Difference between revisions of "Plagues Of Egypt"

<p> <strong> [[Plagues Of Egypt]] </strong> . There are not many references in the Bible to the plagues outside the Book of Exodus. They are epitomized in &nbsp; Psalms 78:44-51; &nbsp; Psalms 105:28-36 . In &nbsp; Romans 9:14-24 God’s treatment of Pharaoh is dwelt upon, to show His absolute right to do what He will with the creatures of His own handiwork. And in &nbsp; Revelation 8:1-13; &nbsp; Revelation 9:1-21; &nbsp; Revelation 16:1-21 much of the imagery in the visions of the trumpets and the bowls is based upon the plagues hail and fire (&nbsp; Revelation 8:7; &nbsp; Revelation 16:17 f.), water becoming blood, and the death of the creatures that were in it (&nbsp; Revelation 8:8 f., &nbsp; Revelation 16:3 f.), darkness (&nbsp; Revelation 8:12 , &nbsp; Revelation 16:10 ), locusts (&nbsp; Revelation 9:1-11 ), boils (&nbsp; Revelation 16:2 ), frogs (&nbsp; Revelation 16:13 ). </p> <p> The narratives of the plagues demand study from three points of view: (1) their literary history; (2) the relation of the several plagues to natural phenomena; (3) their religious significance. </p> <p> <strong> 1. The sources </strong> . For a full discussion of the reasons for the literary analysis reference must be made to commentaries. The analysis, on which critics are in the main agreed, is as follows: </p> <p> J 7:14 15 17a 18 21a 24 25 8:1 4 8 15a E 15 17b 20b 23 P 19 20a 21b 22 5 7 R J 20 32 9:1 7 13 17 18 23b 24b J Jahwist. </p> <p> E Elohist. </p> <p> P Priestly Narrative. </p> <p> R Redactor. </p> <p> J Jahwist </p> <p> If the sources have here been rightly separated, it becomes probable that the original account of JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.] contained <em> eight </em> and not ten plagues. The 3rd and 4th are insect pests, the former <em> kinnîm, kinnâm </em> , i.e. <strong> gnats </strong> or <strong> mosquitoes </strong> (P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ), the latter <em> ‘ârôbh </em> , i.e. <strong> swarms of flies </strong> (J [Note: Jahwist.] ). These may with probability be considered duplicates. And similarly the 5th and 6th, <strong> murrain </strong> (J [Note: Jahwist.] ) and <strong> boils </strong> (P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ). If this is so, all the eight were originally contained in J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s narrative; E [Note: Elohist.] has elements in the 1st, 7th, 8th, and 9th, and in the 9th E [Note: Elohist.] ’s narrative has largely displaced that of J [Note: Jahwist.] . </p> <p> <strong> 2. Relation to natural phenomena </strong> . The hostility which used to exist between religion and natural science is rapidly passing away, as it is becoming more clearly recognized that science is concerned solely with the observation of physical sequences, while religion embraces science as the greater includes the less. Nothing can lie outside the activity of a God who is both a transcendent Person and an immanent sustaining Power in the universe. And therefore to point out a connexion between some of the ‘miracles’ of [[Scripture]] and ‘natural phenomena’ does not eliminate from them the [[Divine]] element; it rather transfigures an unreasoning ‘faith in the impossible’ into a faith which recognizes the ‘finger of God’ in everything. Thus the following discussion of the plagues may claim to be entirely constructive; it seeks to destroy nothing, but aims at showing it to be probable that the providence of God worked in Egypt by means of a series of natural phenomena, upon which the religious instinct of the [[Hebrew]] writers unerringly seized as signs of God’s favour to their forefathers, and of punishment to their oppressors. This religious conviction led in process of time to accretions and amplifications; as the stories were handed down, they acquired more and more of what is popularly called the miraculous. The earliest stage at which they emerge into writing is in J [Note: Jahwist.]; In the remains of E [Note: Elohist.] the wonders have increased, while in P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] they are greatly multiplied. </p> <p> 1 <em> st [[Plague]] </em> . According to J [Note: Jahwist.] , this consisted in the smiting of the river <em> by J″ </em> <em> [Note: Jahweh.] </em> , and the consequent death of the fish, causing the necessity of obtaining water by digging in the neighbourhood of the river. Nothing is here said of <strong> blood </strong> , but that is introduced in the next stage of development. In E [Note: Elohist.] the marvel is performed not directly by J″ [Note: Jahweh.] in the ordinary course of nature, but through Moses’ wonder-working staff, and the river is turned to blood. Two suggestions have been made as to the natural phenomena which might give rise to the story. When the Nile rises in June, its waters become discoloured from fragments of vegetable matter, which gradually turn to a dull red colour as the river rises to its height in August. This is confirmed by many travellers, who also speak of offensive odours emitted at the later stage. Others refer the reddening of the water to enormous quantities of minute organisms. Whatever may have been the actual cause, J [Note: Jahwist.] comes the nearest to the natural fact; a fetid exhalation killed the fish, or in Hebrew language J″ [Note: Jahweh.] smote the river. And the ease with which the belief could arise that the water was turned to blood is illustrated in &nbsp; 2 Kings 3:23 . In P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ’s final amplification, every drop of water in Egypt was turned to blood. </p> <p> 2 <em> nd Plague </em> . From whatever cause the river became fetid, a mass of organic matter and of animal life would be collected. And these conditions would be suitable to the rapid multiplication of frogs. In J [Note: Jahwist.] , J″ [Note: Jahweh.] foretells that He will <em> Himself </em> smite Egypt with frogs; in the ordinary course of nature ‘the river shall swarm with frogs.’ In P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , Aaron (as usual) is bidden by Moses to bring the plague by stretching out his staff. [[Plagues]] of frogs were not unknown in ancient times; and Haggard tells of a plague in the upper Nile valley in modern times ( <em> Under [[Crescent]] and [[Star]] </em> , p. 279). [[Frogs]] are most plentiful in Egypt in September. </p> <p> 3 <em> rd and 4th Plagues </em> . The mass of dead frogs collected in heaps (&nbsp; Exodus 8:14 ) would lead to the breeding of innumerable insects. In J [Note: Jahwist.] , <em> J″ </em> <em> [Note: Jahweh.] </em> <em> Himself </em> sends ‘swarms of <strong> flies </strong> ’; in P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , through the stretching out of Aaron’s staff, ‘all the dust of Egypt became mosquitoes’ (EV [Note: English Version.] <strong> lice </strong> [wh. see]). The ‘mosquitoes’ cannot have been, according to any natural sequence, distinct from the ‘swarms’; P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] particularizes the general statement of J [Note: Jahwist.] . Stinging gnats of various kinds are common in Egypt about October. The insects come to maturity after the waters of the Nile inundation have receded, and the pools in which the larvæ have lived have dried up. Note that in &nbsp; Psalms 105:31 the ‘swarm’ and the ‘mosquitoes’ are coupled in one sentence; and &nbsp; Psalms 78:45 omits the ‘mosquitoes’ altogether. </p> <p> 5 <em> th and </em> 6 <em> th Plagues </em> . The decomposing bodies of the frogs would produce pestilential effects; and bacteriological research shows that some insects, especially mosquitoes, are a serious factor in the spread of disease. Thus the <strong> murrain </strong> (J [Note: Jahwist.] ) is amply accounted for. In the preceding narrative J [Note: Jahwist.] relates that Goshen enjoyed complete immunity from the insects. It is not impossible that the direction of the wind or other natural causes, under God’s guidance, prevented them from reaching the [[Israelite]] territory. And if the insects, which spread disease, did not enter Goshen, the statement that the murrain did not touch the cattle of the Israelites is also explained. P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , on the other hand, departs from natural causes. Moses and Aaron flung soot into the air, which became <strong> boils </strong> on man and beast. [[Cattle]] plagues, causing enormous mortality, are reported in Egypt. One such in a.d. 1842 killed 40,000 oxen. </p> <p> 7 <em> th Plague </em> . Thus far the series of plagues have followed one another in a natural sequence. But at this point a new series begins with a destructive thunderstorm, accompanied by <strong> hail </strong> . Such storms are rare in Egypt, but are not without example. Those which have been reported in modern times have occurred about January; and that is the point of time defined in &nbsp; Exodus 9:31 f., ‘the barley was in the ear, and the flax was in bud, but the wheat and the vetch … were not grown up.’ Thus the cattle plague had lasted about two months and a half (Nov. to the middle of Jan.) when the storm came; and the first five plagues (reckoning 3, 4 and 5, 6 as duplicates) occupied a period of about five months. </p> <p> 8 <em> th Ptague </em> . The atmospheric conditions which resulted in the storm also led to other plagues. A strong east wind (the sirocco) was sent by J″ [Note: Jahweh.] , and brought a dense mass of <strong> locusts </strong> (J [Note: Jahwist.] ). In E [Note: Elohist.] , Moses brought them by lifting his staff. The lightness and fragility of the locusts render them helpless before a wind (cf. &nbsp; Psalms 109:23 b). And when the wind shifted to the west, they were completely swept away into the Red Sea (J [Note: Jahwist.] ); cf. &nbsp; Joel 2:20 . </p> <p> 9 <em> th Plague </em> . Only a fragment of J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s narrative has been preserved, which relates the effect of the ‘ <strong> darkness </strong> ’ upon Pharaoh. E [Note: Elohist.] , as before, says that it was due to the lifting of the staff by Moses. But it is not impossible that it was a further consequence of the west wind. Dr. A. Macalister (art. ‘Plagues of Egypt’ in Hastings’ <em> DB </em> <em> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] </em> iii.) writes: ‘The condition of darkness referred to is strikingly like that brought about by the severer form of the electrical wind <em> hamsin </em> . This is a S. or S.W. wind that is so named because it is liable to blow during the 25 days before and the 25 days after the vernal equinox ( <em> hamsin </em> = 50). It is often not so much a storm or violent wind as an oppressive hot blast charged with so much sand and fine dust that the air is darkened. It causes a blackness equal to the worst of London fogs, while the air is so hot and full of dust that respiration is impeded.… Denon says that it sometimes travels as a narrow stream, so that one part of the land is light while the rest is dark.’ And he adds that three days is not an uncommon duration for the <em> hamsin </em> . </p> <p> 10 <em> th Plague </em> . Malignant epidemics have at all times been the scourge of Bible lands; and it is worthy of note that many authorities state that pestilence is often worst at the time of the <em> hamsin </em> wind. In the Hebrew narratives, however, all thought of a ‘natural’ occurrence has passed away. Only <strong> the firstborn </strong> are smitten, as a just retribution for Pharaoh’s attempt to destroy the firstborn of the Israelites. </p> <p> <strong> 3. [[Religious]] value </strong> . This is manifold. [[Considered]] from the point of view of natural phenomena, the narratives teach the all-important truth that God’s providential care of men is not confined to ‘miracles’ in the commonly accepted sense of the term, else were God’s providential actions unknown to-day. The lifting of Moses’ staff to bring the plagues, and his successive entreaties for their removal, teach that prayer is not out of place or unavailing in cases where natural laws can be co-ordinated and guided by God to bring about the wished-for result. And from whatever point of view the plagues are regarded, the same great facts shine through the narratives that J″ [Note: Jahweh.] is supreme in power over the world which He made; that He has an absolute right, if He so wills, to punish Pharaoh in order to show forth in him His power; that He does so, however, only because Pharaoh is impenitent, and consequently ‘fitted for destruction,’ for J″ [Note: Jahweh.] is a God who hates sin; that if a man hardens his heart, the result will be as inevitable as results in the natural world so inevitable that it may truly be said that J″ [Note: Jahweh.] hardens his heart; that the sin of Pharaoh, and so of any other man, may entail sufferings upon many innocent men and animals; and finally, that J″ [Note: Jahweh.] is mindful of His own, and delivers them from the ‘noisome pestilence,’ ‘the pestilence that walketh in darkness,’ and ‘the destruction that wasteth at noonday,’ so that ‘no plague can come nigh their dwelling’ (&nbsp; Psalms 91:1-16 ). </p> <p> A. H. M‘Neile. </p>

<p> These were wrought by God to show to Pharaoh and to the Egyptians His great power, and that all the elements of creation were at His disposal. &nbsp;Exodus 7 — &nbsp; Exodus 12 . </p> <p> 1. THE [[Plague Of Blood]]  The water of the Nile and of the canals and pools was turned into blood. The water stank, and the fish died. This was a real punishment; for it was the water they all drank, and which was highly esteemed. The fish too was abundant: the Israelites in the wilderness could not forget the fish of which they had eaten <i> freely, </i> or 'for nothing.' The magicians also were able to turn water into blood: where then was the great power of the God of Israel? Pharaoh hardened his heart. </p> <p> 2. FROGS. The land swarmed with them: they were in their bedchambers, their ovens, and their bread pans. The magicians also were able to bring up frogs on the land. The presence of the frogs was so insufferable that Pharaoh called for Moses, and begged him to entreat [[Jehovah]] for their removal, and he would let the people go. The frogs died and were gathered in heaps; but with the relief, Pharaoh hardened his heart, and would not let the people go. </p> <p> 3. LICE, <i> ken, kinnam. </i> The dust of the land became lice in man and in beast. It has been supposed that the word signifies <i> gnats, </i> because the LXX has σκνίφες, which some translate 'mosquito-gnats.' But these may be included in the next plague. It is more probable that the louse or the tick is alluded to. It is described as being ' <i> in </i> man and <i> in </i> beast.' The magicians could not imitate this: it was a communication of <i> life. </i> They acknowledged, "This is the finger of God." Yet Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he would not let Israel go. </p> <p> 4. [[Flies]] In the A.V. the words 'of flies' are added, and the 'swarms' may refer to swarms of insects of different sorts. They were to come into the houses and also to corrupt the land. [[Gesenius]] gives 'gad-fly' for <i> arob </i> , but in &nbsp;Psalm 78:45; &nbsp;Psalm 105:31 , the same word is translated 'divers sorts of flies.' There is an insect that is exceedingly destructive to property, ruining the wood of a house in a short time. No doubt the common fly of Egypt is included: they are very troublesome; soon defiling food, and persistently attacking the body. One thing that characterises this plague is that these pests were not sent into the land of Goshen, where the Israelites dwelt. The plague was felt so much that Pharaoh hastened to call Moses, and proposed that they should have their sacrifice, but <i> have it in Egypt. </i> To this Moses could not accede, for the Israelites would have to sacrifice the animals which the Egyptians worshipped. Pharaoh at length consented to their going; but they were not to go very far away. However no sooner was the plague removed than Pharaoh again refused to let Israel go. </p> <p> 5. [[Murrain Of Beasts]] It fell upon the cattle, horses, asses, camels, and sheep, that were in the fields, and all that were attacked died. Of the cattle of the children of Israel none were stricken. Pharaoh sent to certify this, and one would have thought that, finding they were all safe, it would have convinced him that it was the [[Almighty]] he was fighting against. But he would not let Israel go. </p> <p> 6. [[Boils]] upon man and beast. The magicians were now smitten, so that they could not stand before Pharaoh as at other times. But Pharaoh hardened his heart, and refused to let the people go. </p> <p> 7. HAIL, with thunder and lightning. The fire ran along upon the ground. There had not been a storm of such violence since Egypt had been a nation. This also had not fallen upon Goshen. The king said, "I have sinned this time: Jehovah is righteous, and I and my people are wicked. [[Entreat]] Jehovah (for it is enough) that there be no more mighty thunderings and hail; and I will let you go, and ye shall stay no longer." The hail and thunder ceased; but Pharaoh would not let Israel go. </p> <p> 8. [[Locusts]] Moses threatened these, and Pharaoh's servants now begged him to let the people go. He called for Moses and Aaron, and said, "Go, serve the Lord your God: but who are they that shall go?" <i> All </i> must go, and the flocks and herds. Pharaoh again refused, but said the men might go. The devastation of the locusts was such that Pharaoh sent for Moses and Aaron 'in haste,' confessed that he had sinned against Jehovah, and begged that 'this death' might be removed. A west wind carried away the locusts but Pharaoh's heart was hardened; and he again refused. </p> <p> 9. [[Darkness]] "They saw not one another, neither rose any from his place for three days: but all the