nbsp;Romans 8:16; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:5; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 7:34; &nbsp;Galatians 6:18; &nbsp;Philippians 3:3). </p> <p> ‘Spirit’ may at times be another word for ‘heart’. In such cases it speaks of a person’s whole inner life (&nbsp;Psalms 51:10; &nbsp;Psalms 51:17; &nbsp;Proverbs 16:2; &nbsp;Matthew 5:3; &nbsp;Romans 1:9; Philem 25; see [[Heart]] ; [[Mind]] ). </p> <p> Through sin, the spirit has been corrupted. It is not able to save people from spiritual ruin or bring them eternal life. It is, in a sense, dead, and needs to be born anew through the creative power of the Spirit of God (&nbsp;Ezekiel 36:26-27; &nbsp;John 3:6). This leads, then, to an even more restricted meaning of the word, particularly in the New Testament, where the reference is to the reborn spirit of the person whom God has created anew (&nbsp;Romans 8:10; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:14-15; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:23; see [[Regeneration]] ; [[Soul]] ). </p> <p> '''Life after death''' </p> <p> Yet another usage of the word ‘spirit’ is in reference to life after death. When the life of the body comes to an end, people do not cease to exist. Because they are no longer ‘in the body’, they are no longer in the physical world, but they continues to exist in the unseen world. They live on in their spirit (&nbsp;Hebrews 12:23; &nbsp;1 Peter 3:18; &nbsp;1 Peter 4:6). This kind of existence is only temporary, for human destiny is not to live for ever in a bodiless spirit, but to experience eternal life in a renewed body (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:35-54; &nbsp;Philippians 3:21; &nbsp;1 John 3:2; see [[Body]] ). </p>

<p> A word employed in various senses in Scripture. </p> <p> 1. For THE [[Holy, Holiness Spirit]] the third person of the Holy Trinity, who inspired the prophets, animates good men, pours his unction into our hearts, imparts to us life and comfort; and in whose name we are baptized and blessed, as well as in that of the Father and the Son. When the adjective Holy is applied to the term Spirit, we should always understand it as here explained; but there are many places whether it must be taken in this sense, although the term Holy is omitted. See [[Holy, Holiness Spirit]]  </p> <p> 2. BREATH, respiration; or the principle of animal life, common to men and animal: this God has given, and this he recalls when he takes away life, &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 3:21 . See Soul . </p> <p> 3. The [[Rational Soul]]  which animates us, and preserves its being after the death of the body. That spiritual, reasoning, and choosing substance, which is capable of eternal happiness. See Soul . </p> <p> The "spirits in prison," &nbsp;1 Peter 3:19 , it is generally thought, are the souls of antediluvian sinners now reserved unto the judgment-day, but unto whom the Spirit preached by the agency of Noah, etc., &nbsp;2 Peter 2:5 , when they were in the flesh. Thus Christ "preached" to the Ephesians, whom he never visited in person, &nbsp;Ephesians 2:17 . </p> <p> 4. An &nbsp;Mark 14:26 . It is said, &nbsp;Acts 23:8 , that the Sadducees denied the existence of angels and spirits. Christ, appearing to his disciples, said to them, &nbsp;Luke 24:39 , "Handle me, and see; for a spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have." </p> <p> 5. The [[Disposition]] of the mind or intellect. Thus we read of a spirit of jealously, a spirit of fornication, a spirit of prayer, a spirit of infirmity, a spirit of wisdom and understanding, a spirit of fear of the Lord, &nbsp;Hosea 4:12 &nbsp; Zechariah 12:10 &nbsp; Luke 13:11 &nbsp; Isaiah 11:2 . </p> <p> 6. The [[Renewed Nature]] of true believers, which is produced by the Holy Spirit, and conforms the soul to his likeness. Spirit is thus the opposite of flesh, &nbsp;John 3:6 . This spirit is virally united with, an in some passages can hardly be distinguished from the "Spirit of Christ," which animates true Christians, the children of God, and distinguishes them from the children of darkness, who are animated by the spirit of the world, &nbsp;Romans 8:1-16 . This indwelling Spirit is the gift of grace, of adoption-the Holy Spirit poured into our hearts-which emboldens us to call God "Abba, my Father." Those who are influenced by this Spirit "have crucified the flesh, with its affections and lusts," &nbsp;Galatians 5:16-25 . </p> <p> "Distinguishing or discerning of spirits" consisted