Difference between revisions of "Sanhedrin"

<p> <strong> SANHEDRIN </strong> . The Gr. word <em> synedrion </em> ( <strong> EV </strong> <strong> [Note: English Version.] </strong> <strong> council </strong> ) became so familiar to the Jews that they adopted it in the form of <em> Sanhedrin </em> , which occurs very frequently both in Josephus and in the Talmud. </p> <p> <strong> 1 </strong> . According to Rabbinical tradition, the Sanhedrin was originally created by [[Moses]] in obedience to Divine command (cf. Numbers 11:16 ), and it is taught that this assembly existed, and exercised judicial functions, throughout the whole period of Biblical history right up to Talmudic times. That this cannot have been the case is seen already in the fact that, according to Biblical authority itself, king [[Jehoshaphat]] is mentioned as having instituted the supreme court at Jerusalem ( 2 Chronicles 19:8 ); but that this court cannot have been identical with the Sanhedrin of later times is clear from the fact that, whereas the latter had governing powers as well as judicial functions, the former was a court of justice and nothing else. It is possible that the ‘ <strong> elders </strong> ’ mentioned in the Book of Ezra ( Ezra 5:5; Ezra 5:9; Ezra 6:7; Ezra 6:14; Ezra 10:8 ) and ‘rulers’ in the Boo k of Nehemiah ( Nehemiah 2:18; Nehemiah 4:8; Nehemiah 4:18; Nehemiah 5:7; Nehemiah 7:5 ) constituted a body which to some extent corresponded to the Sanhedrin properly so called. But seeing that the Sanhedrin is often referred to as a <em> Gerousia </em> ( <em> i.e. </em> an aristocratic, as distinct from a democratic, body), and that as such it is not mentioned before the time of Antiochus the Great (b.c. 223 187), it is reasonably certain that, in its more developed form at ail events, it did not exist before the Greek period. The Sanhedrin is referred to under the name <em> Gerousia </em> ( <strong> EV </strong> <strong> [Note: English Version.] </strong> <strong> senate </strong> ) In Malachi 1:10 Malachi 1:10; 2Ma 4:44 , Jdt 4:8; Jdt 11:14; Jdt 15:8 and elsewhere in the Apocr. [Note: Apocrypha, Apocryphal.] , in Acts 5:21 , and frequently in Josephus, <em> e.g. </em> <em> Ant </em> . IV. viii. 41. </p> <p> The Sanhedrin was conceived of mainly as <strong> a court of justice </strong> , the equivalent Heb. term being <em> Beth Dîn </em> , and it is in this sense that it is usually referred to in the NT (see, <em> e.g. </em> , Matthew 5:22; Matthew 26:59 , Mark 15:1 , Luke 22:66 , John 11:47 , Acts 4:15; Acts 5:21; Acts 6:12; Acts 22:30 etc.). Sometimes in the NT the terms <em> Presbyterion </em> and <em> Gerousia </em> are used in reference to the Sanhedrin ( Acts 5:21; Acts 22:5 ). A member of this court was called a <em> bouteutes </em> (‘councillor’). [[Joseph]] of Arimathæa was one ( Mark 15:43 , Luke 23:50 ). The Sanhedrin was abolished after the destruction of Jerusalem (a.d. 70). </p> <p> <strong> 2 </strong> . As regards the <em> composition </em> of the Sanhedrin, the hereditary high priest stood at the head of it, and in its fundamental character it formed a sacerdotal aristocracy, and represented the nobility, <em> i.e. </em> predominantly the Sadducæan interest; but under Herod, who favoured the Pharisaic party in his desire to restrict the power and influence of the old nobility, the Sadducæan element in the Sanhedrin became less prominent, while that of the Pharisees increased. So that during the Roman period the Sanhedrin contained representatives of two opposed parties, the priestly nobility with its Sadducæan sympathies, and the learned Pharisees. According to the Mishna, the Sanhedrin consisted of seventy-one members ( <em> Sanhed </em> . i. 6); when a vacancy occurred the members co-opted some one ‘from the congregation’ to fill the place ( <em> Sanhed </em> . iv. 4), and he was admitted by the ceremony of the laying on of hands. </p> <p> <strong> 3 </strong> . The <em> extent of the Sanhedrin’s jurisdiction </em> varied at different times in its history; while, in a certain sense, it exercised civil jurisdiction over all Jewish communities, wherever they existed, during the time of Christ this was restricted to Judæa proper; it was for this reason that it had no judicial authority over Him so long as He remained in Galilee. Its orders were, however, very soon after the time of Christ, regarded as binding by orthodox Jews ail over