Difference between revisions of "Scribes"

<p> '''''Copheerim''''' , from '''''Caaphar''''' to "write," "order," and "count." (See [[Lawyer]] .) The function was military in &nbsp;Judges 5:14 (See [[Sceptre]] ), also in &nbsp;Jeremiah 52:25; &nbsp;Isaiah 33:18. Two scribes in [[Assyrian]] monuments write down the various objects, the heads of the slain, prisoners, cattle, etc. The scribe or "royal secretary" under David and [[Solomon]] (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:17; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:25; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:3) ranks with the high priest and the captain of the host (compare &nbsp;2 Kings 12:10). Hezekiah's scribe transcribed old records and oral traditions, in the case of Proverbs 25-29, under inspiration of God. Henceforth, the term designates not a king's officer but "students and interpreters of the law". &nbsp;Jeremiah 8:8 in KJV means "the pen of transcribers is ''(I.E. Multiplies Copies)'' in vain." But Maurer, "the false pen of the scribes ''(Persons Skilled In Expounding)'' has converted it ''(The Law)'' into a lie," namely, by false interpretations. </p> <p> Ezra's glory, even above his priesthood, was that "he was a ready scribe in the law of Moses which the Lord God of [[Israel]] had given," and "had prepared his heart to seek the law of the Lord and to do it, and to teach in Israel statutes and judgments" (&nbsp;Ezra 7:6; &nbsp;Ezra 7:10; &nbsp;Ezra 7:12), "a scribe of the law of the God of heaven." The spoken language was becoming Aramaic, so that at this time an interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures, the basis of their national and religious restoration, was a primary necessity to the exiles just returned from [[Babylon]] (&nbsp;Nehemiah 8:8-13). Scribe maybe meant in &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 12:11-12, "master of assemblies" under "one shepherd," but the inspired writers are probably meant, "masters of collections," i.e. associates in the collected canon, given (&nbsp;Ephesians 4:11) from the Spirit of Jesus Christ the one [[Shepherd]] (&nbsp;Ezekiel 37:24; &nbsp;1 Peter 5:2-4). The "many books" of mere human composition are never to be put on a par with the sacred collection whereby to "be admonished." </p> <p> "The families of scribes" had their own special residence (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 2:55). Ezra with the scribes probably compiled under the [[Holy]] Spirit, from authoritative histories, Chronicles ''('' &nbsp;1 Chronicles 29:29 ''; '' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:29 ''; '' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 13:22 '', "The Commentary Of The [[Prophet]] Iddo": '' '''''Μidrash''''' '')'' . Except Zadok, no scribe but Ezra is named (&nbsp;Nehemiah 13:13). The scribes by whom the Old Testament was written in its present characters and form, and its canon settled, are collectively in later times called "the men of the great synagogue, the true successors of the prophets" ( '''''Ρirke Αboth''''' ("The Sayings of the ''[Jewish]'' Fathers"), i. 1). Their aim was to write nothing themselves but to let the sacred word alone speak; if they had to interpret they would do it only orally. The '''''Mikra'''''' , or "careful reading of the text" (&nbsp;Nehemiah 8:8) and laying down rules for its scrupulous transcription, was their study ''(Compare '' '''''Copherim''''' '', In The Jerus. Gemara)'' . Simon the Just (300-290 B.C.), last of the great synagogue, said, "our fathers taught us to be cautious in judging, to train many scholars, and to set a fence about the law." </p> <p> But oral precepts, affecting eases of every day life not especially noticed in the law, in time by tradition became a system of casuistry superseding the word of God and substituting ceremonial observances for moral duties (&nbsp;Matthew 15:1-6; &nbsp;Matthew 23:16-23). The scribes first reported the decisions of previous rabbis, the '''''Halachoth''''' , the "current precepts". A "new code" (the '''''Μishna''''' , "repetition or second body of jurisprudence") grew out of them. Rabbinical sayings, Jewish fables (&nbsp;Titus 1:14), and finally the '''''Gemara''''' ("completeness") filled up the scheme; and the [[Mishna]] and [[Gemara]] together formed the '''''Τalmud''''' ("instruction"), the standard of orthodoxy for the modern Jew. The Old Testament too was "searched" ( '''''Midrashim''''' ) for "recondite meanings", the very search in their view entitling them to eternal life. Jesus warns them to "search" them very differently, namely, to find Him in them, if they would have life (&nbsp;John 5:39). The process was called ''Hagada'' ("opinion"). The '''''Κabala''''' ("received doctrine") carried mysticism further. The '''''Gematria''''' ''(The Greek Term For "The Exactest Science, Geometry, Being [[Applied]] To The Wildest Mode Of Interpreting")'' crowned this perverse folly by finding new meanings through letters supposed to be substituted for others, the last of the alphabet for the first, the second last for the second, etc. </p> <p> The Sadducees maintained, against tradition, the sufficiency of the letter of the law. Five pairs of teachers represent the succession of scribes, each pair consisting of the president of the Sanhedrin and the father of the house of judgment presiding in the supreme court. The two first were [[Joses]] ben [[Joezer]] and Joses ben Jochanan (140-130 B.C.). Their separating themselves from defilement originated the name Pharisees. The Sadducees taunt was "these Pharisees would purify the sun itself." Hillel (112 B.C.) is the best representative of the scribes; [[Menahem]] ''(Probably The Essene Manaen: [[Josephus]] Ant. 15:10, [[Section]] 5)'' was at first his colleague, But with many followers renounced his calling as scribe and joined Herod and appeared in public arrayed gorgeously. To this &nbsp;Matthew 11:8; &nbsp;Luke 7:24-25, may allude. The [[Herodians]] perhaps may be connected with these. Shammai headed a school of greater scrupulosity than Hillel's (&nbsp;Mark 7:1-4), making it unlawful to relieve the poor, visit the sick, or teach children on the Sabbath, or to do anything before the [[Sabbath]] which would be in operation during the Sabbath. (See [[Pharisees]] .) </p> <p> Hillel's precepts breathe a loftier spirit: "trust not thyself to the day of thy death"; "judge not thy neighbour until thou art in his place"; "leave nothing dark, saying I will explain it when I have time, for how knowest thou whether the time will come?" (&nbsp;James 4:13-15); "he who gums a good name gains it for himself, but he who gains a knowledge of the law gains everlasting life" (compare &nbsp;John 5:39; &nbsp;Romans 2:13; &nbsp;Romans 2:17-24). A proselyte begged of Shammai instruction in the law, even if it were so long as he could stand on his foot. Shammai drove him away; but Hillel said kindly, "do nothing to thy neighbour that thou wouldest not he should do to thee; do this, and thou hast fulfilled the law and the prophets" (&nbsp;Matthew 22:39-40). With all his straitness of theory Shammai was rich and self indulgent, Hillel poor to the day of his death. Christ's teaching forms a striking contrast. The scribes leant on "them of old time" (&nbsp;Matthew 5:21-27; &nbsp;Matthew 5:33); "He taught as one having authority and not as the scribes" (&nbsp;Matthew 7:29). </p> <p> They taught only their disciples; "He had compassion on the multitudes" (&nbsp;Matthew 9:36). They taught only in their schools; He through "all the cities and villages" (&nbsp;Matthew 4:23; &nbsp;Matthew 9:35). As Hillel lived to the age of 120 he may have been among the doctors whom Jesus questioned (&nbsp;Luke 2:46). His grandson and successor, Gamaliel, was over his school during Christ's ministry and the early part of the Acts. Simeon, Gamaliel's son, was so but for a short time; possibly the [[Simeon]] of &nbsp;Luke 2:25, of the lineage of David, therefore disposed to look for Messiah in the Child of that house. The scanty notice of him in rabbinic literature makes the identification likely; the '''''Ρirke Αboth''''' ("The Sayings of the ''[Jewish]'' Fathers") does not name him. This school was better disposed to Christ than Shammai's; to it probably belonged Nicodemus, Joseph of Arimathea, and others too timid to confess Jesus (&nbsp;John 12:42; &nbsp;John 19:38; &nbsp;Luke 23:50-51). The council which condemned Him was probably a packed meeting, hastily and irregularly convened. </p> <p> [[Translated]] &nbsp;Isaiah 53:8, "He was taken away by oppression and by a judicial sentence," i.e. by an oppressive sentence; &nbsp;Acts 8:33, "in His humiliation His judgment was taken away," i.e., a fair trial was denied Him. Candidate scribes were "chosen" only after examination (compare &nbsp;Matthew 20:16; &nbsp;Matthew 22:14; &nbsp;John 15:16). The master sat on a high chair, the eider disciples on a lower bench, the youngest lowest, "at his feet" (&nbsp;Luke 10:39; &nbsp;Acts 22:3; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 33:3; &nbsp;2 Kings 4:38); often in a chamber of the temple (&nbsp;Luke 2:46), the pupil submitting cases and asking questions, e.g. &nbsp;Luke 10:25; &nbsp;Matthew 22:36. The interpreter or crier proclaimed, loud enough for all to hear, what the rabbi whispered cf6 "in the ear" (&nbsp;Matthew 10:27). [[Parables]] were largely used. The saying of a scribe illustrates the pleasant