| | <p> chiefly of the Old Testament. It is interesting, as well as useful, to know the original signification of proper names. The chief use which accrues from an accurate knowledge of them is that we are by their means enabled to attain a more lively apprehension of the truth of ancient history; for in ancient, especially Scriptural, times they were employed with greater discrimination than they are at present. </p> <p> '''I.''' ''Form Of [[Proper]] Names. '''''—''''' '' The first fact that strikes us, on a general view of them all, is that the ancient Hebrews always retained the greatest simplicity in the use of names. In reality there is always only one single name which distinguishes a person. Where it is necessary, the name of the father is added; sometimes that of the mother instead, in case she happens to be more celebrated (thus the three heroic brothers, Joab, Abishai, and Asael, are always called after their mother Zerujah [ 1 Chronicles 2:16]); or the line of descent is traced further back, often to the fourth generation, or even further. Mere epithets, like "David the king," "Isaiah the prophet," always express the actual and significant dignity of a man. The instances in which a person receives two names alternately, as Jacob-Israel, Gideon- [[Jerubbaal]] (Judges 6-9), are casual and rare, and are not to be ascribed to a general custom of the people. </p> <p> '''1.''' The [[Simple]] names exist in great abundance; and their signification, as to the mere word itself, is generally evident: as '''''דָּן''''' , ''Dan,'' "judge;" '''''יָמַין''''' , ''Janmin,'' the Latin ''Dexter,'' an ancient name, according to Genesis 46:10; 1 Chronicles 2:27; '''''שָׁאוּל''''' , Saul, "desired," also an ancient name, according to Genesis 46:10; comp. Genesis 36:37; '''''גֶּבֶר''''' '', Geber,'' "hero" ( 1 Kings 4:19). Thus most of them express an honorable sense; although examples are not wanting of the direct contrary, as '''''עַקֵּשׁ''''' , Ikkesh, "crooked" ( 2 Samuel 23:26). With what ease also feminine words become names for men is shown by cases like '''''אִיָּה''''' , ''Aiah,'' "vulture" ( 2 Samuel 3:7; 2 Samuel 21:8; comp. Genesis 36:24); '''''יוֹנָה''''' , ''Jonah, "'' dove," which are just as applicable to men as the masculine '''''שׁוּעָל''''' , Shual, "fox" ( 1 Chronicles 7:36). Diminutives, which are so frequently used as proper names by the Arabs, are rare among the Hebrews; but are by no means wanting, as is proved by '''''זְבוּלוּן''''' or '''''זְבוּלֻן''''' , ''Zebulun,'' the name of the son of Jacob, and '''''יְדוּתוּן''''' or '''''יְדַיתוּן''''' , ''Jedithun,'' the name of the singer of David. All those names which are formed with a prefixed yod are to be considered as especially ancient, because this nominal formation became entirely obsolete in the language, and recurs almost only in proper names, as is shown not only by the well known names '''''יעקב''''' , Jacob, '''''יוס''''' '', Joseph,'' '''''יהודה''''' , Judah, '''''יצחק''''' , ''Isaac,'' but also by a number of less common ones, as '''''יָשׁוּב''''' , [[Jashub]] ( Numbers 26:24); '''''יָרַיב''''' , [[Jarib]] ( 1 Chronicles 4:24);: '''''יִמְלֵךְ''''' , [[Jamlech]] ( 1 Chronicles 4:34); '''''יִעְכָּן''''' , [[Jachan]] ( 1 Chronicles 5:13); '''''יַצְהָר''''' , [[Izhar]] ( Exodus 6:18); '''''יבְחָר''''' , [[Ibhar]] ( 2 Samuel 5:15); '''''יְפֻנֶּה''''' , ''.Jephunneh'' ( Numbers 13:6; 1 Chronicles 7:38); '''''יְרחָם''''' , [[Jeroham]] ( 1 Samuel 1:1; 1 Chronicles 8:27); and others. There is an ancient adjectiveending, that in iam or unm, which has fixed itself most firmly in proper names, as '''''אֲחֻזָּם''''' , [[Ahuzzam]] ( 1 Chronicles 4:6); '''''גִּזָּם''''' , [[Gazzam]] ( Ezra 2:48); '''''מַרְיָם''''' , ''Miriam,'' the sister of Moses, and '''''גֵּרְשׁוֹם''''' , ''Gershom,'' his son; '''''כַּמְהָם''''' , [[Chimham]] ( 2 Samuel 19:38), which not only exists also in the form '''''כַּמְהוֹם''''' , ''Chimhom'' ( Jeremiah 42:17), but in '''''כַּמְהָן''''' , ''Chinzhan'' ( 2 Samuel 19:40), according to customary changes. </p> <p> '''2.''' The [[Compound]] names, however, are more important for history, because they express more complete and distinct ideas than the simple names. Some of them are altogether isolated, as '''''פַּינְהָס''''' , ''Phinehas,'' properly "serpent's mouth," the grandson of Aaron; '''''יַשָשְׂכָר''''' , ''Issachar,'' the son of Jacob; [[Oholiab]] ( Exodus 31:6), "father's tent," a name resembling the Greek Patroclus. But most of them bear a general resemblance to each other, and follow in shoals certain dominant opinions and customs; and these last are what we must particularly consider here. </p> <p> A great number of them owe their origin to the relations of the house, as the sense of the first word of the compound shows. Most of these have the word '''''אֲבַי''''' , ''Abi,'' "father," for their first member, as ''Abiezer, Abital, Abigail.'' Fuirst ( ''Handworterbuch,'' p. 7, 50) regards these words as names for the [[Divine]] Being, rendering such a name as ''Abimelek, Ab'' (i.e. God) ''Is King; Abidan, Ab'' (God) ''Is Judge;'' and so ''Achitub, Ach'' (God) ''Is Good.'' Others deny any reference to the [[Deity]] in these words, but cannot agree whether they are to be taken literally or figuratively. The Easterns use the word ab (father), etc., to express the possession of any quality. The fox is abu '''''‘''''' lhusain ("father of the little fort," i.e. the burrower). The mosquito is abu '''''‘''''' lha '''''‘''''' s (" father of the axe"), from its sharp instrument of incision. The camel is cbu aeyyub ("father of Job"), from his patience. Many therefore think that such a name as [[Abinoam]] ("father of kindness") means merely very kind. Others, as Ewald, regard the words ab, ach, ben, etc., as at least at one time expressive of real relationship, and think such names exhibit an approach to our family names. It sometimes happens that a person appears with the name both in its simple as well as its compound state. For example, Nadab, as well as Abinadab, [[Ezer]] and Abiezer, and [[Abner]] ("father of Ner") was son of Ner. This seems to imply that something like the present Arabic practice had begun to prevail among the Hebrews. [[Certain]] names become hereditary in a family, and a man is expected to name his son by the traditional name. To such an extent is this custom carried that a man whose son should have been called "Yusuf" is styled "Abu Yusuf," even if he has no son; and a woman who is childless rejoices in the name Umm Musa ("Mother of Moses"), because, had she had a son, he would have borne the name "Musa." In all likelihood these words, ab, etc., have not always the same meaning; the connective vowel i is not always a sign of the genitive, but merely of the construct or state of composition. We could more easily admit a metaphorical sense in the compounds with son, since '''''בן''''' is really often used in a highly metaphorical sense. [[Bathsheba]] is certainly not the daughter of a man named [[Sheba]] ( 2 Samuel 11:3). Such compound names with son, however, are, on the whole, rare, and are only found in some frequency in 1 Kings 4:7 sq. (See [[Ab]])-; (See [[Ben]])-. </p> <p> Under this class we may also include '''''אישׁ''''' , ''Ish,'' "man," with which several names are compounded. Another, but a smaller, class consists of names compounded with '''''עִם''''' , ''Am,'' "people," resembling the many Greek compositions with '''''Λαός''''' and '''''Δῆμος''''' ; and just as in Greek '''''Δῆμος''''' is placed first or last (Demosthenes, Aristodemos), so also ''Am'' is at one time found in the first, and at another in the last place; only that, according to the laws of the Shemitic language, the sense of one of these positions is exactly the reverse of the