the world. Thus we see that it could issue warrants for the apprehension of [[Christians]] in [[Damascus]] to the synagogue there ( Acts 9:2; Acts 22:5; Acts 26:12 ); but the extent to which Jewish communities outside of Judæa were willing to submit to such orders depended entirely on how far they were favourably disposed towards the central authority; it was only within the limits of Judæa proper that real authority could he exercised by the Sanhedrin. It was thus the supreme native court, as contrasted with the foreign authority of Rome; to it belonged all such judicial matters as the local provincial courts were incompetent to deal with, or as the Roman procurator did not attend to himself. Above all, it was the final court of appeal for questions connected with the Mosaic Law; its decision having once been given, the judges of the lower courts were, on pain of death, bound to acquiesce in it. The NT offers some interesting examples of the kind of matters that were brought before it: Christ appeared before it on a charge of blasphemy ( Matthew 26:57 , John 19:7 ), Peter and John were accused before it of being false prophets and deceivers of the people ( Acts 4:5 ff.), [[Stephen]] was condemned by it because of blasphemy ( Acts 7:57-58 ), and Paul was charged with transgression of the Mosaic Law ( Acts 22:30 ). It had independent authority and right to arrest people by its own officers ( Matthew 26:47 , Mark 14:48 , Acts 4:3; Acts 5:17-18 ); it had also the power of finally disposing, on its own authority, of such cases as did not involve sentence of death ( Acts 4:5-23; Acts 5:21-40 ). It was only in cases when the sentence of death was pronounced that the latter had to be ratified by the Roman authorities ( John 18:31 ); the case of the stoning of Stephen must be regarded as an instance of mob-justice. </p> <p> While the Sanhedrin could not hold a court of supreme jurisdiction in the absence, or, at all events, without the consent, of the Roman procurator, it enjoyed, nevertheless, wide powers within the sphere of its extensive jurisdiction. At the same time, it had sometimes to submit to the painful experience of realizing its dependent position in face of the Roman power, even in matters which might be regarded as peculiarly within the scope of its own jurisdiction; for the Roman authorities could at any time take the initiative themselves, and proceed independently of the Jewish court, as the NT testifies, <em> e.g. </em> in the case of Paul’s arrest (see also Acts 23:15; Acts 23:20; Acts 23:28 ). </p> <p> <strong> 4 </strong> . The Sanhedrin met in the Temple, in what was called the <em> Lishkath ha-Gazith </em> (the ‘Hall of hewn-stones’) as a general rule, though an exception is recorded in Matthew 26:57 ff., Mark 14:53 ff. The members sat in a semicircle in order to be able to see each other; in front stood clerks of the court, and behind these, three rows of the disciples of the ‘learned men.’ The prisoner had always to be dressed in mourning. When any one had spoken once in favour of the accused, he could not afterwards speak against him. In case of acquittal the decision might be announced the same day, but a sentence of condemnation was always pronounced on the day following, or later; in the former a simple majority sufficed, in the latter a majority of two-thirds was required. </p> <p> W. O. E. Oesterley. </p>

Acts 5:34Acts 23:1-9 <p> The word <i> Sanhedrin </i> is usually translated “council” in the English translations of the Bible. Because of the predominance of the chief priests in the Sanhedrin, at times the words <i> chief priests </i> seem to refer to the action of the Sanhedrin, even though the name itself is not used. </p> <p> According to Jewish tradition, the Sanhedrin began with the 70 elders appointed by Moses in Numbers 11:16 and was reorganized by Ezra after the Exile. However, the Old [[Testament]] provides no evidence of a council that functioned like the Sanhedrin of later times. Thus, the Sanhedrin had its origin sometime during the centuries between the Testaments. See Intertestamental History; Jewish Parties. </p> <p> During the first century, the Sanhedrin exerted authority under the watchful eye of the Romans. Generally, the Roman governor allowed the Sanhedrin considerable autonomy and authority. The trial of Jesus, however, shows that the Sanhedrin did not have the authority to condemn