Difference between revisions of "Palestine"

<p> '''Pal'estine.''' ''(Land Of Strangers).'' These two forms, [ '''Palesti'na''' and '''Pal'estine''' ], occur in the Authorized Version, but four times in all, always in poetical passages; the first in &nbsp;Exodus 15:14 and &nbsp;Isaiah 14:29, the second in &nbsp;Joel 3:4. In each case, the Hebrew is '''Pelesheth''' , a word found, besides the above, only in &nbsp;Psalms 60:8; &nbsp;Psalms 83:7; &nbsp;Psalms 87:4 and &nbsp;Psalms 108:9. In all of which, our translators have rendered as "Philistia" or "Philistines." Palestine, in the Authorized Version, really means nothing, but Philistia. The original Hebrew word, '''Pelesheth''' , to the Hebrews signified merely the long and broad strip of maritime plain inhabited by their encroaching neighbors; nor does it appear that, at first, it signified more to the Greeks. </p> <p> As lying next the sea, and as being also the high road from Egypt to [[Phoenicia]] and the richer regions, take note of it, but the Philistine plain became sooner known to the western world than the country farther inland, and was called by them, '''Syria Palestina''' (Philistine Syria). From thence, it was gradually extended to the country farther inland, till in the Roman and later Greek authors, both heathen sad Christian, it became the usual appellation for the whole country of the Jews, both west and east of Jordan. The word is now so commonly employed, in our more familiar language, to destinate the whole country of Israel that, although biblically a misnomer, it has been chosen here as the most convenient heading under which to give a general description of '''The Holy Land''' , embracing those points which have not been treated under the separate headings of cities or tribes. </p> <p> This description will most conveniently divide itself Into three sections: - ''I. '' '''The Names''' applied to the country of Israel in the Bible and elsewhere. ''Ii. '' '''The Land''' ; its situation, aspect, climb, physical characteristics in connection with its history, its structure, botany and natural history. ''Iii. '' '''The History''' of the country is so fully given, under its various headings throughout the work, that it is unnecessary to recapitulate it here. </p> <p> ''I. '' '''The Names''' ''.'' - [[Palestine]] , then, is designated in the Bible by more than one name. During the patriarchal period, the conquest and the age of the Judges, and also where those early periods are referred to in the later literature (as in) &nbsp;Psalms 105:11, it is spoken of as ''"Canaan",'' or more frequently, ''"The Land Of Canaan",'' meaning thereby, ''The [[Country]] West Of The Jordan'' , as opposed to ''"The Land Of Gilead",'' on the east. </p> <p> During the monarchy, the name usually, though not frequently, employed is ''"The Land Of Israel".'' &nbsp;1 Samuel 13:19. </p> <p> Between the captivity and the time of our Lord, the name ''"Judea"'' had extended itself, from the southern portion, to the whole of the country, and even that beyond the Jordan. &nbsp;Matthew 19:1; &nbsp;Mark 10:1. </p> <p> The Roman division of the country hardly coincided with the biblical one, and it does not appear that the Romans had any distinct name for that which we understand by Palestine. </p> <p> Soon after the Christian era, we find the name ''"Palestina"'' in possession of the country. </p> <p> The name most frequently used throughout the middle ages, and down to our own time, is '''Terra Sancta''' - '''The Holy Land.''' </p> <p> ''Ii. '' '''The Land''' ''.'' - The Holy Land is not, in size or physical characteristics, proportioned to its moral and historical position as the theatre of the most momentous events in the world's history. It is but a strip of country about the size of Wales, less than 140 miles in length and barely 40 miles in average breadth, on the very frontier of the East, hemmed in between the Mediterranean Sea, on the one hand, and the enormous trench of the Jordan valley, on the other, by which it is effectually cut off from the mainland of Asia behind it. On the north, it is shut in by the high ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and by the chasm of the Litany. On the south, it is no less enclosed by the arid and inhospitable deserts of the upper pert of the peninsula of Sinai. </p> <p> '''Its position.''' - Its position on the map of the world - as the world was when the