Difference between revisions of "Solomon"

<p> '''''Shlomoh''''' in Hebrew. Second child of David by Bathsheba. [[Josephus]] makes [[Solomon]] last born of David's sons (Ant. 7:14, section 2). His history is contained in &nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24-25; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:6-16; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:1 Kings 1-11; 2 Chronicles 1-9. The leading events of his life were selected, under inspiration: namely, his grandeur, extensive commerce, and wisdom, etc. (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:10-10:29), from "the book of the Acts of Solomon"; his accession and dedication of the temple (1 Kings 1 - 1 Kings 8:66) from "the book of [[Nathan]] the prophet"; his idolatry and its penal consequences (1 Kings 11) from "the book of [[Ahijah]] the [[Shilonite]] and the visions of [[Iddo]] the seer." Psalm 72 was his production under the Spirit. Its objective character accords with Solomon's other writings, whereas subjective feeling characterizes David's psalms. Solomon's glorious and wide kingdom typifies Messiah's. The Nile, Mediterranean, and Euphrates, were then Israel's bounds (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:21; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:26) as promised in &nbsp;Genesis 15:18; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:24. </p> <p> From thence [[Messiah]] is to reign to the ends of the earth (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:8; &nbsp;Isaiah 9:5-6; Isaiah 11; &nbsp;Zechariah 9:10; see &nbsp;Micah 5:4; &nbsp;Numbers 24:19). "The song of degrees," i.e. for [[Israelites]] going up to the great feasts at [[Jerusalem]] (Psalm 127), was also Solomon's. It has no trace of the sadness which pervades "the songs of degrees" without titles, and which accords with the post captivity period. The individual comes into prominence here, whereas they speak more of the nation and church. The theme suits Solomon who occupied chiefly the domestic civic territory. The main thought answers to &nbsp;Proverbs 10:22, "so God giveth His beloved sleep," i.e. undisturbed repose and wealth without the anxieties of the worldly, in a way they know not how (&nbsp;Mark 4:27). So God gave to His beloved S. in sleep ''(Hengstenberg Supplies "In")'' ; &nbsp;Matthew 6:25; &nbsp;Matthew 6:34. '''''Jedidiah''''' ("beloved of Jehovah," &nbsp;Psalms 127:2) was his God-given name (&nbsp;Psalms 60:5). Solomon evidently refers (&nbsp;Psalms 60:2) to his own experience (&nbsp;1 Kings 3:5-13; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:20-25), yet in so unstudied a way that the coincidence is evidently undesigned, and so confirms the authenticity of both psalm and independent history. (See [[Proverbs; Canticles; Ecclesiastes]] ) </p> <p> His name '''''Solomon''''' , "peaceful", was given in accordance with the early prophecy that, because of wars, David should not build Jehovah's house, but that a son should be born to him, "a man of rest," who should build it (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:9; compare the fulfillment &nbsp;1 Kings 4:25; &nbsp;1 Kings 5:4, and the [[Antitype]] &nbsp;Matthew 11:29; &nbsp;Psalms 132:8-14; &nbsp;Isaiah 11:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 9:6; &nbsp;Ephesians 2:14). His birth was to David a pledge that God is at peace with him. [[Jehovah]] commissioned Nathan ''("Sent By The Hand Of Nathan")'' , and Nathan called David's son Jedidiah "for Jehovah's sake," i.e. because Jehovah loved him. Jehovah's naming him so assured David that Jehovah loved Solomon. Jedidiah was therefore not his actual name, but expressed Jehovah's relation to him (&nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24-25). Tradition makes Nathan the prophet his instructor, [[Jehiel]] was governor of the royal princes (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 27:32). Jehovah chose Solomon of all David's sons to be his successor, and promised to be his father, and to establish his kingdom for ever, if he were constant to His commandments (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 28:5-6-7). </p> <p> Accordingly David swore to [[Bathsheba]] that her son should succeed. She pleaded this at the critical moment of Adonijah's rebellion (&nbsp;1 Kings 1:13; &nbsp;1 Kings 1:17; &nbsp;1 Kings 1:30). (See [[Adonijah]] .) By the interposition of Nathan the prophet, [[Zadok]] the priest, Benaiah, Shimei, and Rei, David's mighty men, Solomon was at David's command taken on the king's own mule to Gihon, anointed, and proclaimed king. Solomon would have spared Adonijah but for his incestuous and treasonous desire to have [[Abishag]] his father's concubine; he mercifully spared the rest of his brothers who had joined Adonijah. (See [[Adonijah]] .) Abiathar he banished to [[Anathoth]] for treason, thus fulfilling the old curse on [[Eli]] (&nbsp;1 Samuel 2:31-35). (See [[Abiathar]] .) [[Joab]] the murderer he put to death, according to his father's dying charge, illustrating Solomon's own words, &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 8:12-13. [[Shimei]] fell by breaking his own engagement on oath. </p> <p> Solomon's reverent dutifulness to his mother amidst all his kingly state appears in the narrative (&nbsp;1 Kings 2:12; &nbsp;Exodus 20:12; &nbsp;Psalms 45:9; &nbsp;Proverbs 1:8; &nbsp;Proverbs 4:3; &nbsp;Proverbs 6:20; &nbsp;Proverbs 10:1). The ceremonial of coronation and anointing was repeated more solemnly before David and all the congregation, with great sacrifices and glad feastings, Zadok at the same time being anointed "priest"; and Jehovah magnified Solomon exceedingly in the sight of all Israel, and bestowed upon him such royal majesty as had not been on any king before him in [[Israel]] (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 29:20-25). He was "yet young and tender" (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 29:1; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:5; &nbsp;1 Kings 3:7; "I am but a little child," &nbsp;Proverbs 4:3); perhaps 20 years of age: as [[Rehoboam]] was 41 at his accession and Solomon had reigned 40 years, Rehoboam must have been born before Solomon's accession (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:42; &nbsp;1 Kings 14:21). Solomon loved the Lord who had first loved him; &nbsp;1 Kings 3:3. (See [[Jedidiah]] .) </p> <p> He walked in David's godly ways but there being no one exclusive temple yet, he sacrificed in high places, especially at the great high place in Gibeon, where was the tabernacle with its altar, while the ark was in Zion. After his offering there a thousand burnt offerings God in vision gave him his choice of goods. In the spirit of a child (see &nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:14) he asked for an understanding heart to discern between good and bad (compare &nbsp;James 1:5; &nbsp;James 3:17; &nbsp;2 Timothy 3:17; &nbsp;Proverbs 2:3-9; &nbsp;Psalms 72:1-2; &nbsp;Hebrews 5:14). God gave him, besides wisdom, what he had not asked, riches, honour, and life, because he made wisdom his first desire (&nbsp;James 4:3; &nbsp;1 John 5:14-15; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 1:16; &nbsp;Matthew 6:33; &nbsp;Ephesians 3:20; &nbsp;Proverbs 3:2; &nbsp;Proverbs 3:16; &nbsp;Psalms 91:16). His wise decision as to the owner of the living child established his reputation for wisdom. </p> <p> His [[Egyptian]] queen, Pharaoh's daughter, is distinguished from "the strange women" who seduced him to idolatry (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:1), and no Egyptian superstitions are mentioned. Still he did not let her as a foreigner stay in the palace of David, sanctified as it was by the presence of the ark, but assigned her a dwelling in the city of David and then brought her up out of the city of David to the palace he had built for her (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:11; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:24; &nbsp;1 Kings 3:1). Gezer was her dowry. (See [[Gezer]] .) Toward