relations between master and scholars, "I have learned much from my teachers, more from my colleagues, most from my disciples." </p> <p> At 30 the presiding rabbi admitted the probationer to the chair of the scribe by laying on of hands, giving him tablets whereon to write sayings of the wise, and cf6 "the key of knowledge" (&nbsp;Luke 11:52) wherewith to open or shut the treasures of wisdom. He was then a '''''Chaber''''' , or "of the fraternity", no longer of "the ignorant and unlearned" (&nbsp;Acts 4:13), but, separated from the common herd, "people of the earth," "cursed" as not knowing the law (&nbsp;John 7:15; &nbsp;John 7:49). Fees were paid them for arbitrations (&nbsp;Luke 12:14), writing bills of divorce, covenants of espousals, etc. Rich widows they induced to minister to them, depriving their dependent relatives of a share (&nbsp;Matthew 23:14; contrast &nbsp;Luke 8:2-3). [[Poverty]] however, and a trade, were counted no discredit to a scribe, as Paul wrought at tent making. </p> <p> Their titles, '''''Rab''''' , '''''Rabbi''''' , '''''Rabban''''' , formed an ascending series in dignity. Salutations, the designation father, chief seats in synagogues and feasts, the long robes with broad blue '''''Zizith''''' or "fringes", the hems or borders, the "phylacteries" ( '''''Tephillim''''' ), contrasted with Jesus' simple "inner vesture" ( '''''Chitoon''''' ) and "outer garment" ( '''''Himation''''' ), were all affected by them (&nbsp;Matthew 23:5-6; &nbsp;Luke 14:7). [[Notwithstanding]] the self seeking and hypocrisy of most scribes, some were not far from the kingdom of God (&nbsp;Mark 12:32-34; &nbsp;Mark 12:38; &nbsp;Mark 12:40; contrast &nbsp;Mark 12:42-44); some were "sent" by the Wisdom of God, the Lord Jesus (&nbsp;Matthew 23:34; &nbsp;Luke 11:49). Christ's minister must be a cf6 "scribe instructed ''Which Is'' unto the kingdom of heaven" (&nbsp;Matthew 13:52); such were "Zenas the lawyer" and "Apollos mighty in the Scriptures" (&nbsp;Titus 3:13). </p>

<p> ''''' skrı̄bz ''''' : The existence of law leads necessarily to a profession whose business is the study and knowledge of the law; at any rate, if the law is extensive and complicated. At the time of Ezra and probably for some time after, this was chiefly the business of the priests. Ezra was both priest and scholar ( ספר , <i> ''''' ṣōphēr ''''' </i> ). It was chiefly in the interest of the priestly cult that the most important part of the [[Pentateuch]] was written. The priests were therefore also in the first instance the scholars and the guardians of the Law; but in the course of time this was changed. The more highly esteemed the Law became in the eyes of the people, the more its study and interpretation became a lifework by itself, and thus there developed a class of scholars who, though not priests, devoted themselves assiduously to the Law. These became known as the scribes, that is, the professional students of the Law. During the [[Hellenistic]] period, the priests, especially those of the upper class, became tainted with the [[Hellenism]] of the age and frequently turned their attention to paganistic culture, thus neglecting the Law of their fathers more or less and arousing the scribes to opposition. Thus, the scribes and not the priests were now the zealous defenders of the Law, and hence, were the true teachers of the people. At the time of Christ, this distinction was complete. The scribes formed a solid profession which held undisputed sway over the thought of the people. In the New Testament they are usually called ( γραμματεῖς , <i> ''''' grammateı́s ''''' </i> ), i.e. "students of the Scriptures," "scholars," corresponding to the Hebrew ( ספרים , <i> ''''' ṣōpherı̄m ''''' </i> ) = homines literati, those who make a profession of literary studies, which, in this case, of course, meant chiefly the Law. Besides this general designation, we also find the specific word ( νομικοί , <i> ''''' nomikoı́ ''''' </i> ), i.e. "students of the Law," "lawyers" (&nbsp; Matthew 22:35; &nbsp;Luke 7:30; &nbsp;Luke 10:25; &nbsp;Luke 11:45 , &nbsp;Luke 11:52; &nbsp;Luke 14:3 ); and in so far as they not only know the Law but also teach it they are called (νομοδάσκαλοι , <i> ''''' nomodidáskaloi ''''' </i> ), "doctors of the Law" (&nbsp;Luke 5:17; &nbsp;Acts 5:34 ). </p> <p> The extraordinary honors bestowed on these scholars on the part of the people are expressed in their honorary titles. Most common was the appellative "rabbi" = "my lord" (&nbsp;Matthew 23:7 and otherwise). This word of polite address gradually became a title. The word "rabboni" (&nbsp; Mark 10:51; &nbsp;John 20:16 ) is an extensive form, and was employed by the disciples to give expression to their veneration of