in discerning whether a man were really inspired by the Spirit of God, or was a false prophet, an impostor, who only followed the impulse of his own spirit or of Satan. Paul speaks, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 12:10 of the discerning of spirits as being among the miraculous gifts granted by God to the faithful at the first settlement of Christianity. </p> <p> To "quench the Spirit," &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:19 , is a metaphorical expression easily understood. The Spirit may be quenched by forcing, as it were, that divine [[Agent]] to withdraw from us, by irregularity of life, frivolity, avarice, negligence, or other sins contrary to charity, truth, peace, and his other gifts and qualifications. </p> <p> We "grieve" the Spirit of God by withstanding his holy inspirations, the impulses of his grace; or by living in a lukewarm and incautious manner; by despising his gifts, or neglecting them; by abusing his favors, either out of vanity, curiosity, or indifference. In a contrary sense, &nbsp;2 Timothy 1:6 , we "stir up" the Spirit of God which is in us, by the practice of virtue, by compliance with his inspirations, by fervor in his service, by renewing our gratitude, and by diligently serving Christ and doing the works of the Spirit. </p>

<p> Hebrew '''''Ruach''''' , Greek '''''Pneuma''''' . Man in his normal integrity ("whole," '''''Holokleeron''''' , complete in all its parts, &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:23) consists of "spirit, soul, and body." The spirit links man with higher intelligences, and is that highest part receptive of the quickening Holy Spirit (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:47). The soul (Hebrew '''''Nephesh''''' , Greek '''''Psuchee''''' ) is intermediate between body and spirit; it is the sphere of the will and affections. </p> <p> In the unspiritual, the spirit is so sunk under the animal soul ''(Which It [[Ought]] To Keep Under)'' that such are "animal" ''("Seasonal," Having Merely The Body Of Organized Matter And The Soul, The Immaterial Animating Essence)'' , "having not the spirit" (&nbsp;Judges 1:19; &nbsp;James 3:15; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:14; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:44-48; &nbsp;John 3:6). The unbeliever shall rise with an animal ''(Soul-Animated)'' body, but not, like the believer, with a spiritual ''(Spirit-Endued)'' body like Christ's (&nbsp;Romans 8:11). </p> <p> The soul is the seat of the appetites, the desires, the will; hunger, thirst, sorrow, joy; love, hope, fear, etc.; so that ''Nephesh'' is the man himself, and is used for person, self, creature, any: a virtual contradiction of materialism, implying that the unseen soul rather than the seen body is the man. "Man was made" not a living body but "a living soul." "The blood, the life," links together body and soul (&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11). </p>

<p> ( '''''רוּחִ''''' , ''Ruach'' [twice '''''נַשְׁמָה''''' , ''Nishmah, Breath,'' &nbsp;Job 26:4; &nbsp;Proverbs 20:27], '''''Πνεῦμα''''' [twice '''''Φάντασμα''''' , ''A Phantasm,'' &nbsp;Matthew 14:26; &nbsp;Mark 6:49], both literally meaning [[Wind]] ) '','' is one of the most generic terms in either the English, Hebrew, or Greek language. We therefore discuss here its lexical as well as psychological relations somewhat extensively. (See [[Psychology]]). </p> <p> '''I.''' ''Scriptural Usage Of The Word'' . '''''—''''' Its leading significations may be classed under the following heads: </p> <p> '''1.''' The primary sense of the term is ''Wind.'' "He that formeth the mountains and createth the wind" ( '''''רוח''''' , &nbsp;Amos 4:13; &nbsp;Isaiah 27:8). "The wind ( '''''Πνεῦμα''''' ) bloweth where it listeth" (&nbsp;John 3:8). This is the ground idea of the term "spirit" air, ether, air refined, sublimated, or vitalized; hence it denotes '''''—''''' </p> <p> '''2.''' ''Breath,'' as of the mouth. "At the blast of the breath of his nostrils ( '''''רוח''''' '''''אפי''''' ) are they consumed" (&nbsp;Job 4:9). "The Lord shall consume that wicked one with the breath of his mouth" ( '''''Τῷ''''' '''''Μνεύματι''''' '''''Τοῦ''''' '''''Στόματος''''' , &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:8). </p> <p> '''3.''' The ''Vital'' principle which resides in and animates the body. In the Hebrew, '''''נפשׁ''''' is the main specific term for this. In the Greek it is '''''Ψυχή''''' , and in the Latin ''Anima.'' "No man hath power