people to death (John 18:31 ). Later, Stephen was stoned to death after a hearing before the Sanhedrin, but this may have been more a mob action than a legal execution authorized by the Sanhedrin (Acts 6:12-15; Acts 7:54-60 ). </p> <p> The Gospels describe the role of the Sanhedrin in the arrest, trials, and condemnation of Jesus. The Sanhedrin, under the leadership of [[Caiaphas]] the high priest, plotted to have Jesus killed (John 11:47-53 ). The chief priests conspired with [[Judas]] to betray Jesus (Matthew 26:14-16 ). After His arrest they brought Jesus into the council (Luke 22:66 ). They used false witnesses to condemn Jesus (Matthew 26:59-60; Mark 14:55-56 ). They sent Him to [[Pilate]] and pressured Pilate into pronouncing the death sentence (Mark 15:1-15 ). </p> <p> The Book of Acts describes how the Sanhedrin harassed and threatened the apostles. The healing of the man at the Temple and Peter's sermon attracted the attention of the chief priests. Peter and John were called before the council and warned not to preach anymore in the name of Jesus (Acts 4:5-21 ). When the apostles continued to preach, the council had them arrested (Acts 5:21 ,Acts 5:21,5:27 ). The wise counsel of Gamaliel caused the council to release the apostles with a beating and a warning (Acts 5:34-42 ). Stephen had to appear before the Sanhedrin on charges that sounded like the false charges against Jesus (Acts 6:12-15 ). </p> <p> After Paul was arrested in Jerusalem, the Roman commander asked the council to examine Paul to decide what was Paul's crime (Acts 22:30; Acts 23:28 ). Paul identified himself as a [[Pharisee]] who was on trial for his hope of resurrection. This involved the council in a debate of the divisive issue of the resurrection (Acts 23:1-9 ). The chief priests and elders were part of a plot to have Paul assassinated as he was led to another hearing before the council (Acts 23:13-15 ,Acts 23:13-15,23:20 ). </p> <p> [[Robert]] J. Dean </p>

<p> San'hedrin. (from the Greek, sunedrion, "a council-chamber", commonly, but in correctly, Sanhedrim). The supreme council of the Jewish people, in the time of Christ and earlier. </p> <p> The origin of this assembly is traced, in the Mishna, to the seventy elders whom Moses was directed, Numbers 11:16-17, to associate with him, in the government of the Israelites; but this tribunal was, probably, temporary, and did not continue to exist, after the [[Israelites]] had entered Palestine. In the lack of definite historical information as to the establishment of the Sanhedrin, it can only be said in general that the Greek etymology of the name seems to point to a period, subsequent to the [[Macedonian]] supremacy in Palestine. From the few incidental notices, in the New Testament, we gather that it consisted of chief priests, or the heads of the twenty-four classes, into which the priests were divided, elders, men of age and experience, and scribes, lawyers, or those learned in the Jewish law. Matthew 26:57; Matthew 26:59; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; Acts 5:21. </p> <p> The number of members is usually given as 71. The president of this body was styled nasi, and was chosen in account of his eminence, in worth and wisdom. Often, if not generally, this pre-eminence was accorded to the high priest. The vice-president, called, in the Talmud, the "father of the house of judgment," sat at the right hand of the president. Some writers speak of a second vice-president, but this is not sufficiently confirmed. While in session, the Sanhedrin sat in the form of half-circle. </p> <p> The place in which the sessions of the Sanhedrin were ordinarily held was, according to the Talmad, a hall called Gazzith, supposed, by Lightfoot, to have been situated in the southeast corner of one of the courts near the Temple building. In special exigencies, however, it seems to have met in the residence of the high priest. Matthew 26:3. Forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem, and consequently, while the [[Saviour]] was teaching in Palestine, the sessions of the Sanhedrin were removed from the hall, Gazzith, to a somewhat greater distance from the Temple building, although still on Mount Moriah. After several other changes, its seat was finally established at Tiberias, where it became extinct, A.D. 425. </p> <p> As a judicial body, the Sanhedrin constituted a supreme court, to which