the close of his reign God chastised him for idolatry because, beginning with latitudinarian toleration of his foreign wives' superstitions, be ended with adopting them himself; retaining at the same time what cannot be combined with idolatry, Jehovah's worship (&nbsp;Ezekiel 20:39; &nbsp;Ezekiel 20:1 Kings 11). Jeroboam "lifted up his hand against the king, and fled to [[Shishak]] ''(Of A New Dynasty)'' of Egypt"; [[Rezon]] of [[Zobah]] on the N.E. frontier and [[Hadad]] the [[Edomite]] became his adversaries, Solomon otherwise had uninterrupted peace. (See [[Jeroboam]] ; [[Rezon; Hadad]] ) </p> <p> Among his buildings were the famous Tadmor or Palmyra in the wilderness, to carry on commerce with inland Asia, and store cities in Hamath; Bethhoron, the Upper and the Nether, on the border toward [[Philistia]] and Egypt; [[Hazor]] and Megiddo, guarding the plain of Esdraelon; [[Baalath]] or Baalbek, etc. (See [[Tadmor]] .) ''(On '' &nbsp;1 Kings 10:28 '', See Linen, And On '' &nbsp;1 Kings 10:29 '', See Horse.)'' [[Tiphsah]] ("Thapsacus") on the [[Euphrates]] (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:24) was his limit in that direction. On [[Lebanon]] he built lofty towers (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:6; &nbsp;Song of Solomon 7:4) "looking toward Damascus" (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:19). The Hittite and [[Syrian]] kings, vassals of Solomon, were supplied from Egypt with chariots and horses through the king's merchants. [[Hiram]] was his ally, and supplied him with timber in return for 20,000 measures ( '''''Core''''' ) of wheat and 20 measures of pure oil (1 Kings 5). Solomon gave him at the end of his great buildings 20 cities in Galilee, with which Hiram was dissatisfied. (See [[Cabul]] .) </p> <p> Solomon had his navy at Ezion Geber, near [[Eloth]] on the Red Sea, which went to [[Ophir]] and brought back 420 talents of gold; and a navy of Tarshish which sailed with Hiram's navy in the Mediterranean, bringing every three years "gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks." (See [[Tarshish]] .) For the first time Israel began to be a commercial nation, and Solomon's occupation of [[Edom]] enabled him to open to Hiram his ally a new field of commerce. His own interest in it is evidenced by his going in person to [[Elath]] and Ezion [[Geber]] to view the preparations for expeditions (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:17; compare his allusions to seafaring life, &nbsp;Proverbs 23:34-35). Silver flowed in so plentifully that it was "nothing accounted of"; of gold yearly came in 666 ''(The Number Of The Beast, '' &nbsp;Revelation 13:18 '')'' talents; a snare to him and his people, seducing the heart from God to luxurious self indulgence (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:20; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:25). [[Heretofore]] "dwelling alone, and not reckoned among the nations," Israel now was in danger of conformity to them in their idolatries (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:14). The Temple and his palace were his great buildings. (See [[Temple]] .) </p> <p> Hiram, a widow's son of [[Naphtali]] by a [[Tyrian]] father, was his chief artificer in brass. Solomon's men, 30,000, i.e. 10,000 a month, the other 20,000 having two months' relief, cut timber in Lebanon; 70,000 bore loads; 80,000 hewed stone in the mountains and under the rock, where the mason's Phoenician marks have been found; chiefly Canaanites, spared on conforming to Judaism; 3,300 officers were over these workmen. The preparation of stones took three years ''(Septuagint '' &nbsp;1 Kings 5:18 '')'' . The building of the temple began in '''''Ζif''''' , the second month of his fourth year; the stones were brought ready, so that no sound of hammer was heard in the house; in seven years it was completed, in the month '''''Βul''''' ('November"), his 11th year (&nbsp;1 Kings 6:37-38); eleven months later Solomon offered the dedication prayer, after the ark had been placed in the holiest place and the glory cloud filled the sanctuary; this was during the feast of tabernacles. </p> <p> He recognizes in it God's covenant-keeping faithfulness (&nbsp;1 Kings 8:23-26); His being unbounded by space, so that "the heaven of heavens cannot contain Him," much less any temple; yet he begs God to regard the various prayers which should, under various exigencies, be offered there (&nbsp;Isaiah 66:1; &nbsp;Jeremiah 23:24; &nbsp;Acts 7:24). He acknowledges His omniscience as knowing already the plague of each heart which the individual may confess before Him. After kneeling in prayer Solomon stood to bless God, at the same time begging Him to incline Israel's heart unto Himself and to "maintain their cause at all times as the matter shall require" ''(Hebrew "The [[Thing]] Of A Day In Its Day")'' &nbsp;1 Kings 8:59; &nbsp;Luke 11:3. God's answer (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:3) at His second appearance to Solomon in [[Gibeon]] was the echo of his prayer (&nbsp;1 Kings 8:29), "Mine eyes and Mine heart shall be there perpetually" (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:3), but God added a warning that if Israel should apostatize the temple should become "a bye-word among all people." The building of Solomon's palace occupied 13 years, after the temple, which was built in seven. It consisted of </p> <p> '''(1)''' the house of the forest of Lebanon, built of a forest of cedar pillars, and serving also as an armory (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:17), &nbsp;1 Kings 10:100 cubits long, 50 broad, 30 high, on four rows of cedar pillars and hewn cedar beams over the pillars. There were 45 side rooms, forming three stories of 15 rooms each, built upon the lower rows of pillars in ranges of 15 each; the windows of the three stories on one side were '''''Vis A Vis''''' to those on the opposite side of the inner open court enclosed between them (Keil on 1 Kings 7). An artificial platform of stones of ten and eight cubits formed the foundation; as in Sennacherib's palace remains at Koyunjik, and at [[Baalbek]] stones 60 ft. long, probably laid by Solomon. </p> <p> '''(2)''' The pillar hall with the porch (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:6) lying between the house of the forest of Lebanon and </p> <p> '''(3)''' The throne room and judgment hall (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:7). </p> <p> '''(4)''' The king's dwelling house and that of Pharaoh's daughter (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:8). All four were different parts of the one palace. His throne, targets, stables, harem ''(Both The [[Latter]] Forbidden By God, '' &nbsp;Deuteronomy 17:16-17 '')'' , paradises at '''''Εtham''''' ("wady Urtas"), men and women singers (&nbsp;Ecclesiastes 2:5-8), commissariat, and officers of the household and state, all exhibit his magnificence (1 Kings 4; 1 Kings 10-11). </p> <p> His might and greatness of dominion permanently impressed the oriental mind; Solomon is evidently alluded to in the [[Persian]] king Artaxerxes' answer, "there have been mighty kings over Jerusalem which have ruled overall countries beyond the river; and toll, tribute, and custom was paid unto them." The queen of Sheba's ''(Arabian Tradition Calls Her '' '''''Βalkis''''' '')'' visit illustrates the impression made by his fame, which led "all the earth to seek to hear his wisdom which God had put in his heart"; she "hearing of his fame concerning the name of Jehovah" ''(I.E. Which He Had [[Acquired]] Through Jehovah'S [[Glorification]] Of Himself In Him)'' brought presents of gold, spices, and precious stones. (See [[Sheba]] .) </p> <p> Josephus attributes to her the introduction of the balsam for which [[Judaea]] was afterward famed (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:1-25). Northern [[Arabia]] was at this time ruled by queens not kings, but she probably came from southern Arabia or Arabia Felix. Like the wise men coming to the Antitype, she came with a great