over the spirit ( '''''ברוח''''' ) to retain the spirit" (&nbsp;Ecclesiastes 8:8; &nbsp;Genesis 6:17; &nbsp;Genesis 7:15). "Jesus yielded up the ghost" ( '''''Ἀφῆκε''''' '''''Τὸ''''' '''''Πνεῦμα''''' , &nbsp;Matthew 27:50). "And her spirit ( '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '''''Αὐτῆς''''' ) came again," etc. (&nbsp;Luke 8:55). In close connection with this use of the word is another, </p> <p> '''4.''' In which it has the sense of ''Apparition, Specter.'' They supposed that they had seen a spirit," i.e. specter (&nbsp;Luke 24:37). "A spirit hath not flesh and bones, as ye see me have" (&nbsp;Luke 24:39; &nbsp;Matthew 14:26). </p> <p> '''5.''' The [[Soul]] '''''—''''' the rational, immortal principle by which man is distinguished from the brute creation. It is the '''''Πνεῦμα''''' , in distinction from the '''''Ψυχή''''' . With the Latins it is the ''Animus.'' In this class may be included that use of the word spirit in which the various emotions and dispositions of the soul are spoken of. "Into thy hands I commend my spirit" ( '''''Τὸ''''' '''''Μνεῦμά''''' '''''Μου''''' , &nbsp;Luke 23:46; &nbsp;Acts 7:59; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:5; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:20; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 7:34; &nbsp;Hebrews 12:9). "My spirit hath rejoiced in God my Savior" (&nbsp;Luke 1:47). "Poor in spirit" ( '''''Πτωχοί''''' '''''Τῷ''''' '''''Πνεύματι''''' ) denotes humility (&nbsp;Matthew 5:3). "Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of (&nbsp;Luke 9:55), where '''''Πνεῦμα''''' denotes [[Disposition]] or ''Temper.'' "He that hath no rule over his own spirit" ( '''''רוחו''''' , &nbsp;Proverbs 25:28; &nbsp;Proverbs 16:32; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 7:9). The moral affections are denominated "the spirit of meekness" (&nbsp;Galatians 6:1), "of bondage" (&nbsp;Romans 8:15), "of jealousy" (&nbsp;Numbers 5:14), "of fear" (&nbsp;2 Timothy 1:7), "of slumber" (&nbsp;Romans 11:8). In the same way also the intellectual qualities of the soul are denominated "the spirit of counsel" (&nbsp;Isaiah 11:2); the spirit of knowledge" (ibid.); "the spirit of wisdom" (&nbsp;Ephesians 1:17); "the spirit of truth and of error" (&nbsp;1 John 4:6). </p> <p> '''6.''' The race of superhuman created intelligences. Such beings are denominated spiritual beings because they have no bodies like ours. To both the holy and the sinning angels the term is applied. In their original constitution their natures were alike pure spirit. The apostasy occasioned no change in the [[Nature]] of the fallen angels as spiritual beings. In the New Test. demonology '''''Δαίμων''''' , '''''Δαιμόνιον''''' , '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '''''Ἀκάθαρτον''''' , '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '''''Πονηρόν''''' , are the distinctive epithets for a fallen spirit. Christ gave to his disciples power over unclean spirits ( '''''Πνευμάτων''''' '''''Ἀκαθάρτων''''' , &nbsp;Matthew 10:1; &nbsp;Mark 1:23; &nbsp;Luke 4:36; &nbsp;Acts 5:16). The holy angels are termed spirits: "Are they not all ministering spirits?" ( '''''Λειτουργικὰ''''' '''''Πνεύματα''''' , &nbsp;Hebrews 1:14). "And from the seven spirits ( '''''Ἑπτὰ''''' '''''Πνευμάτων''''' ) which are before his throne" (&nbsp;Revelation 1:4). </p> <p> '''7.''' The term is applied to the Deity, as the sole, absolute, and uncreated Spirit. "God is a Spirit" ( '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '''''Ὁ''''' '''''Θεός''''' ). This, as a predicate, belongs to the divine nature, irrespective of the distinction of persons in that nature. But its characteristic application is to the third person in the Divinity, who is called the Holy Spirit ( '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '''''Ἃγιον''''' ) because of his essential holiness, and because in the Christian scheme it is his peculiar work to sanctify the people of God. He is denominated ''The'' Spirit by way of eminence, as the immediate author of spiritual life in the hearts of Christians. The New Test. writers are full and explicit in referring the principle of the higher life to the Spirit. In the Old Test. the reference is more general. The Spirit is an all pervading, animating principle of life in the world of nature. In the work of creation the Spirit of God moved upon, or brooded over, the face of the waters (&nbsp;Genesis 1:2; &nbsp;Job 26:13). This relation of the Spirit to the natural world the