belonged, in the first instance, the trial of false prophets, of the high priest and other priests, and also of a tribe fallen into idolatry. As an administrative council, it determined other important matters. Jesus was arraigned before this body as a false prophet, John 11:47, and Peter, John, Stephen and Paul, as teachers of error and deceivers of the people. From Acts 9:2, it appears that the Sanhedrin exercised a degree of authority, beyond the limits of Palestine. According to the Jerusalem Gemara, the power of inflicting capital punishment was taken away from this tribunal , forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem. With this, agrees the answer of the Jews to Pilate. John 19:31. The [[Talmud]] also mentions a lesser Sanhedrin of twenty-three members, in every city in Palestine, in which were not less than 120 householders. </p>

<p> With the re-establishment of the Jewish nation after the Jews’ return from captivity in Babylon, there were significant developments in the Jewish religion. Many of these were connected with the establishment of synagogues (or meeting places) in the Jewish communities, and the rise of people known as scribes (or teachers of the law). The scribes usually had positions of power in the synagogues and used them as places from which to spread their teachings (see SCRIBES; SYNAGOGUE). </p> <p> Under Ezra groups of elders and judges had been appointed to administer civil and religious law in Israel (Ezra 7:25-26; Ezra 10:14). It was probably on this basis that such people became leaders of the synagogues and rulers in the Jewish communities. As the scribes and other leaders on the synagogue committees grew in power, a system of local Jewish rule developed that eventually produced a council known as the Sanhedrin. Although any local Jewish council may have been called a Sanhedrin, the word was used most commonly for the supreme Jewish council in Jerusalem. </p> <p> The Jerusalem Sanhedrin consisted of a maximum of seventy members, not counting the high priest. (The number was probably based on the ancient arrangement by which Moses and seventy elders administered Israel; see Numbers 11:24.) The composition of the Sanhedrin changed from time to time, depending on political developments within the nation. In New Testament times it consisted of scribes, elders, priests and other respected citizens, and included both Pharisees and Sadducees. The high priest acted as president (Matthew 26:3; Matthew 26:57-59; Luke 22:66; Luke 23:50; Acts 4:5-7; Acts 5:17-21; Acts 5:34; Acts 22:30; Acts 23:1-6). Any meeting of the Sanhedrin required at least twenty-three members to be present. </p> <p> Rome gave the Sanhedrin authority to arrest, judge and punish Jewish people for offences relating to their religious law and for certain civil offences (Mark 14:43; Acts 5:17-21; Acts 5:40; Acts 6:11-15; Acts 9:2). The one exception concerned the death sentence. Although it could pass the death sentence, the Sanhedrin could not carry it out without permission from Rome (Matthew 26:66; Matthew 27:1-2; John 18:30-31). </p> <p> From details of Sanhedrin procedures recorded in ancient Jewish writings, it is clear that Jesus’ trial, conviction and execution were illegal. The Jews’ execution of Stephen was also illegal, but the Roman authorities probably considered it safer to ignore the incident and so avoid trouble with the Jews (Acts 7:57-58; cf. Acts 18:14-17; Matthew 27:24). </p>

<p> Or BETHDIN, house of judgment, was a council of seventy senators among the Jews, usually with the addition of the high priest as president, who determined the most important affairs of the nation. It is first mentioned by Josephus in connection with the reign of John [[Hyrcanus]] II, B. C. 69, and is supposed to have originated after the second temple was built, during the cessation of the prophetic office, and in imitation of Moses' council of seventy elders, Numbers 11:16-24 . The room, in which they met, according to the rabbins, was a rotunda, half of which was built without the temple, that is, without the inner court of Israel, and half within, the latter part being that in which the judges sat. The Nasi, or president, who was generally the high-priest, sat on a throne at the end of the hall; the vice-president, or chief counselor, called Ab-bethdin, at his right hand; and the sub-deputy, or Hakam, at his left; the other senators