other. As all these compounds must be conceived to be in the state construct, so likewise we are probably to take the names '''''י''''' '''''רָבְעָם''''' , ''Jeroboam,'' properly "people's increaser," a suitable name for a prince, and '''''י''''' '''''שָׁבְעָם''''' , ''Jashobeam,'' "people's turner" or "leader;" for, as was observed above, the simple names are often formed with a prefixed jod; and we actually find '''''יָשׁוּב''''' , Jashub, as a simple name in Numbers 26:29; 1 Chronicles 7:1. </p> <p> Many compound names endeavor to express a religious sense, and therefore contain the divine name. Here we at the same time find a new law of formation: as these compounds are intended to express a complete thought, such as the religious sentiment requires, a name may consist of an entire proposition with a verb, but of course in as brief a compass as possible; and indeed shorter compounds are made with a verb than with a passive participle, as '''''נְתִנְאֵל''''' , [[Nathanael]] (in the New Test. '''''Ναθαναήλ''''' , properly "God-gave," i.e. whom God gave, given by God, '''''Θεόδοτος''''' or '''''Θεόδωρος''''' ) '','' sounds shorter than '''''נְתוּנַיאֵל''''' , ''Nethuniel,'' with the participle, which would certainly express the same sense. But since the finite verb, as also any other predicate, can just as well precede as follow, accordingly a great freedom in the position of the divine name has prevailed in this class; and this peculiarity is preserved, in the same case, in the following period: but indeed the [[Greeks]] use '''''Δωροθεός''''' as well as '''''Θεόδωρος''''' . Thus '''''נְתִנְאַל''''' , [[Nethaneel]] ( 1 Chronicles 2:14), or '''''אֶלְנָתִן''''' , [[Elnathan]] ( Jeremiah 36:12). The two names are there generally assigned to two different persons; nevertheless, both combinations may form names for the same person, as '''''עִמַּיאֵל''''' , ''Amnmiel'' ( 1 Chronicles 3:5), and '''''אֵַליעָם''''' , [[Eliam]] ( 2 Samuel 11:3), belong to the same individual. </p> <p> '''3.''' Lastly, many proper names have assumed the derivative syllable '' '''''–''''' '' '''''Ι''''' , or ''- Ai'' (which appears to be only dialectically different from '' '''''—''''' '''''Ι''''' ,'' and is chiefly frequent in the later periods); and we must certainly consider that, in some cases, this syllable may possibly form mere adjectives, and therewith simple names, as '''''אֲמַתִּי''''' , ''Amittai,'' "trueman," from '''''אֵֶמת''''' , ''Emeth,'' "truth," and ''Barzillai,'' "Iron," or "Ironman," the name of a celebrated [[Gileadite]] family ( Ezra 2:61; 2 Samuel 17:27); or that it is derived from a place, as '''''בְּאֵרַי''''' , [[Beeri]] ( Hosea 1:1; 1 Chronicles 7:36), "he of the well," or he of a place known as the well. But it undoubtedly very often also expresses a genealogical relation, like the Greek ending - '''''Ιδης''''' and presupposes a previous proper name from which it is derived; thus the name '''''הוּרַי''''' , [[Houri]] ( 1 Chronicles 5:14), as surely presupposes the above-mentioned ''Char,'' as the Greek Philippides does Philippos, and as ''Ketubai'' (2:9), one of the descendants of Judah, is connected with the Ketul in 4:11. It is remarkable that the genealogical relation appears to be sometimes expressed by the mere '''''אָּה''''' of motion, as '''''יִעֲקְֹבָה''''' , ''Jaccobah'' (v. 36), which would be equivalently expressed by a German name, ''Zu-Jacob; '''''יְשִׁרְאֵלָה''''' '' , ''Isharelah, De Israel'' (25:14; comp. 1 Chronicles 5:2); and most distinctly in '''''חִשְׁבִּדּ''''' '''''נָה''''' , ''Hashbadanah,'' "reckoned to Dan" ( Nehemiah 8:4; comp. '''''יָשְׁבְּק''''' '''''שָׁה''''' , Joshbekashah, in 1 Chronicles 25:4). </p> <p> Among the names of women, the oldest as well as the simplest which are found are actually only suited for women, as Rachel, "Ewe;" Deborah, "Bee;" Tamar, "Palm-tree;" Hannah, "Favor," the mother of Samuel. Those which express such a delicate and endearing sense as Qeren Happuk, "box of eye-ointment" ( Job 42:14), and '''''חֶפְצַיבָה''''' , ''Hephzibah,'' "my delight is in her" ( 2 Kings 21:1), betray that they were generally formed in much later times. It appears indeed to have been customary, at an early period, to form names for women from those of men, by means of the feminine termination; as '''''חִגַּית''''' , [[Haggith]] ( 2 Samuel 3:4), besides '''''חִגַּי''''' , Haggai ( Numbers 26:15); '''''מְשֻׁלֶּמֶת''''' , ''Meshullemeth,'' i.e. ''Pia'' ( 2 Kings 21:19), besides '''''מַשֻׁלָּם''''' , ''Meshullam, Pius'' ( 1 Chronicles 5:13; 1 Chronicles 8:17), and '''''שְׁלֹמַית''''' , ''Shelomith, Friederike'' ( Numbers 24:11), besides '''''שְׁלֹמֹה''''' , ''Shelomoh, Friederich.'' But we must not overlook the fact that all these are instances of simple names; or of those also in which the masculine has already dropped the second member; for Chanani and Zabdi, as is shown below, are. shortened from Chananjah, Zabdijah: no single example occurs from a compound man's name. As the same compound names, however, are sometimes used both for men and women, and as even those very names are applied to women which could not originally have been applicable to any but men, as Abigail, Achiznoam, accordingly we must assume that the plastic power of the language had already exhausted itself in this remote province, and that, for that reason, the distinction of the feminine was omitted. </p> <p> '''II.''' ''Symbolical Import Of Proper Names. '''''—''''' '' As the name was the "sign" of the thing, it expressed as nearly as possible its character; it was the expression of the impression which was produced by the thing named on the beholder. The truer the expression was to the impression, and the truer the impression was to the object, the more nearly did the name represent the thing named. Hence the name in [[Hebrew]] is used to signify the collected attributes or characteristics of the object named. This is particularly the case with the divine name. "The Lord descended in the cloud and proclaimed the name of the Lord. And the Lord passed by him and proclaimed, The Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious," etc. (Exodus 34), where all these terms furnish but the exegesis of the word ''Name.'' The use is similar in the New Test. Our Lord says, "I have manifested thy [[Name]] unto the men which thou gavest me out of the world" ( John 17:6); where [[Name]] embraces the whole divine nature revealed by the Son, who hath "declared" the Father. In general the name was the result of an effort to embody in language as nearly as possible the nature of objects. When the whole nature could not be taken in, the chief characteristic was seized upon-what struck the eye or any of the senses mainly -and hence arose such names as [[Esau]] ("hairy"). When there was no outstanding attribute to seize and embody, some incident was laid hold of connected with the object named, e.g. Moses ("drawn out" of the water); or some feeling in the mind of the namer at the moment of imposing the name, as [[Benoni]] ("my son of sorrow"). Even the names of natural objects are full of meaning, often full of poetry, often having reminiscences of ancient times and deeds floating about them. The river names are very suggestive. The [[Jordan]] (Yarden, yarad, "to come down" [comp. Ganges, Rhenus]) is the two rapids, one into the Sea of Galilee, and one into the [[Dead]] Sea. The [[Arnon]] is the stream that "sings" (ranan, to "make a tremulous sound") among the mountains. Jabbok, that which "belches" ("byoks") through the rocky gorge. The Cherith, that which "cuts" its way. So are the names of mountains. [[Lebanon]] is the Mont Blanc of Syria, but perhaps named less from its snowy mantle than its bare white ribs of naked stone. Sirion, the "breastplate" of rock. The whole land is full of Abels (grassy meads), Beers (wells), Ayins (fountains); and in the evening the maidens danced in the meads, and called them Abel-meholah ( Judges 7:22); and the kids around the fountain, and it was named En-gedi ( Joshua 15:62); and the scorpions basked in the sunny slopes, and their haunts were named Akrabbim; and the gazelles bounded across the heights, and men called their favorite resorts Ajalon. See each of the above terms in its place. </p> <p> For the philological questions involved in the above examination, see the Hebrew lexicons. More special treatises are the following: Redslob, Die alttestam. Namen (Hamb. 1846); Farrar, Proper [[Names]] of the Bible (Lond. 1844); Jones, Names in the Old Test. (ibid. 1856); Wilkinson, Names in the Bible (ibid. 1865). (See Name). </p> |