ancients expressed as ''Ens Extra'' - '', [[Ens]] Super'' - '', Ens Intra'' - ''Mundanum.'' The doctrine of the Spirit, as the omnipresent life and energy in nature, differs from Pantheism, on the one hand, and from the Platonic soul of the world, on the other. It makes the Spirit the immanent divine causality, working in and through natural laws, which work is called nature; as in the Christian life He is the indwelling divine causality, operating upon the soul, and through divine ordinances; and this is termed grace. The Spirit in the world may be considered as the divine omnipresence, and be classed among the doctrines which are more peculiarly theological. But the indwelling and operation of the Spirit in the heart of the believer are an essential doctrine of Christianity. The one province of the Spirit is nature, the other grace. Upon the difference between the two, in respect to the Spirit's work, rests the Christian consciousness. The general presence and work of the Spirit in nature are not a matter of consciousness. The special presence and work of the Spirit in the heart of the believer, by the effects which are produced, are a matter of which, from consciousness, there may be the most consoling and delightful assurance. (See [[Spiritual]]). </p> <p> '''II.''' ''Doctrinal Distinctions And Queries'' . '''''—''''' The lexical usage thus pointed out gives rise to questions concerning the constitution of the nature of man. Does it consist of two or three elements? [[Must]] we accept a dichotomy or a trichotomy? The dichotomy is unquestionably established if it can be shown that soul and spirit designate only different aspects of the same subject. The passage of Scripture which is fundamental in this inquiry (&nbsp;Genesis 2:7) seems, however, to distinguish three constituents in human nature '''''—''''' the [[Clay]] ( '''''עָפָר''''' ), the [[Breath Of Life]] ( '''''נַשְׁמִת''''' '''''חִיַּים''''' ), and the ''Living Being'' ( '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' '''''חִיָּה''''' ) ''.'' Some understand in the first of these elements the material substance, flesh or body ( '''''בָּשָׂר''''' ), out of earth; by the second, the spirit ( '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' ), out of God, and by the third, the soul ( '''''רוּחִ''''' ), as resulting from a combination of the other elements. The soul would accordingly be the personality, as constituted of spirit and body, and is both soul and body united into one being. God forms the body, breathes into it the spirit, and the soul results from them both. But the careful reader will note that in the foregoing analysis the proper soul ( '''''רוּחִ''''' ) has not been brought into view at all. It is only the introduction of the vitalizing element ( '''''נַשְׁמָה''''' ) into the material organism ( '''''עפר''''' = '''''בָּשָׂר''''' ) that constitutes the composite being or animal ( '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' ) '''''—''''' a term which is frequently applied likewise to the low orders of creatures (&nbsp;Genesis 1:20, etc.). Yet, as in Scripture universally this last distinguishing element is manifestly attributed to man, it still follows, under either view of the above passage, that Scripture teaches a trichotomy, and several passages explicitly sustain the same doctrine '''''—''''' e.g. &nbsp;Luke 1:46-47; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:45 sq.; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:23; &nbsp;Hebrews 4:12. To sum up the conclusion reached, the [[Spirit]] is not [[Soul]] simply, nor yet identical with the ''Body,'' but a [[Third]] somewhat which originates in the body that was formed and the soul that was inbreathed, but which itself is neither formed nor made but simply becomes ( '''''הָיָה''''' ). If this be true, then the spirit, itself becomes a powerful argument in behalf of a future resurrection of the body. (See Resurrection). </p> <p> A second inquiry which arises has to do with the manner in which the race is derived from the first pair whom God created. All agree that it is by propagation under the terms of the original endowment (&nbsp;Genesis 1:28), and with the steady cooperation of God. But in the original creation of man, God formed the body out of matter previously created, and then added a ''New'' quantity in the inbreathing of the spirit, and the question turns upon the point whether a like distinction between body and spirit is made at the beginning of the existence of every human