Christ. In the Greek New Testament "rabbi" is translated as (κύριε , <i> ''''' kúrie ''''' </i> ) (&nbsp;Matthew 8:2 , &nbsp;Matthew 8:6 , &nbsp;Matthew 8:8 , &nbsp;Matthew 8:21 , &nbsp;Matthew 8:25 and otherwise), or ( διδάσκαλε , <i> ''''' didáskale ''''' </i> ) (&nbsp;Matthew 8:19 and otherwise), in Luke by ( ἐπιστάτα , <i> ''''' epistáta ''''' </i> ) (&nbsp;Luke 5:5; &nbsp;Luke 8:24 , &nbsp;Luke 8:45; &nbsp;Luke 9:33 , &nbsp;Luke 9:19; &nbsp;Luke 17:13 ). Besides these, we find (πατήρ , <i> ''''' patḗr ''''' </i> ), "father," and (καθηγήτης , <i> ''''' kathēgḗtēs ''''' </i> ), "teacher" (&nbsp;Matthew 23:9 f). </p> <p> From their students the rabbis demanded honors even surpassing those bestowed on parents. "Let the honor of thy friend border on the honor of thy teacher, and the honor of thy teacher on the fear of God" ( <i> ''''' 'Ābhōth ''''' </i> 4 12). "The honor of thy teacher must surpass the honor bestowed on thy father; for son and father are both in duty bound to honor the teacher" ( <i> ''''' Kerı̄thōth ''''' </i> 6 9). Everywhere the rabbis demanded the position of first rank (&nbsp; Matthew 23:6 f; &nbsp; Mark 12:38 f; &nbsp; Luke 11:43; &nbsp;Luke 20:46 ). Their dress equaled that of the nobility. They wore (στολαί , <i> ''''' stolaı́ ''''' </i> ), "tunics," and these were the mark of the upper class. </p> <p> Since the scribes were lawyers (see Lawyer ), much of their time was occupied in teaching and in judicial functions, and both these activities must be pursued gratuitously. Rabbi [[Zadok]] said: "Make the knowledge of the Law neither a crown in which to glory nor a spade with which to dig." Hillel used to say: "He who employs the crown (of the Law) for external purposes shall dwindle." That the judge should not receive presents or bribes was written in the Law (&nbsp;Exodus 23:8; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 16:19 ); hence, the Mishna said: "If anyone accept pay for rendering judgment, his judgment is null and void." The rabbis were therefore obliged to make their living by other means. Some undoubtedly had inherited wealth; others pursued a handicraft besides their study of the Law. Rabbi Gamaliel Ii emphatically advised the pursuit of a business in addition to the pursuit of the Law. It is well known that the apostle Paul kept up his handicraft even after he had become a preacher of the gospel (&nbsp;Acts 18:3; &nbsp;Acts 20:34; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 4:12; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:6; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:7; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 2:9; &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 3:8 ), and the same is reported of many rabbis. But in every instance the pursuit of the Law is represented as the worthier, and warning is given not to overestimate the value of the ordinary avocation. It was a saying of Hillel: "He that devotes himself to trade will not become wise." The principle of gratuity was probably carried out in practice only in connection with the judicial activity of the scribes; hardly in connection with their work as teachers. Even the Gospels, in spite of the admonition that the disciples should give without pay because they had received without pay (&nbsp;Matthew 10:8 ), nevertheless also state that the workman is worthy of his hire (&nbsp;Matthew 10:10; &nbsp;Luke 10:7 ); and Paul (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:14 ) states it as his just due that he receive his livelihood from those to whom he preaches the gospel, even though he makes use of this right only in exceptional cases (1 Cor 9:3-18; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:8 , &nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:9; &nbsp;Galatians 6:6; &nbsp;Philippians 4:10 , &nbsp;Philippians 4:18 ). Since this appears to have been the thought of the times, we are undoubtedly justified in assuming that the Jewish teachers of the Law also demanded pay for their services. Indeed, the admonitions above referred to, not to make instruction in the Law the object of self-interest, lead to the conclusion that gratuity was not the rule; and in Christ's philippics against the scribes and Pharisees He makes special mention of their greed (&nbsp;Mark 12:40; &nbsp;Luke 16:14; &nbsp;Luke 20:47 ). Hence, even though they ostensibly gave instruction in the Law gratuitously, they must have practiced methods by which they indirectly secured their fees. </p> <p> [[Naturally]] the place of chief influence for the scribes up to the year 70 [[Ad]] was Judea. But not only there were they to be found. Wherever the zeal for the law of the fathers was a perceptible force, they were indispensable; hence, we