being ranged in order on each side. Most of the members of this council were priests or Levites, though men in private stations of life were not excluded. See [[Sadducees]] . </p> <p> The authority of the Sanhedrin was very extensive. It decided causes brought before it by appeal from inferior courts; and even the king, the high priest, and the prophets, were under its jurisdiction. The general affairs of the nation were also brought before this assembly, particularly whatever was in any way connected with religion or worship, Mark 14:55 15:1 Acts 4:7 5:41 6:12 . Jews in foreign cities appear to have been amenable to this court in matters of religion, Acts 9:2 . The right of judging in capital cases belonged to it, until this was taken away by the Romans a few years before the time of Christ, John 18:31 . The Sanhedrin was probably the "council" referred to by our Lord, Matthew 5:22 . There appears also to have been and inferior tribunal of seven members, in every town, for the adjudication of less important matters. Probably it is this tribunal that is called "the judgment" in Matthew 5:22 . </p>

<p> Sanhedrin formed from the Greek sunedrion . Sanhedrin is the [[Chaldee]] form. (See COUNCIL.) </p>

<p> ''''' san´hḗ ''''' - ''''' drin ''''' ( סנחדרין , <i> ''''' ṣanhedhrı̄n ''''' </i> , the Talmudic transcription of the Greek συνέδριον , <i> ''''' sunédrion ''''' </i> ): </p> 1. Name: <p> The Sanhedrin was, at and before the time of Christ, the name for the highest Jewish tribunal, of 71 members, in Jerusalem, and also for the lower tribunals, of 23 members, of which Jerusalem had two ( <i> ''''' Tōṣephtā' ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḥăghı̄ghāh ''''' </i> 11 9; <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 1 6; 11 2). It is derived from <i> ''''' sún ''''' </i> , "together," and <i> ''''' hédra ''''' </i> , "seat." In Greek and Roman literature the senates of Sparta, Carthage, and even Rome, are so called (compare Pausan. iii. 11,2; Polyb. iii. 22; Dion [[Cassius]] xl.49). In Josephus we meet with the word for the first time in connection with the governor [[Gabinius]] (57-55 BC), who divided the whole of [[Palestine]] into 5 <i> ''''' sunédria ''''' </i> ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , v, 4), or <i> ''''' súnodoi ''''' </i> ( <i> Bj </i> , I, viii, 5); and with the term <i> ''''' sunedrion ''''' </i> for the high council in Jerusalem first in <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , ix, 3-5, in connection with Herod, who, when a youth, had to appear before the <i> ''''' sunedrion ''''' </i> at Jerusalem to answer for his doings in Galilee. But before that date the word appears in the [[Septuagint]] version of Proverbs (circa 130 BC), especially in Proverbs 22:10; Proverbs 31:23 , as an equivalent for the Mishnaic <i> '''''bēth''''' </i> - <i> '''''dı̄n''''' </i> = "judgment chamber." </p> <p> In the New Testament the word sometimes, especially when used in the plural (Matthew 10:17; Mark 13:9; compare <i> '''''Ṣanhedrin''''' </i> 1 5), means simply "court of justice," i.e. any judicatory (Matthew 5:22 ). But in most cases it is used to designate the supreme Jewish Court of [[Justice]] in Jerusalem, in which the process against our Lord was carried on, and before which the apostles (especially Peter and John, Stephen, and Paul) had to justify themselves (Matthew 26:59; Mark 14:55; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; John 11:47; Acts 4:15; Acts 5:21 ff; Acts 6:12 ff; Acts 22:30; Acts 23:1 ff; Acts 24:20 ). Sometimes <i> '''''presbutérion''''' </i> (Luke 22:66; Acts 22:5 ) and <i> '''''gerousı́a''''' </i> (Acts 5:21 ) are substituted for <i> '''''sunedrion''''' </i> . See [[Senate]] . </p> <p> In the Jewish tradition-literature the term "Sanhedrin" alternates with <i> ''''' kenı̄shtā' ''''' </i> , "meeting-place" ( <i> ''''' Meghillath ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ta‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> 10, compiled in the 1st century AD), and <i> ''''' bēth ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' dı̄n ''''' </i> , "court of justice" ( <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 11 2,4). As, according to Jewish tradition, there were two kinds of <i> ''''' sunedria ''''' </i> , namely, the supreme <i> ''''' sunedrion ''''' </i> in Jerusalem of 71 members, and lesser <i> ''''' sunedria ''''' </i> of 23 members, which were appointed by the supreme one, we find often the term <i> ''''' ṣanhedhrı̄n ''''' </i> <i> ''''' gedhōlāh ''''' </i> , "the great Sanhedrin," or <i> ''''' bēth ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' dı̄n ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' gādhōl ''''' </i> , "the great court of justice" ( <i> ''''' Middōth ''''' </i> 5 4; <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 1 6), or <i> ''''' ṣanhedhrı̄n ''''' </i> <i> ''''' gedhōlāh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' yōshebheth ''''' </i> <i> ''''' be ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' lishekhath ''''' </i> <i> ''''' hagāzı̄th ''''' </i> , "the great Sanhedrin which sits in the hall of hewn stone." </p> 2. Origin and History: <p> There is lack of positive historical information as to the origin of the Sanhedrin. According to Jewish tradition (compare <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 16) it was constituted by Moses ( Numbers 11:16-24 ) and was reorganized by Ezra immediately after the return from exile (compare the [[Targum]] to Song of Solomon 6:1 ). But there is no historical evidence to show that previous to the Greek period there existed an organized aristocratic governing tribunal among the Jews. Its beginning is to be placed at the period in which Asia was convulsed by Alexander the Great and his successors. </p> <p> The [[Hellenistic]] kings conceded a great amount of internal freedom to municipal communities, and Palestine was then practically under home rule, and was governed by an aristocratic council of [[Elders]] (1 Maccabees 12:6; 2 Maccabees 1:10; 4:44; 11:27; 3Macc 1:8; compare Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xii , iii, 4; Xiii , v, 8; <i> ''''' Meghillath ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Tā‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> 10), the head of which was the hereditary high priest. The court was called <i> ''''' Gerousia ''''' </i> , which in Greek always signifies an aristocratic body (see Westermann in Pauly's <i> [[Re]] </i> , III, 49). Subsequently this developed into the Sanhedrin. </p> <p> During the Roman period (except for about 10 years at the time of Gabinius, who applied to [[Judea]] the Roman system of government; compare Marquardt, <i> Romische Staatsverwaltung </i> , I, 501), the Sanhedrin's influence was most powerful, the internal government of the country being practically in its hands ( <i> Ant. </i> , XX, x), and it was religiously recognized even among the [[Diaspora]] (compare Acts 9:2; Acts 22:5; Acts 26:12 ). According to Schurer ( <i> HJP </i> , div II, volume 1, 171; <i> GJV4 </i> , 236) the civil authority of the Sanhedrin, from the time of Archelaus, Herod the Great's son, was probably restricted to Judea proper, and for that reason, he thinks, it had no judicial authority over our Lord so long as He remained in [[Galilee]] (but see G.A. Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , I, 416). </p> <p> The Sanhedrin was abolished after the destruction of Jerusalem (70 AD). The <i> ''''' bēth ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' dı̄n ''''' </i> (court of judgment) in Jabneh (68-80), in Usah (80-116), in Shafran (140-63), in Sepphoris (163-93), in Tiberias (193-220), though regarded in the Talmud (compare <i> ''''' Rō'sh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' shānāh ''''' </i> 31a) as having been the direct continuation of the Sanhedrin, had an essentially different character; it was merely an assembly of scribes, whose decisions had only a theoretical importance (compare <i> ''''' Ṣōṭāh ''''' </i> 9 11). </p> 3. Constitution: <p> The Great Sanhedrin in Jerusalem was formed (Matthew 26:3 , Matthew 26:17 , Matthew 26:59; Mark 14:53; Mark 15:1; Luke 22:66; Acts 4:5 f; Acts 5:21; Acts 22:30 ) of high priests (i.e. the acting high priest, those who had been high priests, and members of the privileged families from which the high priests were taken), elders (tribal and family heads of the people and priesthood), and scribes (i.e. legal assessors), Pharisees and [[Sadducees]] alike (compare Acts 4:1 ff; Acts 5:17 , Acts 5:34; Acts 23:6 ). In Mark 15:43; Luke 23:50 , Joseph of [[Arimathea]] is called <i> '''''bouleutḗs''''' </i> , "councillor," i.e. member of the Sanhedrin. </p> <p> According to Josephus and the