being. [[Traducianism]] (q.v.) teaches, under its various modifications, that the original combination of body and spirit into a single soul was made for all time and for the race, and that no direct interference with the natural processes of procreation on the part of God can be assumed. The living soul is transmitted from generation to generation without the intervention of any new creative act. The various schemes of creationism (q.v.) assume that the [[Creator]] infuses the spirit into every new human personality by a direct act. The doctrine of pre-existence assumes that a soul for each individual was potentially created at the beginning, and that it attains to actuality when united with its own special body or dust. Inasmuch as the only warrant for the doctrine of preexistence is the desire to avoid the erroneous idea of new creations, which creationism is said to affirm, there is no occasion to discuss its assumption of embryonic souls. Traducianism must likewise be rejected in so far as its doctrine of the propagation of both body and spirit by purely natural processes involves a disregard of the original distinction between the forming of the one and the inbreathing of the other. In creationism the truth is limited to the origin of the spirit, the soul being the product of both the traduced and the infused factors. It is apparent that the theory of traducianisn leads logically to the dichotomy, while that of creationism leads to the trichotomy. In every form of creationism the birth of a human being involves a sacramental wonder, since God is himself directly engaged in imparting to the individual his peculiar spirit. This theory, derived from [[Aristotle]] (De Anim. Mot. 9) and transmitted through the Church fathers, was cultivated in the Middle Ages, and generally adopted by Roman [[Catholic]] writers, though not as a confessional locus. It was also largely admitted among theologians of the [[Reformed]] Church, though by no means universally. Traducianism was more generally accepted in the Lutheran Church, though here also standard and leading authorities leave the question undecided. The Pseudo- Gnostical and Semi-Pelagian heresies, which taught that the spirit of man is either not at all or but little affected by sin, grew out of a combination of creationism and the trichotomy theory; but they were the result simply of misconception. The same is true of the Apollinarian theory, which confines the human nature of Christ to body and soul (anima vegetabilis), and holds that in him the [[Logos]] supplied the place of the spirit ( '''''Πνεῦμα''''' ). SEE [[Soul, Origin Of]]  </p> <p> A third question follows, which is concerned with particulars connected with the forming of the body and the imparting of the spirit, and with the results that follow. The forming of the body extends to the entire organism with reference to all the members of the body, and to the senses, since in these consists the germ of the body. The inspiration of the spirit extends, with regard to all its far reaching consequences, over the whole of the spirit, in all its powers and abilities. Body and spirit, however, contain only germs which attain to organic development and form in the soul, the body especially becoming the form ( '''''Μορφή''''' ) of the soul. Psychology, the philosophy of the soul, has consequently to inquire into the bodily life of the organism, particularly with reference to the senses, the emotions, the intellect, the will, and likewise into the '''''Νοῦς''''' , '''''Λόγος''''' , '''''Πνεῦμα''''' , etc. In our days, psychology may even embrace in its investigations the science of language, since it has become important to demonstrate, in opposition to rationalism, pantheism, and materialism, that the germs of language, no less than of thought, inhere in the spirit; and that language, in which thought attains to expression, secures its development in the soul in harmony with the diversities of nationality, which is equivalent here to individuality, (See Mind). </p> <p> A fourth question asks, whither does the soul tend? or, more exactly, what becomes of it when separated from the body? The scriptural answer is brief and confident: the spirit returns to God, but not as it came from God; it retains the nature obtained by its union with the body; and it is accordingly as a soul, i.e. affected by the body, although the latter has become dust, that the spirit returns to God. The Scriptures teach that the soul neither sleeps nor dies, but retains its spiritual