children of Israel had light in their dwellings." It was a darkness that might be felt, and Pharaoh called for Moses, and bade the Israelites to depart with their wives and their little ones; but they must leave their flocks and herds behind. Moses could not agree: all must go: <i> not a hoof must be left behind, </i> it was God's redemption. Pharaoh was angry, saying, "Take heed to thyself, see my face no more: for in that day thou seest my face thou shalt die." Moses replied, "Thou hast spoken well, I will see thy face again no more." This is in &nbsp;Exodus 10:29; but in &nbsp;Exodus 11:4-8 it is clear that Moses told Pharaoh of the death of the firstborn, which might have been on the same occasion by a message direct from God. We read that Moses, though the meekest of men, went out from Pharaoh in great anger. </p> <p> 10. [[Death Of The Firstborn]] "From the firstborn of Pharaoh that sat on his throne, unto the firstborn of the captive that was in the dungeon; and all the firstborn of cattle." The Israelites had prepared the paschal lamb, and had sprinkled its blood upon the lintel and door-posts, and the destroyer passed them by. This was typical of the precious blood of Christ, which is the testimony that judgement on man has been executed, and is the basis of all God's subsequent dealings in grace. Moses and Aaron were called for, and told to depart with flocks and herds. The Egyptians were urgent upon them to make haste, exclaiming, "We be all dead men." Thus did God bring His sore judgements upon Egypt, to let Pharaoh know that He was the mighty God, and to redeem His chosen people with a high hand. </p>

<p> ''''' plāgz ''''' ( נפלאת , <i> ''''' niphle'ōth ''''' </i> , "wonders "from פּלא , <i> ''''' pālā' ''''' </i> , "to be separate," i.e. in a class by themselves; also called נגף , <i> ''''' negheph ''''' </i> , "plague," from נגף , <i> ''''' nāghaph ''''' </i> , "to smite" (&nbsp; Exodus 9:14 ), and נגע , <i> ''''' negha‛ ''''' </i> , "a stroke," from נגע , <i> ''''' nāgha‛ ''''' </i> , "to touch" (&nbsp;Exodus 11:1; compare &nbsp;Joshua 24:10 )): </p> <p> Introduction </p> <p> I. Natural Phenomena </p> <p> 1. [[Water]] [[Turned]] to [[Blood]] </p> <p> 2. The Plague of Frogs </p> <p> 3. The Plague of Lice </p> <p> 4. The Plague of Flies </p> <p> 5. The Plague of Murrain </p> <p> 6. The Plague of Boils </p> <p> 7. The Plague of Hail </p> <p> 8. The Plague of Locusts </p> <p> 9. The Plague of Darkness </p> <p> 10. Death of the [[Firstborn]] </p> <p> II. Miraculous Use Of The Phenomena </p> <p> 1. Intensification </p> <p> 2. [[Prediction]] </p> <p> 3. Discrimination </p> <p> 4. Orderliness and [[Increasing]] [[Severity]] </p> <p> 5. Arrangement to [[Accomplish]] Divine [[Moral]] Purpose </p> <p> III. Divine Moral Purpose </p> <p> 1. Discrediting of the gods of Egypt </p> <p> 2. Pharaoh Made to Know that [[Yahweh]] Is Lord </p> <p> 3. Revelation of God as [[Saviour]] </p> <p> 4. Exhibition of the Divine Use of Evil </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> Introduction: <p> The Hebrew words are so used as to give the name "plagues" to all the "wonders" God did against Pharaoh. Thus, it appears that the language in the account in Exodus puts forward the wondrous character of these dealings of Yahweh with Pharaoh. The account of the plagues is found in &nbsp;Exodus 7:8 through 12:31; &nbsp; Psalm 78:42-51; &nbsp;Psalm 105:27-36 . These poetical accounts of the plagues have a devotional purpose and do not give a full historical narrative. Ps 78 omits plagues 4, 6, 9; Ps 105 omits plagues 5 and 6. Both psalms change the order of the plagues. Account of the preparation which led up to the plagues is found in the narrative of the burning bush (see [[Burning Bush]] ), the meeting of Aaron with Moses, the gathering together of the elders of Israel for instruction and the preliminary wonders before Pharaoh (Ex 3; 4). This preparation contemplated two things important to be kept in view in considering the plague, namely, that the consummation of plagues was contemplated from the beginning (&nbsp;Exodus 4:22 , &nbsp;Exodus 4:23 ), and that the skepticism of Israel concerning Moses authority and power was likewise anticipated (&nbsp;Exodus 4:1 ). It was thus manifestly not an age of miracles when the Israelites were expecting such "wonders" and ready to receive anything marvelous as a divine interposition. This skepticism of Israel is a valuable asset for the credibility of the account of the "wonders." The immediate occasion of the plagues was the refusal of Pharaoh to let the people have liberty for sacrifice, together with the consequent hardening of Pharaoh's heart. No indication of any localizing of the plagues is given except in &nbsp;Psalm 78:12 , &nbsp;Psalm 78:43 , where the "field of Zoan" is mentioned as the scene of the contest between Yahweh and the Egyptians. But this is poetry, and the "field of Zoan" means simply the territory of the great capital Zoan. This expression might be localized in the Delta or it might extend to the whole of Egypt. Discussion of the plagues has brought out various classifications of them, some of which are philosophical, as that of Philo, others fanciful, as that of Origen. Arrangements of the order of the plagues for the purpose of moralizing are entirely useless for historical consideration of the plagues. The only order of any real value is the order of Nature, i.e. the order in which the plagues occurred, which will be found to be the order of the natural phenomena which were the embodiment of the plagues. </p> <p> Much elaborate effort has been made to derive from the description of the plagues evidence for different documents in the narrative. It is pointed out that Moses (E) declared to Pharaoh that he would smite the waters (&nbsp;Exodus 7:17 ), and then the account, as it proceeds, tells us that Aaron smote the waters (&nbsp;Exodus 7:19 , &nbsp;Exodus 7:20 ). But this is quite in accord with the preceding statement (&nbsp;Exodus 4:16 ) that Aaron