New Testament, the acting high priest was as such always head and president (Matthew 26:3 , Matthew 26:17; Acts 5:17 ff; Acts 7:1; Acts 9:1 f; Acts 22:5; Acts 23:2; Acts 24:1; <i> Ant. </i> , IV, viii, 17; XX, x). Caiaphas is president at the trial of our Lord, and at Paul's trial [[Ananias]] is president. On the other hand, according to the Talmud (especially <i> '''''Ḥăghıghāh''''' </i> 2 2), the Sanhedrin is represented as a juridical tribunal of scribes, in which one scribe acted as <i> '''''nāsı̄'''''' </i> , "prince," i.e. president, and another as <i> ''''''abh''''' </i> - <i> '''''bēth''''' </i> - <i> '''''dı̄n''''' </i> , father of the judgment-chamber, i.e. vice-president. So far, it has not been found possible to reconcile these conflicting descriptions (see "Literature," below). </p> <p> Sanhedrin 4 3 mentions the <i> ''''' ṣōpherē ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' dayānı̄m ''''' </i> , "notaries," one of whom registered the reasons for acquittal, and the other the reasons for condemnation. In the New Testament we read of <i> ''''' hupērétai ''''' </i> , "constables" ( Matthew 5:25 ) and of the "servants of the high priest" (Matthew 26:51; Mark 14:47; John 18:10 ), whom Josephus describes as "enlisted from the rudest and most restless characters" ( <i> Ant. </i> , XX, viii, 8; ix, 2). Josephus speaks of the "public whip," Matthew mentions "tormentors" (Matthew 18:34 ), Luke speaks of "spies" (Luke 20:20 ). </p> <p> The whole history of post-exilic [[Judaism]] circles round the high priests, and the priestly aristocracy always played the leading part in the Sanhedrin (compare <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 4 2). But the more the Pharisees grew in importance, the more were they represented in the Sanhedrin. In the time of Salome they were so powerful that "the queen ruled only in name, but the Pharisees in reality" ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xiii , xvi, 2). So in the time of Christ, the Sanhedrin was formally led by the Sadducean high priests, but practically ruled by the Pharisees ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xviii , i, 4). </p> 4. Jurisdiction: <p> In the time of Christ the Great Sanhedrin at Jerusalem enjoyed a very high measure of independence. It exercised not only civil jurisdiction, according to Jewish law, but also, in some degree, criminal. It had administrative authority and could order arrests by its own officers of justice (Matthew 26:47; Mark 14:43; Acts 4:3; Acts 5:17 f; Acts 9:2; compare <i> '''''Ṣanhedrin''''' </i> 1 5). It was empowered to judge cases which did not involve capital punishment, which latter required the confirmation of the Roman procurator (John 18:31; compare the <i> '''''Jerus''''' </i> <i> '''''Ṣanhedrin''''' </i> 1 1; 7 2 (p. 24); Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , XX, ix, 1). But, as a rule, the procurator arranged his judgment in accordance with the demands of the Sanhedrin. </p> <p> For one offense the Sanhedrin could put to death, on their own authority, even a Roman citizen, namely, in the case of a [[Gentile]] passing the fence which divided the inner court of the Temple from that of the [[Gentiles]] ( <i> Bj </i> , VI, ii, 4; <i> ''''' Middōth ''''' </i> 11 3; compare Acts 21:28 ). The only case of capital punishment in connection with the Sanhedrin in the New Testament is that of our Lord. The stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:54 ff) was probably the illegal act of an enraged multitude. </p> 5. Place and Time of Meeting: <p> The Talmudic tradition names "the hall of hewn stone," which, according to <i> ''''' Middōth ''''' </i> 5 4, was on the south side of the great court, as the seat of the Great Sanhedrin ( <i> ''''' Pē'āh ''''' </i> 2 6; <i> ''''' 'Ēdhuyōth ''''' </i> 7 4, et al.). But the last sittings of the Sanhedrin were held in the city outside the Temple area ( <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 41a; <i> ''''' Shabbāth ''''' </i> 15a; <i> ''''' Rō'sh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' shānāh ''''' </i> 31a; <i> ''''' ‛Abhōdhāh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' zārāh ''''' </i> 8c). Josephus also mentions the place where the <i> ''''' bouleutaı́ ''''' </i> , "the councilors," met as the <i> ''''' boulḗ ''''' </i> , outside the Temple ( <i> Bj </i> , V, iv, 2), and most probably he