character. We shall accordingly not be found utterly naked even after death, but rather clothed with conscious activity ( '''''Ἐνδυσάμενοι''''' , '''''Οὐ''''' '''''Γυμνοί''''' , &nbsp;2 Corinthians 5:3 '''''—''''' a passage, however, which legitimately refers only to the finally glorified state; see Alford, ''Ad Loc.'' ) '','' and thus await the reunion of soul and body in the resurrection. (See [[Intermediate State]]). </p> <p> The soul accordingly attains its consummation in the body, which was also the beginning and basis of the personality. Corporeity is thus the end of the ways of God, as it was the beginning in the clay from which man was formed. The three Catholic creeds close with the words "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting;" and Paul writes, "There is a natural body, and there is a spiritual body... that was... first which is natural, and afterward that which is spiritual" (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:44 sq.). The body is thus the first and the last; "the spirit quickeneth" by the energy of the soul, and is the bond which unites the soul and body, the agent which combines them into a single substance, so that even death is unable to effect more than a partial and temporary separation. (See [[Death]]). </p> <p> See Molitor, Philosophie der Geschichte, etc. 2, 90; 3, 129, etc.; Rudloff, Lehre vom Menschen nach Geist, Seele u. Leib (1858); Von Meyer, in Bl '''''Ä''''' tter f '''''Ü''''' r h '''''Ö''''' here Warheiten (1823), 4, 271 sq. The above furnish information with reference to the teachings of the Cabala. According to Von Meyer, the [[Cabala]] distinguishes five souls (Nephesh, Ruach, Neshama, Chaja, Jechida). See also Dante, Divina Com. Purg. 25, etc.; Heinroth, Psychologie (1827); Schubert, Gesch. d. Seele (1833); Von Meyer, Inbegrif d. christl. Glaubenslehre (1832), p. 134, etc.; Lange, Land d. Herrlichkeit, etc. (1838); id. Positive Dogmatik (1852); Martensen, Dogmatik (1851); De Valenti, Christl. Dogmatik (1847); Ebrard, Christl. Dogmatik (1851); Delitzsch, Bibl. Psychologie (1855); Fichte, Anthropologie (2d ed. 1860); id. [[Zur]] Seelenfrage, etc. (1859); Wichart, Metaphys. Anthropologie (Minster, 1844); Polack, Unsterblichkeitsfrage (Amst. 1857); Richers, Sch '''''Ö''''' pfungs-, Paradies- u. S '''''Ü''''' ndfluth-Geschichte [Genesis 1-9] (1854), '''''§''''' 13, p. 210 sq.; id. Natur u. Geist (1850 sq.); Hahn [Aug.], Lehrb. d. christl. Glaubens, 2 ed. '''''§''''' 74; Hahn [G. E.], Theologie d. Neuen Testaments, '''''§''''' 149 sq.; also Lotze, Mikrokosmos... Anthropologie; Deinhardt, Begriff d. Seele mit Rucksicht auf Aristoteles (Hamb. 1840); Schmidt, De Loco Aristot. '''''Τὸν''''' '''''Νοῦν''''' '''''Θυράθεν''''' '''''Ἐπειζιέναι''''' ''In Aristot. '''''Περὶ''''' '''''Ζώων''''' '''''Γενέσεως''''' '' (Erfurt, 1847). Of Roman Catholic writings we mention Baltzer, ''De Modo Propagat. Animarum'' (1833); also G '''''Ö''''' schel, ''Beweise Fur D. Unsterbl. D. Seele'' (1835) [per contra Becker, ''Ueber G '''''Ö''''' Schel'' ' ''S Vers. Eines Beweises D. Personl. Unsterblichkeit'' (Hamb. 1836)]; id. ''Die Siebenfaltige Osterfrage,'' etc. (1836); id. ''Beitr. Zur Spekulativen Philosophie Von Gott U. D. Menschen,'' etc. (1838); id. ''Zur Lehre V. D. Letzten Dingen'' (Berl. 1850); id. ''Der Mensch Nach Leib, Seele U. Geist,'' etc. (Leips. 1856); Richter, ''Die Neue'' ''Unsterblichkeitslehre,'' in Jahrb. f. wissenschaftl. Kritik, 1834.-Herzog, Real-Encyklop. s.v. (See Soul). </p>

<p> ''''' spir´it ''''' ( רוּח , <i> ''''' rūaḥ ''''' </i> ; πνεῦμα , <i> ''''' pneúma ''''' </i> ; Latin, <i> spiritus </i> ): </p> <p> 1. Primary and Figurative [[Senses]] </p> <p> (1) As Wind, Breath </p> <p> (2) As [[Anger]] or [[Fury]] </p> <p> (3) As Mental and [[Moral]] Qualities in Man </p> <p> 2. Shades of Meaning </p> <p> (1) As Life-Principle </p> <p> (2) As Surviving Death </p> <p> (3) Spiritual Manifestations </p> <p> 3. Human and Divine Spirit </p> <p> (1) The Human as Related with the Divine </p> <p> (2) Operations of the Divine Spirit as Third Person of the [[Trinity]] </p> <p> 4. Old Testament Applications </p> <p> 5. Various Interpretations </p> 1. Primary and Figurative Senses: <p> <b> (1) As Wind, Breath: </b> </p> <p> Used primarily in the Old Testament and New Testament of the wind, as in &nbsp;Genesis 8:1; &nbsp;Numbers 11:31; &nbsp;Amos 4:13 ("createth the wind"); &nbsp; Hebrews 1:7 (angels, "spirits" or "winds" in margin); often used of the <i> breath </i> , as in &nbsp;Job 12:10; &nbsp;Job 