train, and with camels laden with presents, in search of Heaven-sent wisdom (&nbsp;Proverbs 1:6; &nbsp;Matthew 2:1), "to prove Solomon with hard questions" ''('' '''''Chidah''''' '', [[Pointed]] Sayings Hinting At Deep Truths Which Are To Be Guessed; Very Common In Arabic Literature)'' , and to commune with him of all that was in her heart; compare as to these "hard questions" &nbsp;Proverbs 30:18, etc., &nbsp;Proverbs 30:15-16; &nbsp;Judges 14:12-19; also Josephus (Ant. 8:5, section 3) quotes Phoenician writers who said that Solomon and Hiram puzzled one another with sportive riddles; Hiram at first had to pay forfeits, but was ultimately the winner by the help of a sharp Tyrian lad Abdemon. </p> <p> The queen of Sheba confessed that she believed not the report until her own eyes saw its truth, yet that half was not told her, his wisdom and prosperity exceeded the fame which she had heard ''(Compare [[Spiritually]] '' &nbsp;John 1:46 ''; '' &nbsp;John 4:42 '')'' . Her coming to Solomon from so far condemns those who come not to Him who is infinitely greater, Wisdom itself, though near at hand, and needing no long pilgrimage to reach Him (&nbsp;Matthew 12:42; &nbsp;Proverbs 8:34). He is the true "Prince of peace," the '''''Jedid-Jah''''' "the well beloved of the Father." "God gave Solomon wisdom ''('' '''''Chokmah''''' '', "Practical Wisdom" To [[Discern]] The Judicious Course Of Action)'' , and understanding ''('' '''''Tebunah''''' '', "Keenness Of Intellect" To Solve Problems)'' , and largeness of heart ''("Large Mental Capacity" Comprising Varied Fields Of Knowledge)'' as the sand," i.e. abundant beyond measure (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:29). He excelled the famous wise men of the East and of Egypt (&nbsp;Isaiah 19:11; &nbsp;Isaiah 31:2; &nbsp;Acts 7:22). Of his 3,000 proverbs we have a sample in the Book of Proverbs; of his 1,005 songs we have only the Song of Solomon ''(Its Five [[Divisions]] Probably Are Referred To In The [[Odd]] Five)'' , and Psalm 72 and Psalm 127. (See PROVERBS.) </p> <p> He knew botany, from the lowly hyssop ''(Probably The Tufty Wall Moss, '' '''''Οrthotrichum Saxatile''''' '', A [[Miniature]] Of The True And Large Hyssop)'' to the stately cedar. He also spoke of the results of his observations in the natural history of beasts, birds, creeping things, and fish. As an autocrat, Solomon was able to carry on his magnificent buildings and works, having an unbounded command of wealth and labour. But the people's patience was tried with the heavy taxes and levies of provisions (&nbsp;1 Samuel 8:15; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:21-23) and conscriptions required (&nbsp;1 Kings 5:13). Thus by divine retribution the scourge was being prepared for his apostasy through his idolatrous mistresses. God declared by His prophet His purpose to rend the kingdom, except one tribe, from his son (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:9, etc.). One trace of the servitude of the "hewers of stone" existed long after in the so-called children or descendants of [["Solomon'S Servants"]]  attached to the temple (&nbsp;Ezra 2:55-58; &nbsp;Nehemiah 7:57; &nbsp;Nehemiah 7:60); inferior to the Nethinim, hewers of wood (&nbsp;1 Kings 5:13-15; &nbsp;1 Kings 5:17-18; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:20-21; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:7-8; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:2), compelled to labour in the king's stone quarries. (See [[Nethinim]] .) </p> <p> His apostasy was the more glaring, contrasted with God's goodness in appearing to him twice, blessing him so much, and warning him so plainly; also with his own former scrupulous regard for the law, so that he would not let his Egyptian queen remain in the neighbourhood of the ark; and especially with his devout prayer at the dedication. See the lesson to us, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:12. Solomon probably repented in the end; for Chronicles make no mention of his fall. Again Ecclesiastes is probably the result of his melancholy, but penitent, retrospect of the past; "all is vanity and vexation of spirit": it is not vanity, but wisdom as well as our whole duty, to "fear God and keep His commandments." (See [[Ecclesiastes]] .) </p> <p> God having made him His '''''Jedidiah''''' ("beloved of Jehovah") "visited his transgression with the rod, nevertheless His lovingkindness He did not utterly take from him" (&nbsp;Psalms 89:30-36). As the Song of Solomon represents his first love to Jehovah in youth, so Proverbs his matured experience in middle age, Ecclesiastes the sad retrospect of old age. "Solomon in all his glory" was not arrayed as one of the "lilies of the field": a reproof of our pride (&nbsp;Matthew 6:29). The sudden rise of the empire under David and Solomon, extending 450 miles from Egypt to the Euphrates, and its sudden collapse under Rehoboam, is a feature not uncommon in the East. Before [[Darius]] Hystaspes' time, when the satrapial system was introduced of governing the provinces on a common plan by officers of the crown, the universal system of great empires was an empire consisting of separate kingdoms, each under its own king, but "paying tribute or presents to the one" '''''Suzerain''''' , as Solomon. </p> <p> The Tyrian historians on whom [[Dius]] and [[Menander]] base their histories (Josephus, [[Apion]] 1:17) confirm Hiram's connection with Solomon, and state that letters between them were preserved in the Tyrian archives and fix the date as at the close of the 11th century B.C., and the building of the temple 1007 B.C. Menander (in Clem. Alex., Strom. 1:386) states that Solomon took one of Hiram's daughters to wife, so "Zidonians" are mentioned among his wives (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:1). At first sight it seems unlikely Israel could be so great under David and Solomon for half a century in the face of two mighty empires, Egypt and Assyria. But independent history confirms [[Scripture]] by showing that exactly at this time, from the beginning of the 11th to the close of the 10th century B.C., [[Assyria]] was under a cloud, and Egypt from 1200 B.C. to Shishak's accession 990 B.C. Solomon was prematurely "old" (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:4), for he was only about 60 at death. </p>

<p> '''Sol'omon.''' ''(Peaceful).'' </p> <p> '''I. ''' '''Early life and occasion to the throne.''' - Solomon was the child of David's old age, the last born of all his sons. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 3:5. The yearnings of the "man of war" led him to give to the new-horn infant, the name of Solomon ([[Shelomoth]] , ''The Peaceful One'' ). Nathan, with a marked reference to the meaning of the king's own name (David, ''The Darling, The [[Beloved]] One'' ), calls the infant Jedidiah, ( '''Jedid'yah''' ), that is, ''The [[Darling]] Of The Lord'' . &nbsp;2 Samuel 11:24-25. He was placed under the care of Nathan from his earliest infancy. </p> <p> At first, apparently, there was no distinct purpose to make him the heir. Absalom was still the king's favorite son, &nbsp;2 Samuel 13:37; &nbsp;2 Samuel 18:33, and was looked on, by the people, as the destined successor. &nbsp;2 Samuel 14:13; &nbsp;2 Samuel 15:1-6. The death of Absalom, when Solomon was about ten years old, left the place vacant, and David pledged his word, in secret, to Bath-sheba that he, and no other, should be the heir. &nbsp;1 Kings 1:13. The words which were spoken somewhat later express, doubtless, the purpose which guided him throughout. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 28:9; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 28:20. </p> <p> His son's life should not he, as his own had been, one of hardships and wars, dark crimes, and passionate repentance, but, from first to last, be pure, blameless, peaceful, fulfilling the ideal of glory and of righteousness, after which he himself had vainly striven. The glorious visions of &nbsp;Psalms 72:1, may be looked on as the prophetic expansion of these hopes of his old age. So far, all was well. Apparently his influence over his son's character was one exclusively for good. Nothing that we know of Bath-sheba lends us to think of her as likely to mould her son's mind and heart, to the higher forms of goodness. Under these influences, the boy grew up. </p> <p> At the age of ten or eleven, he must have passed through the revolt of Absalom, and shared his father's exile. &nbsp;2 Samuel 15:16. He would be taught all that priests or [[Levites]] or prophets had to teach. When David was old and feeble, Adonijah, Solomon's older brother attempted to gain possession of the throne; but he was defeated, and Solomon went down to Gihon, and was proclaimed and anointed king. A few months more and Solomon found himself, by his father's death, the sole occupant of the throne. The position to which he succeeded was unique. Never before, and never after, did the kingdom of Israel take its place among the great monarchies of the East. Large treasures, accumulated through many years, were at his disposal. </p> <p> '''II. ''' '''Personal appearance.''' - Of Solomon's personal appearance, we have no direct description, as we have of the earlier kings. There are, however, materials for filling up the gap. Whatever higher mystic meaning may be latent in &nbsp;Psalms 45:1, or the Song of Songs, we are all but compelled to think of them as having had, at least, a historical starting-point. </p> <p> They tell of one who was, in the eyes of the men of his own time, "fairer than the children of men," the face "bright, and ruddy" as his father's, &nbsp;Song of Solomon 5:10; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:42, bushy locks, dark as the raven's wing, yet not without a golden glow, the eyes soft as "the eyes of cloves," the "countenance as Lebanon excellent as the cedars," "the chiefest among ten thousand, the altogether lovely." &nbsp;Song of Solomon 5:13-18. Add to this all gifts of a noble, far-reaching intellect, large and ready sympathies, a playful and genial humor, the lips "full of grace," and the soul "anointed" as "with the oil of gladness," &nbsp;Psalms 45:1, and we may form some notion of what the king was like in that dawn of his golden prime. </p> <p> '''III. ''' '''Reign.''' - All the data, for a continuous history, that we have of Solomon's reign are - </p> <p> (a) The duration of the reign, forty sears, B.C. 1015-975. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:4. </p> <p> (b) The commencement of the Temple in the fourth, its completion in the eleventh, year of his reign. &nbsp;1 Kings 6:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 6:37-38. </p> <p> (c) The commencement of his own palace in the seventh, its completion in the twentieth, year. &nbsp;1 Kings 7:1; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:1. </p> <p> (d) The conquest of Hamath-zobah, and the consequent foundation of cities in the region of north Palestine after the twentieth year. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:1-6. </p> <p> '''IV. ''' '''Foreign policy.''' - Egypt. The first act of the foreign policy of the new reign must have been, to most Israelites, a very startling one. He made affinity with Pharaoh, king of Egypt, by marrying his daughter. &nbsp;1 Kings 3:1. The immediate results were, probably, favorable enough. The new queen brought with her, as a dowry, the frontier city of Gezer. But the ultimate issue of alliance showed that it was hollow and impolitic. </p> <p> Tyre. The alliance with the Phoenician king rested on a, somewhat, different footing. It had been a part of David's policy, from the beginning of his reign. Hiram had been "ever a lover of David." As soon as he heard of Solomon's accession, he sent ambassadors to salute him. A correspondence passed between the two kings, which ended in a treaty of commerce. </p> <p> The opening of [[Joppa]] as a port created a new coasting-trade, and the materials from Tyre were conveyed to that city on floats, and, thence, to Jerusalem. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 2:16. In return for these exports, the Phoenicians were only too glad to receive the corn and oil of Solomon's territory. The results of the alliance did not end here. Now, for the first time in the history of the Jews, they entered on a career as a commercial people. </p> <p> The foregoing were the two most important to [[Babylon]] alliances. The absence of any reference to Babylon and Assyria, and the fact that the Euphrates was recognized as the boundary of Solomon's kingdom, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:26, suggests the inference that the Mesopotamian monarchies were, at this time, comparatively feeble. Other neighboring nations were content to pay annual tribute in the form of gifts. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:28. </p> <p> The survey of the influence exercised by Solomon on surrounding nations would be incomplete, if we were to pass over that which was more directly personal; the fame of his glory and his wisdom. Wherever the ships of Tarshish went, they carried with them the report, losing nothing in its passage, of what their crews had seen and heard. The journey of the queen of Sheba, though from its circumstances, the most conspicuous, did not stand alone. </p> <p> '''V. ''' '''Internal history.''' - The first prominent scene, in Solomon's reign, is one which presents his character in its noblest aspect. God, in a vision, having offered him the choice of good things he would have, he chose "wisdom," in preference to riches or honor or long life. The wisdom asked for was given in large measure, and took a varied range. The wide world of nature, animate and inanimate, the lives and characters of men, lay before him, and he took cognizance of all, but the highest wisdom was that wanted for the highest work, for governing and guiding, and the historian hastens to give an illustration of it. The pattern-instance is, in all its circumstances, thoroughly Oriental. &nbsp;1 Kings 3:16-28. </p> <p> In reference to the king's finances, the first impression of the facts given us is that of abounding plenty. Large quantities of the precious metals were imported from Ophir and Tarshish. &nbsp;1 Kings 9:28. All the kings and princes of the subject provinces paid tribute in the form of gifts, in money and in kind, "at a fixed rate year by year." &nbsp;1 Kings 10:25. Monopolies of trade contributed to the king's treasury. &nbsp;1 Kings 10:28-29. The total amount, thus brought into the treasury in gold, exclusive of all payments in kind, amounted to 666 talents. &nbsp;1 Kings 10:14. It was hardly possible, however, that any financial system could bear the strain of the king's passion for magnificence. </p> <p> The cost of the Temple was, it is true, provided for by David's savings and the offerings of the people; but even while that was building, yet more when it was finished, one structure followed on another with ruinous rapidity. All the equipment of his court, the "apparel" of his servants was on the same scale. A body-guard attended him, "threescore valiant men," tallest and handsomest of the sons of Israel. Forty thousand stalls of horses for his chariots, and twelve thousand horsemen made up the measure of his magnificence. &nbsp;1 Kings 4:26. As the treasury became empty, taxes multiplied and monopolies became more irksome. </p> <p> A description of the Temple erected by Solomon is given elsewhere. After seven years, and the work was completed, and the day came to which all Israelites looked back as the culminating glory of their nation. We cannot ignore the fact that, even now, there were some darker shades in the picture. He reduced the "strangers" in the land, the remnant of the [[Canaanite]] races, to the state of helots, and made their life "bitter with all hard bondage." One hundred and fifty-three thousand, with wives and children in proportion, were torn from their homes and sent off to the quarries and the forests of Lebanon. &nbsp;1 Kings 5:15; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 2:17-18. </p> <p> And the king soon fell from the loftiest height of his religious life to the lowest depth. Before long, the priests and prophets had to grieve over rival temples to Molech, Chemosh, [[Ashtaroth]] and forms of ritua, l not idolatrous only, but cruel, dark, impure. This evil came as the penalty of another. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:1-8. He gave himself to "strange women." He found himself involved in a fascination, which led to the worship of strange gods. Something there was perhaps in his very "largeness of heart," so far in advance of the traditional knowledge of his age, rising to higher and wider thoughts of God, which predisposed him to it. </p> <p> In recognizing what was tru, in other forms of faith, he might lose his horror at what was false. With thi, s there may have mingled political motives. He may have hoped, by a policy of toleration, to conciliate neighboring princes, to attract larger traffic. But, probably also, there was another influence less commonly taken into account. The widespread belief of the East in the magic arts of Solomon is not, it is believed, without its foundation of truth. Disasters followed, before long, as the natural consequence of what was politically a blunder as well as religiously a sin. </p> <p> '''VI. ''' '''His literary works.''' - Little remains out of the songs, proverbs, treatises, of which the historian speaks. &nbsp;1 Kings 4:32-33. ''Excerpts'' only are given from the three thousand proverbs. Of the thousand and five songs, we know absolutely nothing. His books represent the three stages of his life. The Song of Songs brings before us, the brightness of his youth. Then comes in the book of Proverbs, the stage of practical, prudential thought. The poet has become the philosopher, the mystic has passed into the moralist; but the man passed through both stages, without being, permanently, the better for either. They were to him, but phases of his life, which he had known, and exhausted, &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 1:1; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 2:1, and, therefore, there came, its in the confessions of the preacher, the great retribution. </p>

<p> [[Solomon]] ( ''Sŏl'O-Mon'' ), ''Pacific.'' The son of David by Bathsheba, and the third king of Israel. &nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:9; &nbsp;Matthew 1:6; &nbsp;1 Kings 2:12. He was also called the wisest of men, and Jedidiah = friend of Jehovah. &nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24-25; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:29-30; &nbsp;1 Kings 7:51; &nbsp;1 Kings 10:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 11:41-43; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:1-31. David voluntarily resigned the government to Solomon, giving him at the same time a solemn charge respecting the administration of it. &nbsp;1 Kings 2:1-11. Solomon was celebrated for his wealth, splendor, and wisdom. The great event of his reign, however, was the erection of the temple at Jerusalem. &nbsp;1 Kings 5:1-18. Solomon also established a navy of snips at the port of Ezion-geber, on the Red Sea. &nbsp;1 Kings 9:26-28. Jerusalem, the capital of his vast dominions, became renowned for wealth and splendor. &nbsp;Matthew 6:29; &nbsp;Matthew 12:42; &nbsp;Acts 7:47. His arbitrary exercise of the royal power, however, his numerous harem, the introduction of cavalry, the expenditure of the royal house, and his toleration of idolatry in the land of Jehovah, led him into weak and sinful indulgences. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:1-11; &nbsp;1 Kings 12:1-4. The prosperity of his reign was interrupted by disquiets in Edom and Syria; and he was foretold of the revolt of the ten tribes. Solomon died b.c. 975, after a reign of 40 years; and, notwithstanding his glory, was little lamented. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:11-43; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:31. He is said to have written 3000 proverbs, 1005 Songs, and much on natural history. &nbsp;1 Kings 4:32-33. Some of his proverbs and songs probably exist in the Book of Proverbs, in Song of Solomon, and in the Psalms. The Acts of Solomon appears to have been a full history of his reign. &nbsp;1 Kings 11:41; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:29. </p>

<p> ''''' sol´ṓ ''''' - ''''' mun ''''' ( שׁלמה , <i> ''''' shelōmōh ''''' </i> ; New Testament Σολομών , <i> ''''' Solomṓn ''''' </i> ): </p> <p> I. Early Life </p> <p> 1. Name and Meaning </p> <p> 2. Sources </p> <p> 3. Birth and Upbringing </p> <p> 4. His Accession </p> <p> 5. Closing Days of David </p> <p> II. [[Reign]] Of Solomon </p> <p> 1. His Vision </p> <p> 2. His Policy </p> <p> 3. Its Results </p> <p> 4. [[Alliance]] with Tyre </p> <p> 5. Alliance with Egypt </p> <p> 6. [[Domestic]] Troubles </p> <p> III. His Buildings </p> <p> 1. The Temple </p> <p> 2. The [[Palace]] </p> <p> 3. Other Buildings </p> <p> 4. The Corvee </p> <p> IV. His Character </p> <p> 1. Personal Qualities </p> <p> 2. His Wisdom </p> <p> 3. His [[Learning]] </p> <p> 4. Trade and Commerce </p> <p> 5. Officers of State </p> <p> 6. [[Wives]] </p> <p> 7. Revenues </p> <p> 8. Literary Works </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> I. Early Life. <p> Solomon was the son of David and Bath-sheba, and became the 3king of Israel. </p> <p> <b> 1. Name and Meaning: </b> </p> <p> He was so named by his mother (&nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24 , <i> ''''' Ḳerē ''''' </i> ; see [[Text]] ), but by the prophet Nathan, or by his father (Vulgate), he was called Jedidiah - "loved of Yahweh." The name "Solomon" is derived from the root meaning "to be quiet" or "peaceful," and Solomon was certainly the least warlike of all the kings of Israel or Judah, and in that respect a remarkable contrast to his father (so &nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:9 ). His name in Hebrew compares with [[Irenaeus]] in Greek, Friedrich in German, and Selim in Arabic; but it has been suggested that the name should be pronounced <i> ''''' shı̄llumah ''''' </i> , from the word denoting "compensation," Bath-sheba's second son being given in compensation for the loss of the first (but see 3, below). </p> <p> <b> 2. Sources: </b> </p> <p> The oldest sources for the biography of Solomon are doubtless the "Annals of Solomon" referred to in &nbsp;1 Kings 11:41 , the "history of Nathan the prophet," the "prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite" and the "visions of Iddo the seer," mentioned in &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:29 , all which may be merely the relative sections of the great book of the "Annals of the Kings" from which our Books of Kings and Chronicles are both derived. These ancient works are, of course, lost to us save in so far as they have been embodied in the Old Testament narrative. There the life of South is contained in &nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24 f; 1 Ki 1 through 11; 1 Ch 22 through 2 Ch 9. Of these sources &nbsp; 2 Samuel 12:24 f and 1 Ki 1; 2 are much the oldest and in fact form part of one document, 2 Sam 9 through 20; 1 Ki 1; 2 dealing with the domestic affairs of David, which may well be contemporary with the events it describes. The date of the composition of the Books of Chronicles is about 300 Bc - 700 years after the time of Solomon - and the date of the Books of Kings, as a completed work, must, of course, be later than the exile. Nothing of importance is gained from citations from early historians in Josephus and later writers. Far and away the best source for, at least, the inner life of Solomon would be the writings ascribed to him in the Old Testament, could we be sure that these were genuine (see below). </p> <p> <b> 3. Birth and Upbringing: </b> </p> <p> The children of David by Bath-sheba are given in &nbsp;1 Chronicles 3:5 as Shimea, Shobab, Nathan and Solomon. Compare also &nbsp; 2 Samuel 