| <p> I. The Form Of [[Hebrew]] [[Names]] </p> <p> 1. Various [[Types]] </p> <p> 2. Vocalization </p> <p> 3. Transposition of Parts </p> <p> 4. Methods of [[Abbreviation]] </p> <p> II. The [[Range]] Of [[Proper]] Names </p> <p> 1. Personal Names </p> <p> (1) Not Exclusively Descriptive </p> <p> (2) [[Drawn]] from a [[Wide]] Field </p> <p> (3) [[Influences]] [[Leading]] to Choice </p> <p> (4) [[Popularity]] of Names: Hard to [[Determine]] </p> <p> 2. Geographical Names </p> <p> III. Characteristics Of Biblical References </p> <p> 1. Derivation of Names [[Manifest]] </p> <p> 2. The Narrator's Only [[Concern]] </p> <p> 3. Allusions Linked with Names </p> I. Form of Hebrew, or, More Broadly, Semitic, Proper Names <p> <b> 1. Various Types </b> </p> <p> The Hebrew proper name consists of a single word, a phrase, or a sentence. (1) Where the name is a single word, other than a verb, it may be ( <i> a </i> ) a common noun, concrete, as Barak, "lightning," Tola, "crimson worm," Elon, "oak," Achsah, "anklet," Deborah, "bee"; or abstract, as Uzzah, "strength," Manoah, "rest," Hannah, "grace"; or either abstract or concrete, as Zebul, "habitation"; ( <i> b </i> ) a participle, as Saul, "asked," Zeruiah, "cleft"; ( <i> 100 </i> ) an adjective, as Ikkesh, "perverse," Maharai, "impetuous," Shimei, "famous"; or ( <i> d </i> ) a word that may be either an adjective or an abstract noun according to circumstances. Such are formations after the norm of <i> ''''' ḳaṭṭūl ''''' </i> , as <i> ''''' Shammua‛ ''''' </i> , which are generally adjectives; and formations by means of the ending - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> or - <i> ''''' on ''''' </i> , as Adullam, Zalmon, Gideon, or, with the rejection of the final - <i> ''''' n ''''' </i> , Shilo (h) and Solomo (n). (2) The name may be a phrase, consisting of ( <i> a </i> ) two nouns, as Penuel, "face of God," Samuel, "name of God," Ish-bosheth, "man of shame"; or ( <i> b </i> ) an adjective and a noun, as Jedidiah, "beloved of <i> ''''' [[Yahweh]] ''''' </i> "; or ( <i> 100 </i> ) a preposition and one or more nouns, as Besodeiah, "in the intimacy of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> " Nehemiah 3:6 . </p> <p> When the name is a sentence, the predicate may be ( <i> a </i> ) a noun, the copula being implied, as Abijah, "Yah is a father," Eliab, "God is a father," Elimelech, "God is king"; or ( <i> b </i> ) an adjective, as Tobijah, "Yah is good" Zechariah 6:10; or ( <i> c </i> ) a participle, as Obed-edom, "Edom is serving"; or ( <i> d </i> ) a finite verb This last type exhibits five or six varieties: the su <i> bj </i> ect stands before a perfect, as Jonathan, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath given," Jehoshaphat, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath judged," Eleazar, "God hath helped," Elkanah, "God hath formed"; or before an imperfect, as Eliahba, "God hideth Himself"; or the su <i> bj </i> ect comes after a perfect, as Benaiah, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath built," Shephatiah, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath judged," Asahel, "God hath made; or after an imperfect, as Jezreel, "God doth sow." Very often the su <i> bj </i> ect is the pronoun included or implied in the verbal form, as Nathan, "he hath given," Hillel, "he hath praised," Jair, "he enlighteneth," Jephthah, "he openeth." Occasionally the predicate contains an o <i> bj </i> ect of the verb, as Shealtiel, "I have asked God" Ezra 3:2 , or a prepositional phrase, as Hephzibah, "my delight is in her" 2 Kings 21:1 . The sentence-name is usually a declaration, but it may be an exhortation or a prayer, as Jerub-baal, "let [[Baal]] strive," and Hoshea, "save!" Numbers 13:16 , or it may be a question, as Micaiah, "who is like <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> ?" All of the foregoing illustrations have been taken from the Books of Judges and Samuel, unless otherwise noted. </p> <p> <b> 2. Vocalization </b> </p> <p> The proper name is treated as one word, whether on analysis it consists of a single word, a phrase, or a sentence; and as such it is subject to the laws of accent and quantity which govern the Hebrew word. (1) A common noun used as a name undergoes the variations of pronunciation due to the custom of lengthening a short vowel in pause and to the laws which control the aspiration of certain labials, linguals, and palatals. Thus, the name Perez, "breach," which appears also as [[Pharez]] in the King James Version of the Old Testament, occurs in the Hebrew text in the four forms <i> ''''' perec ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' parec ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' pherec ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' pharec ''''' </i> Rth 4:18; Nehemiah 11:4 , Nehemiah 11:6 . (2) In a name consisting of a phrase the normal advance of the accent as usual causes the loss of a pretonic vowel, as is indicated by the suspended letter in Jedidiah, "beloved of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> "; requires a short vowel in a closed unaccented syllable, as in <i> ''''' Mahalăl'el ''''' </i> , "praise of God"; allows contraction, as in <i> ''''' Bêth ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> , "house of God"; and occasions the return of a segholate noun to its primitive form, as in Abdiel, "servant of God," where the vowel i is an archaism which has lingered in compound names, but has generally disappeared elsewhere in speech. (3) Names which consist of a sentence are also accented as one word, and the pronunciation is modified accordingly. </p> <p> The synonyms [[Eliam]] and Ammiel, "God is a kinsman," not only exhibit the common archaism in the retention of the vowel <i> ''''' i ''''' </i> , but the name <i> ''''' Eliām ''''' </i> also shows the characteristic lengthening of the vowel in the final accented syllable, so common in nouns. The four forms Eliphelet, Eliphalet, [[Elpelet]] and Elpalet, meaning "God is deliverance," represent the variations of the Hebrew due to the causes already mentioned ( 1 Chronicles 3:8; 1 Chronicles 14:5 , 1 Chronicles 14:7; see the King James Version and the Revised Version (British and American)). The requirements regarding the ellsion and the quantity and quality of vowels, on the shifting of the accent, are also regularly met by the various types of sentence-names in which the predicate is a verb Thus, the personal names <i> ''''' ‛ĕlı̄shāmā‛ ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'elnāthān ''''' </i> (subject followed by verb in the perfect); <i> ''''' 'elyāḳı̄m ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' 'elyahbā' ''''' </i> , and <i> ''''' yehōyākhı̄n ''''' </i> (subject and imperfect); <i> ''''' gedhalyāh ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yekholyāhū ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' bārakh'ēl ''''' </i> , in which the first vowel is protected by the