15:30 , and in &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:8 (wicked consumed by "the breath of his mouth"). </p> <p> <b> (2) As Anger or Fury: </b> </p> <p> In a figurative sense it was used as indicating <i> anger </i> or <i> fury </i> , and as such applied even to God, who destroys by the "breath of his nostrils" (&nbsp; Job 4:9; &nbsp;Exodus 15:8; &nbsp;2 Samuel 22:16; see &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 2:8 ). </p> <p> <b> (3) As Mental and Moral Qualities in Man: </b> </p> <p> Hence, applied to man - as being the seat of emotion in desire or trouble, and thus gradually of mental and moral qualities in general (&nbsp;Exodus 28:3 , "the spirit of wisdom"; &nbsp;Ezekiel 11:19 , "a new spirit" etc.). Where man is deeply stirred by the Divine Spirit, as among the prophets, we have a somewhat similar use of the word, in such expressions as: "The Spirit of the Lord came ... upon him" (&nbsp;1 Samuel 10:10 ). </p> 2. Shades of Meaning: <p> <b> (1) As Life-Principle: </b> </p> <p> The spirit as life-principle in man has various applications: sometimes to denote an <i> apparition </i> (&nbsp; Matthew 14:26 , the King James Version "saying, It is a spirit"; &nbsp;Luke 24:37 , the King James Version "had seen a spirit"); sometimes to denote angels, both fallen and unfallen (&nbsp;Hebrews 1:14 , "ministering spirits"; &nbsp;Matthew 10:1 , "unclean spirits"; compare also &nbsp;Matthew 12:43; &nbsp;Mark 1:23 , &nbsp;Mark 1:26 , &nbsp;Mark 1:27; and in &nbsp;Revelation 1:4 , "the seven Spirits ... before his throne"). </p> <p> <b> (2) As Surviving Death: </b> </p> <p> The spirit is thus in man the principle of life - but of man as distinguished from the brute - so that in death this spirit is yielded to the Lord (&nbsp;Luke 23:46; &nbsp;Acts 7:59; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 5:5 , "that the spirit may be saved"). Hence, God is called the "Father of spirits" (&nbsp;Hebrews 12:9 ). </p> <p> <b> (3) Spiritual Manifestations: </b> </p> <p> Thus generally for all the manifestations of the spiritual part in man, as that which thinks, feels, wills; and also to denote certain qualities which characterize the man, e.g. "poor in spirit" (&nbsp;Matthew 5:3 ); "spirit of gentleness" (&nbsp;Galatians 6:1 ); "of bondage" (&nbsp;Romans 8:15 ); "of jealousy" (&nbsp;Numbers 5:14 ); "of fear" (&nbsp;2 Timothy 1:7 the King James Version); "of slumber" (&nbsp; Romans 11:8 the King James Version). Hence, we are called upon to "rule over our own spirit" (&nbsp; Proverbs 16:32; &nbsp;Proverbs 25:28 ), and are warned against being overmastered by a wrong spirit (&nbsp;Luke 9:55 the King James Version, "Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of"). So man may submit to the "spirit of error," and turn away from the "spirit of truth" (&nbsp; 1 John 4:6 ). Thus we read of the "spirit of counsel" (&nbsp;Isaiah 11:2 ); "of wisdom" (&nbsp;Ephesians 1:17 ). </p> 3. Human and Divine Spirit: <p> <b> (1) The Human as Related with the Divine: </b> </p> <p> We go a step higher when we find the human spirit brought into relationship with the Divine Spirit. For man is but a creature to whom life has been imparted by God's spirit - life being but a resultant of God's breath. Thus life and death are realistically described as an imparting or a withdrawing of God's breath, as in &nbsp;Job 27:3; &nbsp;Job 33:4; &nbsp;Job 34:14 , "spirit and breath" going together. The spirit may thus be "revived" (&nbsp;Genesis 45:27 ), or "overwhelmed" (&nbsp;Psalm 143:4 ), or "broken" (&nbsp;Proverbs 15:13 ). And where sin has been keenly felt, it is "a broken spirit" which is "a sacrifice to God" (&nbsp;Psalm 51:17 ); and when man submits to the power of sin, a new direction is given to his mind: he comes under a "spirit of whoredom" (&nbsp;Hosea 4:12 ); he becomes "proud in spirit" (&nbsp;Ecclesiastes 7:8 ), instead of being "patient in spirit"; he is a fool because he is "hasty in spirit" and gives way to "anger" (&nbsp;Ecclesiastes 7:9 ). The "faithful in spirit" are the men who resist talebearing and backbiting in the world (&nbsp;Proverbs 11:13 ). In such instances as these the difference between "soul" and "spirit" appears. See Soul; Psychology . </p> <p> <b> (2) Operations of the Divine Spirit as Third Person of the Trinity: </b> </p> <p> On this higher plane, too, we find the Divine Spirit at work. The terminology is very varied here: In the New Testament we read of the "Holy Spirit" (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:19; &nbsp;Matthew 