5:14; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 14:4 , where the same persons evidently are named. It would thus appear that Solomon was the 4th son of Bath-sheba, supposing [[Shimea]] to be the child that died. [[Otherwise]] Solomon would be the 5th son. There are therefore some events omitted in &nbsp;2 Samuel 12:24 f, or else the names [[Shobab]] and Nathan are remains of some clause which has been lost, and not proper names. Like the heir apparent of a Turkish sultan, Solomon seems to have spent his best years in the seclusion of the harem. There he was doubtless more influenced by his mother than by his father, and in close intimacy with his mother was the prophet Nathan, who had given him his by-name of fortunate import (&nbsp; 2 Samuel 12:25 ). </p> <p> <b> 4. His Accession: </b> </p> <p> It was not until David lay on his deathbed that Solomon left the women's quarters and made his appearance in public. That he had been selected by David, as the son of the favorite wife, to succeed him, is pre-supposed in the instructions which he received from his father regarding the building of the Temple. But as soon as it appeared that the life of David was nearing its end, it became evident that Solomon was not to have a "walk over." He found a rival in Adonijah the son of Haggith, who was apparently the eldest surviving son of his father, and who had the support of Joab, by far the strongest man of all, of Abiathar, the leading, if not the favorite, priest (compare &nbsp;2 Samuel 15:24 ff), and of the princes of the royal house. Solomon, on the other hand, had the support of his mother Bath-sheba, David s favorite wife, of Nathan the court prophet, of Zadok who had eclipsed Abiathar, of Benaiah, the son of a priest, but one of the three bravest of David's soldiers, and captain of the bodyguard of Cherethites and Pelethites, and of the principal soldiers. It is especially noted that Shimei and [[Hushai]] (so Josephus) took no active part at any rate with Adonijah (&nbsp; 1 Kings 1:8 ). The conspiracy came to nothing, for, before it developed, Solomon was anointed at Gibeon (not Gihon, &nbsp;1 Kings 1:33 , &nbsp;1 Kings 1:38 , &nbsp;1 Kings 1:45 ), and entered Jerusalem as king. </p> <p> <b> 5. Closing Days of David: </b> </p> <p> The age of Solomon at his accession is unknown. The expression in &nbsp;1 Kings 3:7 is not, of course, to be taken literally (otherwise <i> Ant. </i> , VIII, vii, 8). His reign opened, like that of many an oriental monarch, with a settlement in blood of the accounts of the previous reign. Joab, David's nephew, who had brought the house within the bounds of blood revenge, was executed. Adonijah, as soon as his father had breathed his last, was on a nominal charge put to death. Abiathar was relegated to his home at Anathoth (&nbsp;1 Kings 2:26 ). [[Conditions]] were imposed on Shimei which he failed to keep and so forfeited his life (&nbsp;1 Kings 2:36 ff). These steps having been taken, Solomon began his reign, as it were, with a clean slate. </p> II. Reign of Solomon. <p> <b> 1. His Vision: </b> </p> <p> It was apparently at the very beginning of his reign that Solomon made his famous choice of a "hearing heart," i.e. an obedient heart, in preference to riches or long life. The vision took place at Gibeon (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 1:7 , but in &nbsp;1 Kings 3:4 f the ancient versions read "upon the altar that was in Gibeon. And the Lord appeared," etc.). The life of Solomon was a curious commentary on his early resolution. One of the first acts of his reign was apparently, in the style of the true oriental monarch, to build himself a new palace, that of his father being inadequate for his requirements. In regard to politics, however, the events of Solomon's reign may be regarded as an endorsement of his choice. Under him alone was the kingdom of Israel a great world-power, fit almost to rank beside Assyria and Egypt. Never again were the bounds of Israel so wide; never again were north and south united in one great nation. There is no doubt that the credit of this result is due to the wisdom of Solomon. </p> <p> <b> 2. His Policy: </b> </p> <p> Solomon was by nature an unwarlike person, and his whole policy was in the direction of peace. He disbanded the above-mentioned foreign legion, the Cherethites and Pelethites, who had done such good service as bodyguard to his father. All his officers seem to have been mediocre persons who would not be likely to force his hand, as Joab had done that of David (&nbsp;2 Samuel 3:39 ). Even the fortification of Jerusalem and of the frontier towns was undertaken with a view to repel attack, not for the purposes of offense. Solomon did, no doubt, strengthen the army, especially the cavalry arm (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:26; &nbsp;1 Kings 10:26 ), but he never made any use of this, and perhaps it existed largely on paper. At any rate Solomon seems to have been rather a breeder of and dealer in horse-flesh than a soldier. He appears also to have had a fine collection of armor (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:25 ), but much of it was made of gold (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:16 f) and was intended for show, not for use. Both in his reputation for wisdom and in his aversion to war Solomon bears a striking resemblance to King James Vi of [[Scotland]] and I of England, as depicted by the hand of Sir [[Walter]] Scott. It was fortunate for him that both the neighboring great powers were for the time in a decadent state, otherwise the history of the kingdom of Israel would have ended almost before it had begun. On the other hand, it has been remarked that if Solomon had had anything like the military genius of David and his enthusiasm for the religion of Yahweh, he might have extended the arms of Israel from the Nile to the [[Tigris]] and anticipated the advent of Islam. But his whole idea was to secure himself in peace, to amass wealth and indulge his love of grandeur with more than oriental splendor. </p> <p> <b> 3. Its Results: </b> </p> <p> Solomon, in fact, was living on the achievements and reputation of his father, who laid the basis of security and peace on which the commercial genius of Solomon could raise the magnificent structure which he did. But he took the clay from the foundations in order to build the walls. The Hebrews were a military people and in that consisted their life. Solomon withdrew their energies from their natural bent and turned them to cornmerce, for which they were not yet ripe. Their soul rebelled under the irksome drudgery of an industry of which they did not reap the fruits. Solomon had in fact reduced a free people to slavery, and concentrated the wealth of the whole country in the capital. As soon as he was out of the way, his country subjects threw off the yoke and laid claim to their ancient freedom. His son found himself left with the city and a territory as small as an English county. </p> <p> <b> 4. Alliance with Tyre: </b> </p> <p> Solomon's chief ally was Hiram, the king of Tyre, probably the friend and ally of David, who is to be distinguished from Hiram the artificer of &nbsp;1 Kings 7:13 ff. Hiram the king entered into a treaty with Solomon which was to the advantage of both parties. Hiram supplied Solomon with cedar and pine wood from Lebanon, as well as with skilled artisans for his building. Tyrian sailors were also drafted into the ships of Solomon, the Hebrews not being used to the sea (&nbsp; 1 Kings 9:26 f), besides which Phoenician ships sailed along with those of Solomon. The advantages which Hiram received in return were that the Red Sea was open to his merchantmen, and he also received large supplies of corn and oil from the land of Israel (&nbsp; 1 Kings 5:11 corrected by [[Septuagint]] and &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 2:10 ). At the conclusion of the building of the palace and Temple, which occupied 20 years, Solomon presented Hiram with 20 villages (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:11; the