implied reduplication of the Piel species, <i> ''''' benāyāh ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' ‛ăsāh'ēl ''''' </i> , and <i> ''''' ‛ăs̄ah ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' 'ēl ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' ‛ăsı̄'ēl ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' ḥăzāh'ēl ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' ḥăzā'el ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' pedhah'ēl ''''' </i> (perfect and subject); <i> ''''' yigdalyāhū ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yibhneyāh ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' ya‛ăsı̄'ēl ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yaḥdı̄'ēl ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yehallel'ēl ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' yesı̄mı̄'ēl ''''' </i> (imperfect and subject); <i> ''''' yerubba‛al ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' yāshobh‛ām ''''' </i> (jussive and subject; <i> ''''' ŭ ''''' </i> in sharpened, and <i> ''''' ŏ ''''' </i> in closed, syllable; in [[Jashobeam]] the first long vowel is retained by a secondary accent, marked by metheg); <i> ''''' nāthān ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' yiphtāḥ ''''' </i> , i.e. Jephthah. [[Ibneiah]] shows the customary apocopation of the imperfect of Lamedh-he verbs; and the names [[Benaiah]] to [[Pedahel]] show the methods of combining the perfect of such verbs with a following element. The short vowel of the final closed syllable of the imperfect is elided, if the final consonant is permitted to begin the syllable of the next element of the name, as in Jezreel, Jekabzeel, Jerahmeel, Ezekiel, [[Jehizkiah]] (see the Hebrew form of these names); but it is not elided in Ishmael, although the consonant is attached to the following syllable; and elision is avoided, as in Jiphthah-el, by keeping the ultimate and penultimate syllables distinct. Jehucal, a Hophal imperfect, is peculiar in not lengthening the vowel in the accented final syllable, when the verb is used as a personal name. </p> <p> <b> 3. Transposition of Constituent Parts </b> </p> <p> When the name was a sentence in Hebrew, its constituent parts could be transposed without changing the meaning. Thus the father of [[Bathsheba]] was called Ammiel, "a kinsman is God," and Eliam, "God is a kinsman" 2 Samuel 11:3; 1 Chronicles 3:5; and similarly, in letters written from [[Palestine]] to the king of Egypt in the 14th century BC, Ilimilki is also called Milkili, the name in either form signifying "God is king." Ahaziah, king of Judah, is called [[Jehoahaz]] (compare 2 Chronicles 21:17 with 2 Chronicles 22:1 ), a legitimate transposition of the verb and subject, and meaning in each case, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath laid hold." </p> <p> Not only did transposition take place, but the substitution of a cognate root and even the use of a different part of the verb also occurred. Thus King [[Jehoiachin]] 2 Kings 24:6; Jeremiah 52:31 was known also as [[Jeconiah]] Jeremiah 24:1; Jeremiah 28:4 and [[Coniah]] Jeremiah 22:24 , Jeremiah 22:28; Jeremiah 37:1 . The two names Jehoiachin and Jeconiah have exactly the same meaning, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> doth establish"; and Coniah is a synonym, "the establishing of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> ." The [[Divine]] name which begins Jehoiachin is transferred to the end in Jeconiah and Coniah; and the Hiphil imperfect of the verb <i> ''''' kūn ''''' </i> , which is seen in Jehoiachin, has been replaced by the Qal imperfect of the verb <i> ''''' kānan ''''' </i> in Jeconiah, and by the construct infinitive of the same species in Coniah. Parallel cases occur in [[Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian]] literature, among which the two forms of the king's name, Zamama-shum-iddina and Zamama-nadin-shum, exhibit both the transposition of constituent parts and an interchange of preterite and participle. </p> <p> <b> 4. Methods of Abbreviation </b> </p> <p> Twin forms like [[Abiner]] and Abner, [[Abishalom]] and Absalom, [[Elizaphan]] and Elzaphan, are not the full name and its abbreviation by syncopation, but are merely two variant, equally legitimate, modes of combining the constituent parts. The common methods of shortening were: (1) contraction by the rejection of a weak consonant or the apocopation of a final unaccented vowel, notably illustrated by the divine name <i> ''''' yehō ''''' </i> - at the beginning and - <i> ''''' yāhū ''''' </i> at the end of proper names: hence, [[Jehoash]] became [[Joash]] 2 Kings 12:1 , 2 Kings 12:19 , and Amaziahu became [[Amaziah]] ( 2 Kings 14:1 Hebrew text, and 8); (2) abbreviation of composite geographical names by the omission of the generic noun or its equivalent: Jerusalem, which to the Hebrews meant "foundation of peace," was shortened to Salem, "peace" Psalm 76:2; Kiriath-baal, "city of Baal" Joshua 15:60 , to Baal or [[Baalah]] ( Joshua 15:9-10; compare 2 Samuel 6:2 ); Beeshterah, "house or temple of Astarte," to Ashtaroth; Beth-lebaoth, "house of lionesses," to Lebaoth; Beth-azmaveth to Azmaveth; Beth-rehob to Rehob; Beth-bamoth to [[Bamoth]] (M S, l. 27, with Numbers 21:19 ); Beth-baal-meon to Baal-meon Numbers 32:38; Joshua 13:17; the same custom existed among the [[Moabites]] who spoke of this town indifferently as Beth-baal-meon and Baal-meon (M S, II. 9, 30); (3) abbreviation by the omission of the divine name: thus the name of the idolater Micaiah, which means, "who is like <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> ?" ( Judges 17:1 , Judges 17:4 (Hebrew)), was shortened to Micah, "who is like?" (verses 5, 8); and similarly in the case of three other men, namely the prophet (Micaiah, Jeremiah 26:18 the English Revised Version, and Micah, Micah 1:1 ), the [[Levite]] musician ( Nehemiah 12:35 with Nehemiah 11:17 , Nehemiah 11:22 ), and the father of [[Abdon]] ( 2 Kings 22:12 with 2 Chronicles 34:20 ). </p> <p> The king of Judah, Yauhazi, as he was known to the Assyrians, i.e. Jehoahaz, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath laid hold," is called simply Ahaz, "he hath laid hold," in the Hebrew records. The town of Jabneel, "God doth cause to be built," was shortened to Jabneh, "he doth cause to be built" ( Joshua 15:11; 2 Chronicles 26:6; compare 1 Macc 4:15); Paltiel, "deliverance of God," was curtailed to Palti, "deliverance" 1 Samuel 25:44; 2 Samuel 3:15; Abijah, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> is father," to [[Abi]] ( 2 Chronicles 29:1 with 2 Kings 18:2 ); and Bamoth-baal, "high places of Baal," to Bamoth ( Joshua 13:17 with Numbers 21:19 ). Abdi, Othni, Uzzi, and not a few other similar names, probably represent curtailment of this sort. The omission of the Divine title has parallels in Assyrian and Babylonian literature: thus Nabu-nadin-ziri and Nabu-shum-ukin were called Nadinu and Shum-ukin respectively (Dynastic [[Tablet]] number 2, col. iv, 4, 5, with Babylonian Chron., col. i, 13, 16). </p> <p> (4) Abbreviation by the elision of the initial consonant, yet so that the remainder is a synonymous name of complete grammatical form. The name of King [[Hezekiah]] was written by the Hebrews both <i> ''''' yeḥizḳiyāh ''''' </i> , " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> doth strengthen," and <i> ''''' ḥizḳiyāh ''''' </i> , " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> is strength." The two forms interchange many times in 2 Chronicles 29-33 . Similarly, Jeconiah was shortened to Coniah, as has already been noticed; the name of the town Jekabzeel, "God bringeth together," to Kabzeel, "God's bringing together" ( Nehemiah 11:25 with Joshua 15:21; 2 Samuel 23:20 ); Meshelemiah, " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> is recompensing," to Shelemiah, "Yahweh's recompensing" ( 1 Chronicles 26:1-2 with 1 Chronicles 26:14 ); Meshullam, "recompensed," to Shallum, "recompensed" ( 1 Chronicles 9:11; Nehemiah 11:11 with 1 Chronicles 6:12; Ezra 7:2 ). </p> II. The Range of Proper Names <p> <b> 1. Personal Names </b> </p> (1) Not Exclusively Descriptive <p> Simonis in his <i> Onomasticum </i> , published in 1741, and [[Gesenius]] in his <i> Thesaurus </i> , issued during the years from 1835 to 1853, endeavored to interpret the proper names as though they were ordinarily intended to characterize the person who bore them. Embarrassed by the theory, Gesenius translated [[Malchiel]] by " <i> rex Dei, h. e. a Deo constitutus </i> "; and Simonis translated Malchi-shua by " <i> regis auxilium </i> , i.e. <i> auxilium s. salus regi patri praestita </i> "; [[Ammizabad]] was rendered by Gesenius "famulus largitoris, h.e. Jehovae," and by Simonis " <i> populum </i> (i.e. <i> copiosissimam liberorum turbam </i> ) <i> donavit </i> "; Gesenius translated [[Gedaliah]] " <i> quem Jehova educavit vel roboravit </i> ," [[Zerahiah]] " <i> cui Jehova ortum dedit </i> ," [[Jehozadak]] " <i> quem Jehova justum fecit </i> ," and Joel " <i> cui Jehova est deus </i> , i.e. <i> cultor Jehovae </i> "; but Simonis rendered Joel by " <i> Jehoua </i> ( <i> est </i> ) <i> Deus </i> ... <i> vel </i> ( <i> cui </i> ) <i> Jehoua Deus </i> ( <i> est </i> )." Now Malchiel means "God is king," Malchi-shua "the king, i.e. God, is salvation" (compare Joshua), Ammizabad "the [[Kinsman]] hath endowed," Gedaliah "Yah is great," Zerahiah " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath risen in splendor," Jehozadak " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> is righteous," and Joel, if a compound name, "Yah is God." A moment's reflection makes clear that these names do not describe the persons who bear them, but in every case speak of God. They emphasize the important facts that personal names might be, and often were, memorial and doctrinal, and that personal names were a part of the ordinary speech of the people, full of meaning and intelligible to all, subject to the phonetic laws of the Hebrews, and obedient to the rules of grammar. </p> (2) Drawn From a Wide Field <p> [[Parents]] named their children, and contemporaries dubbed people, from physical and spiritual traits, whether a beauty or a blemish; thus Hophni, "pertaining to the fist," Japhia, "gleaming," Ikkesh, "perverse," Ira, "watchful," Gareb, "rough-skinned," and Hiddai, "joyful." [[Children]] were called by the names of natural objects, as Peninnah, "coral," Rimmon, "pomegranate," Tamar, "palm tree," Nahash, "serpent," Eglah, "heifer," Aiah, "bird of prey," and Laish, "lion"; or after kinsfolk or remoter members of the clan, as Absalom's daughter [[Tamar]] bore the name of her father's beautiful sister, and as the priest [[Phinehas]] took his strange name from the noted Phinehas, who belonged to the same father's house in earlier days. Or the name given to the child furnished a memorial of events in the national history, like Ichabod, "the glory is not" 1 Samuel 4:21 , and probably Obed-edom, "Edom is serving" (compare 1 Samuel 14:47; 1 Samuel 21:7 ); or it told of circumstances attending the child's birth, as Saul, "asked," and Elishama, "God hath heard"; or it embodied an article of the parent's creed, as [[Joab]] and Abijah, "Yah is a father," Joel, "Yah is God"; or it expressed a hope concerning the child or bore witness to a prophecy, as Jedidiah, "beloved of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> ," and Solomon, "peaceable" 2 Samuel 12:25; 1 Chronicles 22:9 . Sometimes the name of the tribe or race to which a man belonged became his popular designation, as Cushi, "Cushite." All of these examples have been cited from the records of one period of Israel's history, the times of Samuel and David. </p> (3) Influences Leading to Choice <p> The people in general gathered names for their children freely from all parts of this wide field, but in certain circles influences were at work which tended to restrict the choice to a smaller area. These influences were religious: ( <i> a </i> ) In homes of piety conscious nearness to God on the part of the parents naturally prompted them to bestow religious names upon their children. The name may be without distinct religious mark in its form and meaning, as Ephraim, "double fruitfulness," Manasseh, "making to forget," and yet have been given in acknowledgment of God's grace and be a constant reminder of His goodness [[Genesis]] 41:51-52; or the name may be religious in form, as Shemaiah, "Yah hath heard," and publicly testify to the parents' gratitude to God. ( <i> b </i> ) The covenant relation, which <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> entered into with Israel, made the name <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> , and that aspect of God's character which is denoted by this name, peculiarly precious to the people of God, and thenceforth the word <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> became a favorite element in the personal names of the Israelites, though not, of course, to the exclusion of the great name El, "God." ( <i> c </i> ) Among the kings in the line of David, the consciousness of their formal adoption by <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> to be His vicegerents on the throne of [[Israel]] 2 Sam 7; Psalm 2:1-12 found expression in the royal names. <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> , the God of Israel, was acknowledged in the personal name Abijah, borne by the son and successor of Rehoboam. But his was an isolated case, unless the name Asa is an abbreviated form. But with Jehoshaphat, Abijah's grandson, early in the 9th century, the custom became established. [[Henceforth]] it was conventional for the king of Judah to have for his name a sentence with <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> as its subject. The only exceptions among the 16 successors of Asa on the throne were [[Manasseh]] and his son Amon, both of whom were notoriously apostate from <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> . The full name of [[Ahaz]] was Jehoahaz. Josiah's son [[Shallum]] as king was known as Jehoahaz; and his brother Eliakim, when placed on the throne by Pharaoh-necoh, was given the name Jehoiakim. </p> <p> ( <i> d </i> ) Akin to the influence exerted by the relation of the kings to the God of Israel, and manifesting almost equal power contemporaneously with it, was the influence of official connection with the sanctuary, either as priests or as subordinate ministers, and it frequently led to the choice of an ecclesiastical name containing the word God or <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> . During the five centuries and a half, beginning near the close of Solomon's reign and extending to the end of Nehemiah's administration, 22 high priests held office, so far as their names have been preserved in the records. Of these pontiffs 17 bear names which are sentences with <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> as subject, and another is a sentence with [[El]] as subject. The materials for investigation along this line are not complete, as they are in the case of the kings, and ratios derived from them are apt to be erroneous; but evidently the priests of Yahweh's temple at [[Jerusalem]] not only recognized the appropriateness for themselves and their families of names possessing a general religious character, but came to favor such as expressly mentioned God, especially those which mentioned God by His name of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> . </p> (4) Popularity