1:18 , &nbsp;Matthew 1:20; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 1:5 , &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 1:6 ); the "Spirit of God" (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:10 ff; &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 3:16; &nbsp;Romans 8:9 , &nbsp;Romans 8:11; &nbsp;Ephesians 3:16 , etc.); the "Spirit of Christ" (&nbsp;Romans 8:9; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 3:17; &nbsp;Galatians 4:6 ); or simply of "Spirit," with distinct reference to God (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:10; &nbsp;Romans 8:16 , &nbsp;Romans 8:23 , etc.). God Himself is Spirit (&nbsp;John 4:24 ). Hence, God's power is manifested in human life and character (&nbsp;Luke 4:14; &nbsp;Romans 1:1; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:4; especially &nbsp;Luke 24:49 ). The Book of Acts may be termed the Book of the Holy Spirit, working with power in man. This Spirit is placed on a level with Father and Son in the [[Apostolic]] [[Benediction]] (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 13:14 ) and in the parting message of the [[Saviour]] to His disciples (&nbsp;Matthew 28:19 ). As the agent in redemption and sanctification His work is glorified by lives "renewed" in the very "spirit of the mind" - a collocation of terms which has puzzled many interpreters (&nbsp;Ephesians 4:23 , &nbsp;Ephesians 4:24 ), where <i> ''''' pneúma ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' noús ''''' </i> appear together, to indicate a renewal which is all-embracing, 'renewed in the spirit of your mind, so that the new man is put on, created in righteousness and true holiness' (see also &nbsp;John 14:17 , &nbsp;John 14:26; &nbsp;John 15:26; &nbsp;John 16:13; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 12:11 , etc.). </p> 4. Old Testament Applications: <p> In the Old Testament this spirit of God appears in varied functions, as brooding over chaos (&nbsp;Genesis 1:2; &nbsp;Job 26:13 ); as descending upon men, on heroes like Othniel, Gideon, etc. (&nbsp;Judges 3:10; &nbsp;Judges 6:34 ), on prophets (&nbsp;Ezekiel 37:1 ), on "cunning workmen," like [[Bezalel]] and [[Aholiab]] (&nbsp;Exodus 31:2 , &nbsp;Exodus 31:3 , &nbsp;Exodus 31:4 , "filled with the Spirit of God"), and specially in such passages as &nbsp;Psalm 51:11 , where the very presence of God is indicated by an abiding influence of the Holy Spirit: "The Spirit of [[Yahweh]] is Yahweh himself." </p> 5. Various Interpretations: <p> May we not reach a still higher stage? Wendt in his interesting monograph ( <i> Die Begriffe Fleisch und Geist </i> ), of which extracts are given in Dickson's <i> St. Paul's Use of the Terms Flesh and Spirit </i> , draws attention to the transcendental influence of the Divine <i> ''''' rūaḥ ''''' </i> in the Old Testament as expressed in such phrases as 'to put on' (&nbsp; Judges 6:34 ), 'to fall upon' (&nbsp;Psalm 14:6 , 19), 'to settle' (&nbsp;Numbers 11:25 f). May we not then rightly assume that more is meant than a mere influence emanating from a personal God? Are we not right in maintaining with [[Davidson]] that "there are indeed a considerable number of passages in the Old Testament which might very well express the idea that the Spirit is a distinct <i> hypostasis </i> or person.?" (see [[Substance]] ). Rejecting the well-known passage in Genesis: "Let us make man after our own image," which some have interpreted in a trinitarian sense, we may point to such texts as &nbsp;Zechariah 4:6 , "by my Spirit"; &nbsp;Isaiah 63:10 , &nbsp;Isaiah 63:11 , "They rebelled, and grieved his holy Spirit"; "Where is he that put his holy Spirit in the midst of them?" This is borne out by the New Testament, with its warnings against "grieving the Holy Spirit," "lying against the Holy Spirit," and kindred expressions (&nbsp;Ephesians 4:30; &nbsp;Acts 5:3 ). It is this Spirit which "beareth witness with our spirit, that we are children of God" (&nbsp;Romans 8:16 ) - the spirit which, as Auberlen has put it ( <i> PRE1 </i> , article "Geist des Menschen"), "appears in a double relationship to us, as the principle of natural life, which is ours by birth, and that of spiritual life, which we receive through the new birth ( <i> Wiedergeburt </i> )." Hence, Paul speaks of God whom he serves "with his spirit" (&nbsp;Romans 1:9 ); and in &nbsp;2 Timothy 1:3 he speaks of serving God "in a pure conscience." See [[Conscience]]; [[Flesh]]; Holy Spirit; Psychology; Soul . </p>