was to be the spokesman. Moses was to deal with God, Aaron with Pharaoh. Again it is noticed that some of the plagues are ascribed to the immediate agency of Yahweh, some are represented as coming through the mediation of Moses, and still others through the mediation of Moses and Aaron. [[Certainly]] this may be an exact statement of facts, and, if the facts were just so, the record of the facts affords no evidence of different documents. </p> <p> An examination of the account of the plagues as it stands will bring them before us in a most graphic and connected story. </p> I. The Natural Phenomena. <p> All the "wonders" represented anywhere in Scripture as done by the power of God are intimately associated with natural phenomena, and necessarily so. Human beings have no other way of perceiving external events than through those senses which only deal with natural phenomena. Accordingly, all theophanies and miraculous doings are embodied in natural events. </p> <p> The presence of Yahweh with the sacrifice by [[Abraham]] was manifested by the passing of a "smoking furnace and a burning lamp" between the pieces of the offerings (&nbsp;Genesis 15:17 the King James Version). The majesty and power of God at [[Sinai]] were manifested in the "cloud" and the "brightness," the "voice" and the "sound of a trumpet" (&nbsp; Hebrews 12:19 ). The Holy Spirit descended "as a dove" (&nbsp;Matthew 3:16 ). The [[Deity]] of Jesus was attested on the mountain by a "voice" (&nbsp;Matthew 17:5 ). Jesus Himself was "God ... manifest in the flesh" (&nbsp;1 Timothy 3:16 the King James Version). He was "found in fashion as a man' (&nbsp; Philippians 2:8 ). And all the miracles of Jesus were coupled with sensible phenomena: He spoke to the sea and it was calm; He touched the leper and he was clean; He called to [[Lazarus]] and he came forth. </p> <p> Yet in all these natural events, the miraculous working of God was as clearly seen as the natural phenomena. It is thus to be expected that the "wonders" of God in the land of Pharaoh should also be associated with natural events as well as manifest miraculous elements. The "blood" in the river, the "frogs" hopping about on the land, the "lice," the "flies," the "murrain," the "boils," the "hail," the "locusts," the "darkness," and the "pestilence" are all named as natural phenomena. Long familiarity with the land of Egypt has made it perfectly plain to many intelligent people, also, that nearly, if not quite, all the plagues of Egypt are still in that land as natural phenomena, and occur, when they do occur, very exactly in the order in which we find them recorded in the narrative in Exodus. But natural events in the plagues as in other "wonders" of God embodied miraculous doings. </p> <p> <b> 1. Water Turned to Blood: </b> </p> <p> The first of the plagues ( דּם , <i> ''''' dām ''''' </i> , from אדם , <i> ''''' 'ādham ''''' </i> , "to be red" (&nbsp; Exodus 7:19-25 )) was brought about by the smiting of the water with the rod in the hand of Aaron, and it consisted in the defilement of the water so that it became as "blood." The waters were polluted and the fish died. Even the water in vessels which had been taken from the river became corrupt. The people were forced to get water only from wells in which the river water was filtered through the sand. There are two Egyptian seasons when, at times, the water resembles blood. At the full Nile the water is sometimes of a reddish color, but at that season the water is quite potable and the fish do not die. But a similar phenomenon is witnessed sometimes at the time of the lowest Nile just before the rise begins. Then also the water sometimes becomes defiled and very red, so polluted that the fish die ( <i> Bib </i> . <i> [[Sacra]] </i> , 1905, 409). This latter time is evidently the time of the first plague. It would be some time in the month of May. The dreadful severity of the plague constituted the "wonder" in this first plague. The startling character of the plague is apparent when it is remembered that Egypt is the product of the Nile, the very soil being all brought down by it, and its irrigation being constantly dependent upon it. Because of this it became one of the earliest and greatest of the gods (Breasted, <i> Development of [[Religion]] and [[Thought]] in Egypt </i> , 3-47; "Hymn to the Nile," <i> [[Records]] of the Past </i> , New Series, III, 46-54). The magicians imitated this plague with their enchantments. Their success may have been by means of sleight of hand or other devices of magic, as may be seen in the East today, with claim of supernatural aid, and as used in western lands for entertainment, as mere cleverness. Or it may be, as has been suggested, that they counted upon the continuance of the plague for at least a time, and so took advantage of the materials the "wonder" had provided. </p> <p> <b> 2. The Plague of Frogs: </b> </p> <p> Frogs ( צפרדּעים , <i> ''''' cepharde‛ı̄m ''''' </i> , probably "marsh-leapers" (&nbsp; Exodus 8:1-15 )) are very abundant just after the high Nile when the waters begin to recede. Spawn in the mud is hatched by the sun, and the marshes are filled with myriads of these creatures. The frog was the hieroglyph for myriads. The frogs usually remain in the marshes, but in this case they came forth to the horror and disgust of the people. "Frogs in the houses, frogs in the beds, frogs baked with the food in the ovens, frogs in the kneading troughs worked up with the flour; frogs with their monotonous croak, frogs with their cold slimy skins, everywhere - from morning to night, from night to morning - frogs." The frog was also associated with Divinity, was the symbol of Heqt, a form of Hathor, and seems also at times to have been worshipped as divinity. This plague created such horror that thus early Pharaoh came to an agreement (&nbsp;Exodus 8:8-10 ). A time was set for the disappearance of the frogs that he might know that "there is none like unto Yahweh our God," but when the frogs were