refers to these last sittings. </p> <p> According to the <i> ''''' Tōṣephta' ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 7 1, the Sanhedrin held its sittings from the time of the offering of the daily morning sacrifice till that of the evening sacrifice. There were no sittings on Sabbaths or feast days. </p> 6. Procedure: <p> The members of the Sanhedrin were arranged in a semicircle, so that they could see each other ( <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 4 3; <i> ''''' Tōṣephta' ''''' </i> 8 1). The two notaries stood before them, whose duty it was to record the votes (see 3, above). The prisoner had to appear in humble attitude and dressed it, mourning ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , ix, 4). A sentence of capital punishment could not be passed on the day of the trial. The decision of the judges had to be examined on the following day ( <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 4 1), except in the case of a person who misled the people, who could be tried and condemned the same day or in the night ( <i> ''''' Tōṣephta' ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 10). Because of this, cases which involved capital punishment were not tried on a Friday or on any day before a feast. A herald preceded the condemned one as he was led to the place of execution, and cried out: "N. the son of N. has been found guilty of death, etc. If anyone knows anything to clear him, let him come forward and declare it" ( <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 6 1). Near the place of execution the condemned man was asked to confess his guilt in order that he might partake in the world to come (ibid.; compare Luke 23:41-43 ). </p> Literature. <p> Our knowledge about the Sanhedrin is based on three sources: the New Testament, Josephus, and the Jewish tradition-literature (especially Mishna, <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' Maḳḳōth ''''' </i> , best edition, Strack, with German translation, <i> Schriften des Institutum Judaicum in Berlin </i> , N. 38, Leipzig, 1910). See the article, [[Talmud]] . </p> <p> [[Consult]] the following histories of the Jewish people: Ewald, Herzfeld, Gratz, but especially Schurer's excellent <i> Hjp </i> , much more fully in <i> Gjv 4 </i> ; also G. A. Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> . [[Special]] treatises on Sanhedrin: D. Hoffmann, <i> Der oberste Gerichtsh of in der Stadt des Heiligtums </i> , Berlin, 1878, where the author tries to defend the Jewish traditional view as to the antiquity of the Sanhedrin; J. Reifmann, <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> (in Hebrews), Berditschew, 1888; A. Kuenen, <i> On the Composition of the Sanhedrin </i> , in Dutch, translated into German by Budde, <i> Gesammelte Abhandlungen </i> , etc., 49-81, Freiburg, 1894; Jelski, <i> Die innere Einrichtung des grossen Synedrions zu Jerusalem </i> , Breslau, 1894, who tries to reconcile the Talmudical statements about the composition of the Sanhedrin with those of Josephus and the New Testament (especially in connection with the question of president) by showing that in the Mishna (except <i> ''''' Ḥăghı̄ghāh ''''' </i> 11 2) <i> ''''' nāsı̄' ''''' </i> always stands for the political president, the high priest, and <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' bēth ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' dı̄n ''''' </i> for the scribal <i> head </i> of the Sanhedrin, and not for the vice-president; A. Buchler, <i> Das Synedrium in Jerusalem und das grosse Beth-din in der Quaderkammer des jerusalemischen Tempels </i> , Vienna, 1902, a very interesting but not convincing work, where the author, in order to reconcile the two different sets of sources, tries to prove that the great Sanhedrin of the Talmud is not identical with the Sanhedrin of Josephus and the New Testament, but that there were two Sanhedrins in Jerusalem, the one of the New Testament and Josephus being a <i> political </i> one, the other a <i> religious </i> one. He also thinks that Christ was seized, not by the Sanhedrin, but by the temple authorities. </p> <p> See also W. Bacher's article in <i> Hdb </i> (excellent for sifting the Talmudic sources); Dr. Lauterbach's article in the <i> Jewish Encyclopedia </i> (accepts fully Biichler's view); H. Strack's article in <i> Sch-Herz </i> (concise and exact). </p>