find them also in Galilee (&nbsp;Luke 5:17 ) and in the Diaspora. In the Jewish epitaphs in Rome, dating from the latter days of the empire, <i> ''''' grammateis ''''' </i> are frequently mentioned; and the Babylonian scribes of the 5th and 6th centuries were the authors of the most monumental work of rabbinical Judaism - the Talmud. </p> <p> Since the separation of the Pharisaic and the Sadducean tendencies in Judaism, the scribes generally belonged to the Pharisaic class; for this latter is none other than the party which recognized the interpretations or "traditions" which the scribes in the course of time had developed out of the body of the written Law and enforced upon the people as the binding rule of life. Since, however, "scribes" are merely "students of the Law," there must also have been scribes of the [[Sadducee]] type; for it is not to be imagined that this party, which recognized only the written Law as binding, should not have had some opposing students in the other class. Indeed, various passages of the New Testament which speak of the "scribes of the Pharisees" (&nbsp;Mark 2:16; &nbsp;Luke 5:30; &nbsp;Acts 23:9 ) indicate that there were also "scribes of the Sadducees." </p> <p> Under the reign and leadership of the scribes, it became the ambition of every [[Israelite]] to know more or less of the Law. The aim of education in family, school and synagogue was to make the entire people a people of the Law. Even the common laborer should know what was written in the Law; and not only know it, but also do it. His entire life should be governed according to the norm of the Law, and, on the whole, this purpose was realized in a high degree. Josephus avers: "Even though we be robbed of our riches and our cities and our other goods, the Law remains our possession forever. And no Jew can be so far removed from the and of his fathers nor will he fear a hostile commander to such a degree that he would not fear his Law more than his commander." So loyal were the majority of the Jews toward their Law that they would gladly endure the tortures of the rack and even death for it. This frame of mind was due almost wholly to the systematic and persistent instruction of the scribes. </p> <p> The motive underlying this enthusiasm for the Law was the belief in divine retribution in the strictest judicial sense. The prophetic idea of a covenant which God had made with His select people was interpreted purely in the judicial sense. The covenant was a contract through which both parties were mutually bound. The people are bound to observe the divine Law literally and conscientiously; and, in return for this, God is in duty bound to render the promised reward in proportion to the services rendered. This applies to the people as a whole as well as to the individual. [[Services]] and reward must always stand in mutual relation to each other. He who renders great services may expect from the justice of God that he will receive great returns as his portion, while, on the other hand, every transgression also must be followed by its corresponding punishment. </p> <p> The results corresponded to the motives. Just as the motives in the main were superficial, so the results were an exceedingly shallow view of religious and moral life. [[Religion]] was reduced to legal formalism. All religious and moral life was dragged down to the level of law, and this must necessarily lead to the following results: (1) The individual is governed by a norm, the application of which could have only evil results when applied in this realm. Law has the purpose of regulating the relations of men to each other according to certain standards. Its object is not the individual, but only the body of society. In the law, the individual must find the proper rule for his conduct toward society as an organism. This is a matter of obligation and of government on the part of society. But religion is not a matter of government; where it is found, it is a matter of freedom, of choice, and of conduct. (2) By reducing the practice of religion to the form of law, all acts are placed on a paragraph with each other. The motives are no longer taken into consideration, but only the deed itself. (3) From this it follows that the highest ethical attainment was the formal satisfaction of the Law, which naturally led to finical literalism. (4) Finally, moral life must, under such circumstances, lose its unity and be split up into manifold precepts and duties. Law always affords opportunity for casuistry, and it was the development of this in the guidance of the Jewish religious life through the "precepts of the elders" which called forth Christ's repeated denunciation of the work of the scribes. </p>