dead, Pharaoh hardened his heart (&nbsp;Exodus 8:15 ). In this plague "the magicians did in like manner with their enchantments" (&nbsp;Exodus 8:7 ). Frogs were plentiful, and it would not seem to be difficult to claim to have produced some of them. </p> <p> <b> 3. The Plague of Lice: </b> </p> <p> It is impossible to determine what particular troublesome insect pest of Egypt is meant by the 3plague, whether body-lice or mosquitoes or sandflies or ticks or fleas ( כּנּם , <i> ''''' kinnı̄m ''''' </i> , "gnats" (&nbsp; Exodus 8:16 )). Those who have experience of these pests in Egypt are quite ready to accept any of them as adequate for the plague. Lice seem rather to be ruled out, unless different kinds of lice were sent, as there is no one kind that torments both man and beast. All the other insect pests appear in incredible numbers out of the "dust" when the pools have dried up after the receding of the waters. The assertion that the account of this plague is not complete, because it is not recorded that Pharaoh asked its removal or that Moses secured it, is amazing. Perhaps Pharaoh did not, in fact, ask its removal. There seems also at this time some difficulty in Moses having access to Pharaoh after this plague (&nbsp;Exodus 8:20 ). Perhaps the plague was not removed at all. The Egyptians are disposed to think it was not! Certainly that season of the year spent in Egypt, not in a dahabiyeh on the Nile, but in a native village, will furnish very satisfying evidence that stinging and biting insects are a very real plague in Egypt yet. The magicians failed with their enchantments and acknowledged that divine power was at work, and seem to have acknowledged that Yahweh was supreme (&nbsp;Exodus 8:19 ), but Pharaoh would not heed them. </p> <p> <b> 4. The Plague of Flies: </b> </p> <p> As the seasons pass on, after the recession of the waters, the flies ( ערב , <i> ''''' ‛ārōbh ''''' </i> , "swarms," probably of flies (&nbsp; Exodus 8:20-32 )) become more and more numerous until they are almost a plague every year. The increased severity of this plague, and the providential interference to separate between Israel and the Egyptians, drove Pharaoh and his people to such desperation that Pharaoh gave a half-promise of liberty for Israel to sacrifice "in the land." This called out the statement that they would sacrifice the "abomination of the Egyptians." This may have referred to the sacrifice of sheep, which were always held in more or less detestation by Egyptians, or it may have had reference to the sacrifice of heifers, the cow being the animal sacred to the goddess Hathor. The new element of separation between the Israelites and the Egyptians introduced into this plague was another step toward establishing the claims of Yahweh to be the God of all the earth and to have taken Israel under His especial care. </p> <p> <b> 5. The Plague of Murrain: </b> </p> <p> In addition to the separation established between Israel and the Egyptians, a definite time is now set for the coming of the 5th plague. It is to be noticed also that diseases of cattle ( דּבר , <i> ''''' debher ''''' </i> , "destruction" (&nbsp; Exodus 9:1-7 )) and of men follow quickly after the plague of insects. This is in exact accord with the order of Nature as now thoroughly understood through the discovered relation of mosquitoes and flies to the spread of diseases. [[Rinderpest]] is still prevalent at times in Egypt, so that beef becomes very scarce in market and is sometimes almost impossible to obtain. It is a fact, also, that the prevalence eft cattle plague, the presence of boils among men (see 6, below) and the appearance of bubonic plague are found to be closely associated together and in this order. The mention of camels as affected by this plague is interesting. It is doubtful if any clear indication of the presence of the camel in Egypt so early as this has yet been found among the monuments of Egypt. There is in the [[Louvre]] museum one small antiquity which seems to me to be intended for the camel. But Professor Maspero does not agree that it is so. It would seem likely that the Hyksos, who were Bedouin princes, princes of the desert, would have introduced the beasts of the desert into Egypt. If they did so, that may have been sufficient reason that the Egyptians would not picture it, as the [[Hyksos]] and all that was theirs were hated in Egypt. </p> <p> <b> 6. The Plague of Boils: </b> </p> <p> In the plague of boils ( שׁחין , <i> ''''' sheḥı̄n ''''' </i> , and אבעבּעת , <i> ''''' 'ăbha‛bu‛ōth ''''' </i> , "boils" (&nbsp; Exodus 9:8-17 )) ashes were used, probably in the same way and to the same end as the clay was used in opening the eyes of the blind man (&nbsp;John 9:6 ), i.e. to attract attention and to fasten the mind of the observer upon what the Lord was doing. This plague in the order of its coming, immediately after the murrain, and in the description given of it and in the significant warning of the "pestilence" yet to come (&nbsp;Exodus 9:15 ), appears most likely to have been <i> pestis minor </i> , the milder form of bubonic plague. Virulent rinder-pest among cattle in the East is regarded as the precursor of plague among men and is believed to be of the same nature. It may well be, as has been thought by some, that the great aversion of the ancient Egyptians to the contamination of the soil by decaying animals was from the danger thereby of starting an epidemic of plague among men (Dr. Merrins, <i> Biblical Sacra </i> , 1908, 422-23). </p> <p> <b> 7. The Plague of Hail: </b> </p> <p> Hail ( בּרד , <i> ''''' bārādh ''''' </i> , "hail" (&nbsp; Exodus 9:18-35 )) is rare in Egypt, but is not unknown. The writer has himself seen a very little, and has known of one instance when a considerable quantity of hail as large as small marbles fell. Lightning, also, is not as frequent in Egypt as in many semi-tropical countries, yet great electric storms sometimes occur. This plague is quite accurately dated in the seasons of the