converse, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:2 ), and Hiram made Solomon a return present of gold (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:14; omitted in 2 Chronicles). </p> <p> <b> 5. Alliance with Egypt: </b> </p> <p> Second to Hiram was the Pharaoh of Egypt, whose daughter Solomon married, receiving as her dower the town of Gezer (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:16 ). This Pharaoh is not named in the Old Testament. This alliance with Egypt led to the introduction of horses into Israel (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:28 f), though David had already made a beginning on a small scale (&nbsp; 2 Samuel 8:4 ). Both these alliances lasted throughout the reign. There is no mention of an alliance with the eastern power, which was then in a decadent state. </p> <p> <b> 6. Domestic Troubles: </b> </p> <p> It was probably nearer the beginning than the end of Solomon's reign that political trouble broke out within the realm. When David had annexed the territory of the [[Edomites]] at the cost of the butchery of the male population (compare &nbsp;2 Samuel 8:14; &nbsp;Psalm 60:1-12 , title) one of the young princes of the reigning house effected his escape, and sought and found an asylum in Egypt, where he rose to occupy a high station. No sooner had he heard of the death of David and Joab than he returned to his native country and there stirred up disaffections against Solomon (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:14 ff; see Hadad ), without, however, restoring independence to Edom (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:26 ). A second occasion of disaffection arose through a prophet having foretold that the successor of Solomon would have one of the Israelite tribes only and that the other ten clans would be under Solomon's master of works whom he had set over them. This officer also took refuge in Egypt and was protected by Shishak. He remained there until the death of Solomon (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:26 ff). A third adversary was Rezon who had fled from his master the king of Zobah (&nbsp; 1 Kings 11:23 ), and who established himself at Damascus and rounded a dynasty which was long a thorn in the side of Israel. These domestic troubles are regarded as a consequence of the falling away of Solomon from the path of rectitude, but this seems to be but a kind of anticipative consequence, that is, if it was not till the end of his reign that Solomon fell into idolatry and polytheism (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:4 ). </p> III. His Buildings. <p> <b> 1. The Temple: </b> </p> <p> The great undertaking of the reign of Solomon was, of course, [[The Temple]] (which see), which was at first probably considered as the [[Chapel]] [[Royal]] and an adjunct of the palace. The Temple was begun in the 4th year of the reign and finished in the 11th, the work of the building occupying 7« years (&nbsp;1 Kings 6; &nbsp;1 Kings 7:13 ff). The delay in beginning is remarkable, if the material were all ready to hand (1 Ch 22). [[Worship]] there was inaugurated with fitting ceremony and prayers (1 Ki 8). </p> <p> <b> 2. The Palace: </b> </p> <p> To Solomon, however, his own palace was perhaps a more interesting undertaking. It at any rate occupied more time, in fact 13 years (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:1-12; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:10; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 8:1 ), the time of building both palace and Temple being 20 years. Possibly the building of the palace occupied the first four years of the reign and was then intermitted and resumed after the completion of the Temple; but of this there is no indication in the text. It was called the House of the Forest of Lebanon from the fact that it was lined with cedar wood (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:2 ). A description of it is given in &nbsp;1 Kings 7:1-12 . </p> <p> <b> 3. Other Buildings: </b> </p> <p> Solomon also rebuilt the wall of the city and the citadel (see Jerusalem; Millo ). He likewise erected castles at the vulnerable points of the frontiers - H azor, Megiddo and Gezer (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:15 ), lower Beth-horon and Baalath (which see). According to the <i> ''''' Ḳerē ''''' </i> of &nbsp;1 Kings 9:18 and the ancient versions as well as &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 8:4 , he was the founder of Tadmor (Palmyra); but the <i> ''''' Kethı̄bh ''''' </i> of &nbsp;1 Kings 9:18 reads Tamar (compare &nbsp; Ezekiel 47:19 ). Some of the remains of buildings recently discovered at Megiddo and Gezer may go back to the time of Solomon. </p> <p> <b> 4. The Corvee: </b> </p> <p> Solomon could not have built on the scale he did with the resources ordinarily at the command of a free ruler. Accordingly we find that one of the institutions fostered by him was the corvee, or forced labor. No doubt something of the kind always had existed (&nbsp;Joshua 9:21 ) and still exists in all despotic governments. Thus the people of a village will be called on to repair the neighboring roads, especially when the [[Pasha]] is making a progress in the neighborhood. But Solomon made the thing permanent and national (&nbsp;1 Kings 5:13-15; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:15 ). The immediate purpose of the levy was to supply laborers for work in the Lebanon in connection with his building operations. Thus 30,000 men were raised and drafted, 10,000 at a time, to the Lebanon, where they remained for a month, thus having two months out of every three at home. But even when the immediate cause had ceased, the practice once introduced was kept up and it became one of the chief grievances which levi to the dismemberment of the kingdom (&nbsp;1 Kings 12:18 , Adoram = Adoniram; compare &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:24 ), for hitherto the corvee had been confined to foreign slaves taken in war (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:21 ). It is said the higher posts were reserved for Israelites, the laborers being foreigners (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:22 ), that is, the Israelites acted as foremen. Some of the foreign slaves seem to have formed a guild in connection with the Temple which lasted down to the time of the exile (&nbsp;Ezra 2:55-57; &nbsp;Nehemiah 7:57-59 ). See Nethinim . </p> IV. His Character. <p> <b> 1. Personal Qualities: </b> </p> <p> In Solomon we have the type of a Turkish sultan, rather than a king of Israel. The Hebrew kings, whether of Israel or Judah, were, in theory at least, elective monarchs like the kings of Poland. If one happened to be a strong ruler, he managed to establish his family it might be, for three or even four generations. In the case of the [[Judean]] dynasty the personality of the first king made such a deep impression upon the heart of the people that the question of a change of dynasty there never became pressing. But Solomon would probably have usurped the crown if he had not inherited it, and once on the throne he became a thoroughgoing despot. All political power was taken out of the hands of the sheiks, although outward respect was still paid to them (&nbsp;1 Kings 8:1 ), and placed in the hands of officers who were simply creatures of Solomon. The resources of the nation were expended, not on works of public utility, but on the personal aggrandizement of the monarch (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:18 ff). In the means he took to gratify his passions he showed himself to be little better than a savage and if he did not commit such great crimes as David, it was perhaps because he had no occasion, or because he employed greater cunning in working out his ends. </p> <p> <b> 2. His Wisdom: </b> </p> <p> The wisdom for which Solomon is so celebrated was not of a very high order; it was nothing more than practical shrewdness, or knowledge of the world and of human nature. The common example of it is that given in &nbsp;1 Kings 3:16 ff, to which there are innumerable parallels in Indian, Greek and other literatures. The same worldly wisdom lies at the back of the Book of Proverbs, and there is no reason why a collection of these should not have been made by Solomon just as it is more likely that he was a composer of verses than that he was not (&nbsp; 1 Kings 4:32 ). The statement that he had breadth of heart (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:29 ) indicates that there was nothing known which did not come within his ken. </p> <p> <b> 3. His Learning: </b> </p> <p> The word "wisdom," however, is used also in another connection, namely, in the sense of theoretical knowledge or book leaning, especially in the department of natural history. It is not to be supposed that Solomon had any scientific knowledge of botany or zoology, but he may have collected the facts of observation, a task in which the Oriental, who cannot generalize, excels. The wisdom and understanding (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:29 ) for which Solomon was famous would consist largely in stories about beasts and trees like the well-known Fables of Pilpai. They included also the "wisdom" for which Egypt was famous (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:30 ), that is, occult science. It results from this last statement that Solomon appears in post-Biblical and Arabian literature as a magician. </p> <p> <b> 4. Trade and Commerce: </b> </p> <p> Solomon was very literally a merchant prince. He not only encouraged and protected commerce, but engaged in it himself. He was in fact the predominant, if not sole, partner in a great trading concern, which was nothing less than the Israelite nation. One of his enterprises was the horse trade with Egypt. His agents bought up horses which were again sold to the kings of the Hittites and the Arameans. The prices paid are mentioned (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:29 ). The best of these Solomon no doubt retained for his own cavalry (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:26 ). Another commodity imported from that country was linen yarn (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:28 the King James Version). The navy which Solomon built at the head of the Gulf of Akaba was not at all for military, but purely commercial ends. They were ships of Tarshish, that is, merchant ships, not ships to Tarshish, as &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 9:21 . They traded to Ophir (which see), from which they brought gold; silver, ivory, apes and peacocks, the round voyage lasting 3 years (&nbsp;1 Kings 9:26 ff; &nbsp; 1 Kings 10:22 ). [[Special]] mention is made of "almug" (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:11 ) or "algum" (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:10 f) trees (which see). The visit of the [[Queen]] of Sheba would point to the overland caravan routes from the [[Yemen]] being then open (&nbsp; 1 Kings 10:15 ). What with direct imports and the result of sales, silver and cedar wood became very plentiful in the capital (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:27 ). </p> <p> <b> 5. Officers of State: </b> </p> <p> The list of Solomon's officers of state is given in &nbsp;1 Kings 4:2 ff. These included a priest, two secretaries, a recorder, a commander-in-chief, a chief commissariat officer, a chief shepherd (if we may read <i> ''''' ro'eh ''''' </i> for <i> ''''' re'eh ''''' </i> ), a master of the household, and the head of the corvee. The list should be compared with those of David's officers (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:16 ff; &nbsp; 2 Samuel 20:23 ff). There is much resemblance, but we can see that the machine of state was becoming more complicated. The bodyguard of foreign mercenaries was abolished and the captain Benaiah promoted to be commander-in-chief. Two scribes were required instead of one. Twelve commissariat officers were appointed whose duty it was to forward from their districts the supplies for the royal household and stables. The list of these officials, a very curious one, is given in &nbsp; 1 Kings 4:7 ff. It is to be noted that the 12 districts into which the country was divided did not coincide with the territories of the 12 tribes. It may be remarked that Solomon seems as far as possible to have retained the old servants of his father. It will be noticed also that in all the lists there is mention of more than one priest. These "priests" retained some of their original functions, since they acted as prognosticators and diviners. </p> <p> <b> 6. Wives: </b> </p> <p> Solomon's principal wife was naturally the daughter of Pharaoh; it was for her that his palace was built (&nbsp;1 Kings 3:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 7:8; &nbsp;1 Kings 9:16 , &nbsp;1 Kings 9:24 ). But in addition to her he established marriage relations with the neighboring peoples. In some cases the object was no doubt to cement an alliance, as with the Zidonians and Hittites and the other nationalities (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:1 ), some of which were forbidden to Israelites (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:3 ). It may be that the daughter of Pharaoh was childless or died a considerable time before Solomon, but his favorite wife was latterly a grand-daughter of Nahash, the [[Ammonite]] king (&nbsp;1 Kings 14:21 Septuagint), and it was her son who succeeded to the throne. Many of Solomon's wives were no doubt daughters of wealthy or powerful citizens who wished by an alliance with the king to strengthen their own positions. Yet we do not read of his marrying an Israelite wife. According to the Arabian story Bilqis, the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon (&nbsp; 1 Kings 10:1 ff),. was also married to him. He appears to have had only one son; we are not told of any other than Rehoboam. His daughters were married to his own officers (&nbsp; 1 Kings 4:11 , &nbsp;1 Kings 4:15 ). </p> <p> <b> 7. Revenues: </b> </p> <p> Solomon is said to have started his reign with a capital sum of 100,000 talents of gold and a million talents of silver, a sum greater than the national debt of Great Britain. Even so, this huge sum was ear-marked for the building of the Temple (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:14 ). His income was, for one year, at any rate, 666 talents of gold (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:14 ), or about twenty million dollars. This seems an immense sum, but it probably was not so much as it looks. The great mass of the people were too poor to have any commodities which they could exchange for gold. Its principal use was for the decoration of buildings. Its purchasing power was probably small, because so few could afford to buy it. It was in the same category as the precious stones which are of great rarity, but which are of no value unless there is a demand for them. In the time of Solomon there was no useful purpose to which gold could be put in preference to any other metal. </p> <p> <b> 8. Literary Works: </b> </p> <p> It is not easy to believe that the age of Solomon, so glorious in other respects, had not a literature to correspond. Yet the reign of the sultan Ismail in Morocco, whom Solomon much resembles, might be cited in favor of such a supposition. Solomon himself is stated to have composed 3,000 animal stories and 1,005 songs (&nbsp;1 Kings 4:32 ). In the Old Testament the following are ascribed to him: three collections of Proverbs, &nbsp;Proverbs 1:1 ff; &nbsp; Proverbs 10:1 ff; &nbsp; Proverbs 25:1 ff; The Song of Songs; Psalms 72 and &nbsp; Psalm 127:1-5; Ecclesiastes (although Solomon is not named). In &nbsp;Proverbs 25:1 the men of [[Hezekiah]] are said to have copied out the following proverbs. </p> Literature. <p> The relative portions of the histories by Ewald, Stanley (who follows Ewald), Renan, Wellhausen and Kittel; also H. Winckler, Alttestamentliche Untersuchungen; and the commentaries on the Books of Kings and Chronicles. </p>