of Names: Hard to Determine <p> Until abundant data come to light for all periods of the history, it is precarious to attempt to determine the relative popularity of the various kinds and types of names in any one generation, or to compare period with period with respect to the use or neglect of a particular class of names. For, first, in no period are the names which have been transmitted by the Hebrew records many as compared with the thousands in use at the time; and, secondly, the records deal with the historical event which was conspicuous at the moment, and rarely mention persons other than the actors in this event. </p> <p> At one time men and women from the middle class of society are asserting themselves in the national life, and the personal names current in the families of farmers, shopkeepers and soldiers obtain place in the annals; at another time, when the activities of the court are of paramount importance, it is mainly names that were current in official circles which are chronicled; at yet another period, when matters of the national worship engaged the attention of the state, ecclesiastics and laymen from pious families, whose names were quite likely to have a religious meaning, receive mention. Very few names outside of the particular circle concerned are preserved in the records. It is unwarranted, therefore, to draw inferences regarding the relative use of particular names, secular names, for instance, at different periods of the history of Israel, by comparing the number of these names found in a record of political uprisings in the army with the number of similar names in the narrative of an episode which occurred at a later date and in which only priests took part. It is comparing things that differ. It is comparing the number of certain names current in military circles with the number of the same names among ecclesiastics, in order to learn whether these names were more common among the people as a whole in the one period than in the other. </p> <p> <b> 2. Geographical Names </b> </p> <p> The brine of its waters led the ancient Hebrews to call the [[Dead]] Sea the Salt Sea. Bethesda, "house of mercy," received its name from the belief in the healing virtue of its waters; Lebanon, "white," from the snows that cover its crest; [[Sidon]] on the [[Mediterranean]] Sea and [[Bethsaida]] on the Sea of Galilee, from their fisheries; Tyre, from the great rock in the sea on which it was built; the valley of Elah, from the terebinth tree; Luz, from the almond tree; Shittim, from the acacia groves on the eastern terrace of the [[Jordan]] valley; and Jericho, from the fragrance of its palms and balsams. The "crags of the wild goats" and En-gedi, "kid spring" 1 Samuel 24:1-2 , were in a desolate, rocky region where the wild goats had their home; [[Aijalon]] signifies "place of harts," and [[Etam]] denotes a "place of beasts and birds of prey." The hopes of a people and pride in their town were expressed in names like Joppa, "beauty," Tirzah, "pleasantness," Janoah, "rest," Shiloh, "tranquillity," and Salem, "peace." </p> <p> The resemblance of the Sea of [[Galilee]] in shape to a harp secured for it its ancient name of Chinnereth. Poetic imagination saw in majestic Mt. Hermon likeness to a soldier's breastplate, and forthwith the mountain was called Serion and Senir. The sanctuary of a deity might give name to a town, hence, Beth-dagon, Beth-anath, and Ashtaroth. Sometimes the name of a place commemorated a victory, as rock Oreb, rock Zeeb, and Eben-ezer Judges 7:25; 1 Samuel 7:12; or enshrined a religious transaction or experience, Beth-el and [[Beracah]] Genesis 28:17-19; 2 Chronicles 20:26; or told of a migration, as when colonists gave the name of their native town to their new settlement Judges 1:23-26 . Often the name of the founder or other famous inhabitant became attached to a town, and that for various reasons. It was often necessary to distinguish places of the same name from each other by this method; thus certain of the towns called [[Gibeah]] became Gibeath-saul and Gibeath-phinehas. The [[Jebusite]] stronghold captured by David was named by him the city of David, and was known by this name, as a quarter of Jerusalem, for many generations 2 Samuel 5:9; 2 Kings 16:20 . The practice was common among the Semitic contemporaries of Israel, as is illustrated by Dur-sharruken, "Sargonsburg," and Kar-shalmanasharidu, "Shalmaneser's fortress." A town might also be named after the tribe which inhabited it or after the ancestor of the tribe, as Dan Judges 18:29 , and possibly under not a few geographical designations a tribal name is hidden, even when the fact has escaped record and is not revealed by the form of the name. In an inquiry after the origin of a geographical designation the first consideration is due to the causes known to be ordinarily at work in giving rise to names of the same aspect as the one under scrutiny; and only when they fail to yield a suitable explanation are less obvious causes worthy of serious attention. </p> III. Characteristics of Biblical References <p> <b> 1. Derivation of Names Manifest </b> </p> <p> As a rule, Semitic words clearly reveal their origin and structure. The [[Semite]] might, indeed, err with respect to the particular meaning intended, where a word was current in several significations. Thus, the vale of <i> ''''' bākha' ''''' </i> , mentioned in Psalm 84:7 (Eng. 6), is open to two interpretations: namely, "valley of Baca," so called from the balsam trees in it, and "valley of weeping," as the versions render the unusual form, regarding it as equivalent to a similar word meaning "weeping." The plural <i> ''''' bekhā'ı̄m ''''' </i> , "mulberry or balsam trees" 2 Samuel 5:23-24 , was understood by [[Josephus]] to denote a grove known by the name [[Weepers]] ( <i> Ant. </i> , VII, iv, 1; compare [[Lxx]] ). In those rare cases where several derivations were possible, the [[Israelite]] may not always have known which thought was intended to be embodied in the name which he heard. But he discerned the alternative possibilities; and a parent, in bestowing a name ambiguous in its derivation, might be deliberately taking advantage of its power to be the vehicle for the suggestion and expression of two thoughts ( Genesis 30:23-24; [[Joseph]] being derivable from both <i> ''''' yāṣaph ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'āṣaph ''''' </i> ). </p> <p> <b> 2. The Narrator's Only Concern </b> </p> <p> That the object of the Biblical writer was not to make known the derivation of the proper names is clear from cases like Esek, [[Rehoboth]] and [[Ishmael]] Genesis 16:11; Genesis 26:20 , Genesis 26:22 : Isaac called the name of the well, Contention, because the herdsmen of [[Gerar]] "contended" with him; another well he called [[Broad]] Places (roomy places), because <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> had "made room" for him; and [[Hagar]] was directed to name the son that she was about to bear "God doth hear," because <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> had "heard" her affliction. The narrator's purpose was not to declare that the Hebrew word for contention, <i> ''''' ‛ēṣeḳ ''''' </i> , is derived from the Hebrew verb for "contend," <i> ''''' ‛āṣaḳ ''''' </i> , and that the name "God doth hear," <i> ''''' yishmā‛'ēl ''''' </i> , signifies God doth hear, <i> ''''' yishma‛'ēl ''''' </i> . These derivations and meanings were plain. The purpose was to state the circumstances which led to the choice of the name. </p> <p> There are instances also where no part of the name reappears in the words that state the reason for the use of the name. For example, the name <i> ''''' Maher ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' shalal ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' hash ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' baz ''''' </i> is not explained by citing the words which compose it. One noun of the composite name appears, indeed, in the exposition of the meaning, but accidentally as it were, and without prominence or significance of position Isaiah 8:3-4 . Samuel is a notable example of this method. [[Hannah]] called his name Samuel, saying, 'Because of <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> , I asked him' 1 Samuel 1:20 . Simonis, Ewald and Nestle derive the name from <i> ''''' shemūa‛'ēl ''''' </i> , "heard of God." This etymology would fully satisfy the reason given for the mother's choice of the name; but the suggested derivation is far-fetched, for it is not customary for a Hebrew word to lose the strong guttural <i> ''''' ‛ayin ''''' </i> ( ''''' ‛ ''''' ). The guttural was not lost, but was distinctly heard, in Ishmael, where there is the same concurrence of sounds as in <i> ''''' shemūa‛'ēl ''''' </i> . </p> <p> Qimchi, on the other hand, suggested that Samuel is a contraction of <i> ''''' shā'ūl ''''' </i> <i> ''''' mē'ēl ''''' </i> , "asked of God"; and Ewald asserts that this origin is the theory of the narrator ( <i> Lehrbuch der hebraischen Sprache </i> , 275, note 3). This is incredible. Such a contraction is "alien to the genius of the Hebrew language' ' (Driver, <i> Text of Samuel </i> , 13), and the absence of the two Hebrew consonants <i> ''''' 'aleph ''''' </i> ( ' ) and <i> ''''' lamedh ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' 50 ''''' </i> ) before the letter <i> ''''' m ''''' </i> in the midst of the name Samuel would of itself prevent the Semite from imagining such an etymology. The derivation and meaning of Samuel were not obscure. The type was common, and was especially familiar by reason of the name Peniel, "face of God" ( Genesis 32:30 ). Samuel means "name of God" (Gesenius). As Jacob, upon his return from Paddan-aram, in fulfillment of his vow erected an altar at Beth-el as a memorial of God's bestowal of the promised blessings and named the place thus consecrated "The God of Beth-el" Genesis 35:1 , Genesis 35:3 , Genesis 35:7 , so Hannah having by vow dedicated to <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> the son for whose birth she was praying, now that her prayer has been answered and the son given, calls him "The name of God" in commemoration of the Giver. The Biblical narrator states the motive which led the mother to choose the name Samuel for her child. In this explanation no part of the name is used. Moreover, the slight assonance between <i> ''''' shemū'ēl ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' she'iltı̄w ''''' </i> in 1 Samuel 1:20 was unsought, for these words are separated in the Hebrew text, and the emphasis is placed on the gift's being "from <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> ." The history of the discussion concerning this name shows how far astray criticism has been led by the false theory that the purpose of the narrator was to analyze the name and declare its derivation. </p> <p> [[Reuben]] affords evidence to the same effect. The name was known to the early Hebrews in this form exclusively. It is attested by their most ancient literature Genesis 29:32; Genesis 30:14; Judges 5:15-16 , by the entire Old Testament, by the Greek translation (Codex Alexandrinus, Codex Vaticanus, and Lucian), by the Targums, and by the New [[Testament]] Revelation 7:5 . Yet in the 1st century Josephus, adding a Greek termination, wrote <i> ''''' Roubelos ''''' </i> ; and later the [[Syriac]] version gave the name as <i> ''''' Rûbil ''''' </i> , and the Ethiopic version as <i> ''''' Rōbēl ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' Rūbēl ''''' </i> . The late variation is reasonably explained as a softening of the pronunciation, which had come into vogue in certain circles. The liquids, or, to speak particularly regarding Reuben, the liquids <i> ''''' n ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' l ''''' </i> , sometimes interchanged, giving rise to two forms for a word in the same language or in kindred languages (Gesenius, <i> Thesaurus </i> , 727; Wright, <i> Comp </i> . <i> Grammar </i> , 67; Zimmern, <i> Vergleichende Grammatik </i> , section 11a). </p> <p> [[Notwithstanding]] the evidence furnished by the literature, preference has been given to Reubel as the original form on the ground that "the only plausible explanation of the etymology" given in Genesis 29:32 "is that it is based on the form" <i> ''''' Re'ūbel ''''' </i> = <i> ''''' Re'ū ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ba‛al ''''' </i> (Skinner, Genesis, 386). An exhibition of the etymology was needless, however, and was not the end which the writer had in view. His purpose was to state the occasion for bestowing this particular name upon the child; and in stating it he does full justice to the clear meaning of the good, simple Hebrew of the name Reuben. The name signifies either "vision of a son" or "Behold ye, a son!" In either case the emphatic word is "son." As Hannah, taunted on account of her barrenness, besought God to look on her affliction and give her a man-child 1 Samuel 1:11 , so Leah, using the same words, speaking of the same mercy already shown her, and with the same thought in mind, exclaimed: " <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath looked upon my affliction; for now my husband will love me," and she called the name of her son "Look ye! It's a son" (or, "vision of a son ").a male child was to her a proof of God's regard for her misery, and a guaranty of the future love of her husband for her. Moreover, the name kept the thought constantly before the mind of her husband. Gesenius remarks that Reuben means "properly, 'See ye, a son! ' but the sacred writer in Genesis 29:32 explains it as for <i> ''''' rā'āh ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' rā'ūy ''''' </i> ) <i> ''''' be‛onyı̄ ''''' </i> , 'provided in my affliction'" ( <i> Lexicon </i> , <i> Thesaurus </i> ). This curious specimen of criticism may be regarded as the <i> reductio ad absurdum </i> of the hypothesis that the Hebrew writers intend to give the derivation of the proper names. The result of endeavoring to force the words of the explanation into an intentional etymology compels the assumption that the Hebrew writer misunderstood one of the simplest phrases of his own language and proposed a contraction impossible in itself and utterly foreign to the principles which underlie Hebrew speech. </p> <p> <b> 3. Allusions Linked with Names </b> </p> <p> Allusions to proper names are made for the purpose of stating the reason for the bestowal of the name, of pointing out a coincidence between the name and the character or experience of its bearer, or of attaching a prophecy; and it is common to link the allusion with the name by employing the root that underlies the name, or a cognate root, or some other word that resembles the name in sound: (1) Statement of the reason for the choice of the name: In the case of Simeon, the root of the name is used ( Genesis 29:33 ). Words of this type (with the termination <i> ''''' on ''''' </i> ) are formed from nouns and verbs, and have the force of adjectives, diminutives, or abstract nouns, and are sometimes used as concrete nouns (Stade, <i> Lehrbuch der hebraischen Grammatik </i> , section 296). The Israelite at once recognized the root and formation of the name Simeon, which was a favorite with the Hebrews, and he knew that it could express the abstract idea of hearing. In Genesis 29:33 the narrator is not seeking to impart etymological information; but it is clear that he discerned the derivation when he gave the reason