year (&nbsp;Exodus 9:31 , &nbsp;Exodus 9:32 ). As the first plague was just before the rising of the Nile, so this one is evidently about 9 months later, when the new crops after the inundation were beginning to mature, January-February. This plague also marks another great step forward in the revelation of Yahweh to Israel and to the Egyptians. First only His power was shown, then His wisdom in the timing of the plagues, and now His mercy appears in the warning to all godly-disposed Egyptians to save themselves, their herds and their servants by keeping all indoors (&nbsp;Exodus 9:19-21 ). Pharaoh also now distinctly acknowledged Yahweh (&nbsp;Exodus 9:27 ). </p> <p> <b> 8. The Plague of Locusts: </b> </p> <p> The plague of locusts ( ארבּה , <i> ''''' 'arbeh ''''' </i> , "locust" (&nbsp; Exodus 10:1-20 )) was threatened, and so frightened were the servants of Pharaoh that they persuaded him to try to make some agreement with Moses, but the attempt of Pharaoh still to limit in some way the going of Israel thwarted the plan (&nbsp;Exodus 10:7-10 ). Then devouring swarms of locusts came up over the land from the eastern desert between the Nile and the Red Sea. They devoured every green thing left by the hail. The desperate situation created by the locusts soon brought Pharaoh again to acknowledgment of Yahweh (&nbsp;Exodus 10:16 ). This was the greatest profession of repentance yet manifested by Pharaoh, but he soon showed that it was deceitful, and again he would not let the people go. When the wind had swept the locusts away, he hardened his heart once more. </p> <p> <b> 9. The Plague of Darkness: </b> </p> <p> The progress of the seasons has been quite marked from the first plague, just before the rising of the waters, on through the year until now the khamsin period ( חשׁך , <i> ''''' ḥōshekh ''''' </i> , "darkness" from any cause (&nbsp; Exodus 10:21-29 )) has come. When this dreadful scourge comes with its hot sand-laden breath, more impenetrable than a London fog, it is in very truth a "darkness which may be felt." The dreadful horror of this monster from the desert can hardly be exaggerated. Once again Pharaoh said "Go," but this time he wished to retain the flocks and herds, a hostage for the return of the people (&nbsp;Exodus 10:24 ). Upon Moses' refusal to accept this condition, he threatened his life. Why had he not done so ere this? Why, indeed, did he let this man Moses come and go with such freedom, defying him and his people in the very palace? Probably Moses' former career in Egypt explains this. If, as is most probable, he had grown up at court with this Merenptah, and had been known as "the son of Pharaoh's daughter," heir to the throne and successor to [[Rameses]] II, instead of Merenptah, then this refugee had undoubtedly many friends still in Egypt who would make his death a danger to the reigning Pharaoh. </p> <p> <b> 10. Death of the Firstborn: </b> </p> <p> No intimation is given of the exact character of the death inflicted on the firstborn ( בּכור , <i> ''''' bekhōr ''''' </i> , "firstborn," "chief" or "best"; compare &nbsp; Job 18:13; &nbsp;Isaiah 14:30 (Ex 11 through 12:36)) by the angel of the Lord, or its appearance. But it is already foretold as the "pestilence" (&nbsp; Exodus 9:15 ). The <i> pestis major </i> or virulent bubonic plague corresponds most nearly in its natural phenomena to this plague. It culminates in a sudden and overwhelming virulence, takes the strongest and best, and then subsides with startling suddenness. </p> <p> Thus, it appears that probably all the plagues were based upon natural phenomena which still exist in Egypt in the same order, and, when they do occur, find place somewhere during the course of one year. </p> II. Miraculous Use of the Phenomena. <p> The miraculous elements in the plagues are no less distinctly manifest than the natural phenomena themselves. </p> <p> <b> 1. Intensification: </b> </p> <p> There was an intensification of the effect of the various plagues so much beyond all precedent as to impress everyone as being a special divine manifestation, and it was so. There was national horror of the blood-like water, disgust at the frogs, intolerable torture by the stinging insects and flies, utter ruin of the farmers in the loss of the cattle, the beating down of the crops by the hail, and the devouring of every green thing by the locusts, the sufferings and dread of the inhabitants by reason of the boils, the frightful electric storm, the suffocating darkness and, finally, the crushing disaster of the death of the firstborn. All these calamities may be found in Egypt to the present day, but never any of them, not to say all of them, in such overwhelming severity. That all of them should come in one year and all with such devastation was plainly a divine arrangement. Merely natural events do not arrange themselves so systematically. In this systematic severity were seen <i> miracles of power </i> . </p> <p> <b> 2. Prediction: </b> </p> <p> The prediction of the plagues and the fulfillment of the prediction at the exact time to a day, sometimes to an hour (as the cessation of the thunder and lightning): There was first a general prediction (&nbsp;Exodus 3:19 , &nbsp;Exodus 3:20; &nbsp;Exodus 7:3; &nbsp;Exodus 9:14 , &nbsp;Exodus 9:15 ) and an indication as the plagues went on that the climax would be pestilence (&nbsp;Exodus 9:15 ). Then several of the plagues were specifically announced and a time was set for them; e.g. the flies (&nbsp;Exodus 8:23 ), the murrain (&nbsp;Exodus 9:5 ), the hail (&nbsp;Exodus 9:18 ), the locusts (&nbsp;Exodus 10:4 ), the death of the firstborn (&nbsp;Exodus 11:4 ). In some cases a time for the removal of the plague was also specified: e.g. the frogs (&nbsp;Exodus 8:10 ), the thunder and lightning (&nbsp;Exodus 9:29 ). In every instance these predictions were exactly fulfilled. In some instances careful foresight might seem to supply in part this ability to predict. Perhaps it was by means of such foresight that the magicians "did so with their enchantments" for the first two plagues. The plague being in existence, foresight might safely predict that it would continue for a little time at least, so that, if the magicians sought for bloody water or called for frogs, they would seem to be successful. But the evidence which Yahweh produced went beyond them, and, at the third plague, they were unable to do anything. These things postulate, on the part of Moses and Aaron, knowledge far beyond human ken. Not only magicians could not do so with their enchantments, but modern science and discoveries are no more able so to predict events. Even meteorological phenomena are only predicted within the limits of reasonable foresight. Such wonders as the plagues of Egypt can in no wise be explained as merely natural. The prediction was a <i> miracle of knowledge </i> . </p> <p> <b> 3. Discrimination: </b> </p> <p> The discrimination shown in the visitation by the plagues presents another miraculous element more significant and important than either the miracles of power or the miracles of knowledge. God put a difference between the Egyptians and the Israelites, beginning with the plague of flies and continuing, apparently, without exception, until the end. Such <i> miracles of moral purpose </i> admit of no possible explanation but the exercise of a holy will. Merely natural events make no such regular, systematic discriminations. </p> <p> <b> 4. Orderliness and Increasing Severity: </b> </p> <p> The orderliness and gradually increasing severity of the plagues with such arrangement as brought "judgment upon the gods of Egypt," vindicating Yahweh as Ruler over all, and educating the people to know Yahweh as Lord of all the earth, present an aspect of events distinctly non-natural. Such method reveals also a divine mind at work. </p> <p> <b> 5. Arrangement to Accomplish Divine Moral Purpose: </b> </p> <p> Last of all and most important of all, the plagues were so arranged as to accomplish in particular a great divine moral purpose in the revelation of God to the Israelites, to the Egyptians and to all the world. This is the distinctive mark of every real miracle. And this leads us directly to the consideration of the most important aspect of the plagues. </p> III. Divine Moral Purpose. <p> <b> 1. Discrediting of the Gods of Egypt: </b> </p> <p> This discrediting of the gods of Egypt is marked at every step of the progress of the plagues, and the accumulated effect of the repeated discrediting of the gods must have had, and, indeed, had, a great influence upon the Egyptians. The plagues did 'execute judgment against the gods of Egypt' (&nbsp;Exodus 12:12 ), and the people and princes brought great pressure to bear upon Pharaoh to let the people go (&nbsp;Exodus 10:7 ). The magicians who claimed to represent the gods of Egypt were defeated, Pharaoh himself, who was accounted divine, was humbled, the great god, the Nile, was polluted, frogs defiled the temples and, at last, the sun, the greatest god of Egypt, was blotted out in darkness. </p> <p> <b> 2. Pharaoh Made to Know That Yahweh Is Lord: </b> </p> <p> Pharaoh was made to know that Yahweh is Lord, and acknowledged it (&nbsp;Exodus 9:27; &nbsp;Exodus 10:16 ). To this end the issue was clearly drawn. Pharaoh challenged the right of Yahweh to command him (&nbsp;Exodus 5:2 ), and God required him then to "stand" to the trial until the evidence could be fully presented, in accordance with the fundamental principle that he who makes a charge is bound to stand to it until either he acknowledges its utter falsity or affords opportunity for full presentation of evidence. So we see God made Pharaoh to "stand" (&nbsp;Exodus 9:16 ) (while the Bible, which speaks in the concrete language of life, calls it the hardening of Pharaoh's heart) until the case was tried out (compare Lamb, <i> [[Miracle]] of Science </i> , 126-49). </p> <p> <b> 3. Revelation of God as Saviour: </b> </p> <p> A more blessed and gracious moral purpose of the plagues was the revelation of God as the Saviour of the world. This began in the revelation at the burning bush, where God, in fire, appeared in the bush, yet the bush was not consumed, but saved. This revelation, thus given to the people, was further evidenced by the separation between Israel and the Egyptians; was made known even to the Egyptians by the warning before the plague of hail, that those Egyptians who had been impressed with the power of God might also learn that He is a God that will save those who give heed unto Him; and, at last, reached its startling climax when the angel of the Lord passed over the blood-marked door the night of the death of the firstborn and the institution of the Passover. </p> <p> <b> 4. Exhibition of the Divine Use of Evil: </b> </p> <p> Last of all, the plagues had a great moral purpose in that they embodied the divine use of evil in the experience of men in this world. As the experience of Job illustrates the use of evil in the life of the righteous, so the plagues of Egypt illustrate the same great problem of evil in the lot of the wicked. In the one case, as in the other, the wonders of God are so arranged as "to justify the ways of God to men." </p> <p> The minutely accurate knowledge of life in Egypt displayed by this narrative in the Book of Exodus is inconceivable in an age of so little and difficult intercommunication between nations, except by actual residence of the author in Egypt. This has an important bearing upon the time of the composition of this narrative, and so upon the question of its author. </p> Literature. <p> The literature of this subject is almost endless. It will suffice to refer the reader to all the general comms., and the special commentaries on Ex, for discussion of doctrinal and critical questions. Two admirable recent discussions of the plagues, in English, are Lamb, <i> Miracle of Science </i> , and Merrins, "The Plagues of Egypt," in <i> Bibliotheca Sacra </i> , 1908, July and October. </p>