for the choice of this particular name for Leah's second son: "(Leah) said, Because <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> hath heard that I am hated, he hath therefore given me this son also: and she called his name Simeon." The root of the name is used as a verb in the statement of the motive. It was convenient and natural to do so, since the verb <i> ''''' shāma‛ ''''' </i> was the proper word to express the idea and was one of the most common words in the language. There would be no reason to suppose that identity with the root of the name was intentional, except that care is taken by the narrator in the case of the other sons of Jacob to maintain a similar correspondence. Accordingly, that form of <i> ''''' paronomasia ''''' </i> is employed where a word is used that is one with the name in derivation, but differs from the name in form and grammatically is a different part of speech. </p> <p> In the case of [[Cain]] a cognate root is used. The name is a segholate noun from the root <i> ''''' ḳūn ''''' </i> , which means "to form," and then specifically to form at the anvil. Cain may accordingly be an abstract noun and denote formation, or a concrete noun denoting a forged weapon, or the agent in the work, namely a smith. In stating the reason for giving this name to the child, it was not feasible to use the verb <i> ''''' ḳūn ''''' </i> , because of the technical meaning which had become attached to it. To avoid misunderstanding the cognate verb <i> ''''' ḳānāh ''''' </i> is employed, which has radically the same significance, but is without the technical implications ( Genesis 4:1 ). The result is that kind of <i> ''''' paronomasia ''''' </i> which exists between words of similar sound and cognate origin, but difference of meaning. </p> <p> In the case of Noah a root unrelated to the name in origin, but containing a similar sound, is used. The Biblical narrator does not state whether the name Noah is the transliteration of a foreign word or is its translation into Hebrew; he merely declares that as given it expressed the father's hope that through this child men were to have relief from the ancient curse upon the ground. If the name is Hebrew, its root may be <i> ''''' nūaḥ ''''' </i> , "rest." At any rate it promptly suggested to the ear of the Hebrew the idea of rest. But the verb <i> ''''' nūaḥ ''''' </i> , is used in Hebrew, as is the corresponding verb "rest" in English, to express the two ideas of relief and cessation. [[Lamech]] did not mean that his son would cause men to cease from work, but that he would secure for them restful relief from toil due to God's curse on account of sin ( Genesis 5:29 , with a reference to Genesis 3:17-19 ). The writer does not use the ambiguous word. To avoid ambiguity, yet with a view to preserving assonance with Noah, he employs the verb <i> ''''' nāḥam ''''' </i> , which has as one of its meanings the sense of comfort and relief. </p> <p> (2) The indication of a coincidence between the character or experience of a person and his name: Naomi, returning to her home bereaved and in poverty, saw the contrast between her present condition and her name; and she played upon her name by using a word of opposite meaning, saying: 'Call me not Pleasant, call me Bitter; for the [[Almighty]] hath dealt very bitterly with me' (Rth 1:20). In whatever sense Nabal's name may have been bestowed upon him originally, at any rate his wife saw the correspondence between his name in its ordinary meaning and his conduct toward David, and she played upon it, saying: 'Fool is his name, and folly is with him' ( 1 Samuel 25:25 ). Likewise the agreement between Jacob's character and a meaning that his name has in Hebrew was seen, and called forth the bitter word-play: 'Is he not rightly named "He supplants?" for he hath supplanted me these two times' ( Genesis 27:36 ). Isaac, so far as the formation is concerned, may be an abstract noun meaning "laughter," or a concrete noun, "laughing one," or a verb in the imperfect, "he laughs" or "one laughs" (compare Stade, <i> Lehrbuch der hebraischen Grammatik </i> , section 259a). Whichever specific meaning may have been in the mind of [[Abraham]] when he gave the name to his son, yet by reason of its ever speaking of laughter the name was a constant reminder to the parents of the laughter of unbelief with which they had listened to the promise of his birth ( Genesis 17:17; Genesis 18:12 ). But in due time the child of promise has been born. His name, as determined upon, is Isaac. This [[Sarah]] knows ( Genesis 17:19; Genesis 21:3 ). Accordingly, theme with which she greets his advent is laid in her mouth. She plays (puns) upon the name Isaac, using the root of the word in various forms, first as a noun and then as a verb, and giving to the verb a new subject and to the thought a new turn. Instead of the laughter of unbelief, with which the promise was received, 'God,' she says, 'hath prepared for me laughter (of joy), everyone that heareth (of the event) will laugh (with joy) for me' ( Genesis 21:6; compare Psalm 126:2 ). </p> <p> (3) Attachment of a prophecy to a name: <i> ''''' [[Paronomasia]] ''''' </i> in all of its forms is used for this purpose. A meaning of the name, or a sound heard in it, or a contrast suggested by it may be played upon. In these several ways the prophet Micah plays upon successive names in one paragraph ( Micah 1:10-15 ). In answer to Abraham's prayer in behalf of Ishmael, a promise is given concerning the lad, which is introduced by a play upon his name: 'As for the boy (named) "God heareth," I have heard thee' ( Genesis 17:18 , Genesis 17:20 ). To [[Gad]] a prophecy is attached in Genesis 49:19 . Two cognate roots are employed: <i> ''''' gādhadh ''''' </i> , which underlies the word rendered troop or marauding band, and <i> ''''' gūdh ''''' </i> , which means "to press." In the use not only of the root of the name Gad, but of a different root also that is similar in sound, it is evident that the purpose is simply to play upon the name. The brief oracle is uttered almost exclusively by means of variations in the vocalization of the two roots, producing one of the most successful word-plays in Hebrew literature. </p> <p> Judah is a noun corresponding to the Hophal imperfect, and means "thing being praised," "object of praise." In bestowing this name upon her child the mother signified that <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> was the object of her praise; for she said: "Now will I praise <i> ''''' Yahweh ''''' </i> " ( Genesis 29:35 ). In Genesis 49:8 a prophecy is spoken concerning Judah. The same etymology and meaning are recognized as before, but the application is different. The birth of Judah had made God an object of praise, the great deeds of the tribe of Judah were destined to make that tribe an object of praise. To quote the oracle: '"Object of praise," thee shall thy brothers praise.' In this difference of reference and in the repetition of the significant word consists the play upon the name. </p> <p> Dan is played upon in much the same way. The name may be a participle, used as a noun, and be rendered "judge"; but it probably belongs to that numerous class in which the names are verbs in the perfect, and signifies, "he hath judged." His adoptive mother had called his name Dan, because God had heard her complaint and decided the cause in her favor ( Genesis 30:6 ). In attaching the prophecy, the name is played upon by changing the subject, and, in order to refer to the future, by substituting the imperfect for the perfect of the verb.: '"He hath judged" shall judge his people, as one of the tribes of Israel' ( Genesis 49:16 ). See also [[God]] , Names Of; [[Name]] . </p>
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