Holy Land first made its appearance in history - is a remarkable one. </p> <p> (a) It was on the very outpost - and the extremist western edge of the East. On the shore of the Mediterranean it stands, as if it had advanced as far as possible toward the west, separated therefrom by that which, when the time arrived, proved to be no barrier, but the readiest medium of communication: the wide waters of the "great sea." Thus, it was open to all the gradual influences of the rising communities of the West, while it was saved from the retrogression and decrepitude, which have ultimately been the doom of all purely eastern states whose connections were limited to the East only. </p> <p> (b) There was, however, one channel, and but one, by which it could reach and be reached by the great Oriental empires. The rivals road by which the two great rivals of the ancient world could approach one another - by which alone, Egypt could get to [[Assyria]] and Assyria to lay along the broad flat strip of coast which formed the maritime portion of the Holy Land, and thence, by the plain of the Lebanon to the Euphrates. </p> <p> (c) After this, the Holy Land became, (like the [[Netherlands]] in Europe), the convenient arena on which, in successive ages, the hostile powers who contended for the empire of the East fought their battles. </p> <p> '''Physical features.''' - Palestine is essentially a mountainous country. Not that if contains independent mountain chains, as in Greece, for example, but that every part of the highland is in greater or less undulation. But it is not only a mountainous country. The mass of hills which occupies the centre of the country is bordered or framed on both sides, east and west, by a broad belt of '''Shefelah''' , or lowland, sunk deep below its own level. The slopes or cliffs, which form, as if it were, the retaining walls of this depression, are furrowed and cleft by the torrent beds, which discharge the waters of the hills, and form the means of communication between the upper and lower level. </p> <p> On the west, this '''Shefelah''' , or lowland, interposes between the mountains and the sea, and is the plain of Philistia and of Sharon. On the east, it is the broad bottom of the Jordan valley, deep down in which rushed the one river of Palestine to its grave in, the Dead Sea. Such is the first general impression of the physiognomy of the land. It is a physiognomy compounded of the three main features already named - the plains, the highland hills, and the torrent beds features, which are marked in the words of its earliest describers, &nbsp;Numbers 13:29; &nbsp;Joshua 11:16; &nbsp;Joshua 12:8, and which must be comprehended by every one who wishes to understand the countrym and the intimate connection existing between its structure and its history. </p> <p> About halfway up the coast, the maritime plain is suddenly interrupted by a long ridge thrown out from the central mass, rising considerably to shove up the general level, and terminating in a bold promontory on the very edge of the Mediterranean. This ridge is [[Mount Carmel]] . On its upper side, the plain, as if to compensate for its temporary displacement, invades the centre of the country, and forms an undulating hollow right across it from the Mediterranean to the Jordan valley. </p> <p> This central '''Shefelah''' , or lowland, which divides, with its broad depression, the mountains of Ephraim from the mountains of Galilee, is the plain of Esdraelon or Jezreel: the great battle-field of Palestine. North of Carmel, the '''Shefelah''' , or lowland resumes its position by the seaside till it is again interrupted, and finally put an end to, by the northern mountains, which push their way out of the sea, ending in the white promontory of the ''Ras Nakhura'' . </p> <p> Above this is the ancient Phoenicia. The country, thus roughly portrayed, is, to all intents and purposes, the whole land of israel. The northern portion is Galilee; the centre is Samaria; and the south is Judea. This is the land of Canaan, which was bestowed on Abraham, - the covenanted home of his descendants. </p> <p> The highland district, surrounded and intersected by its broad '''Shefelah''' , or lowland plains, preserves, from north to south, a remarkably even and horizontal profile. Its average height may betaken as 1600 to 1800 feet above the Mediterranean. It can hardly be denominated a plateau; yet, so evenly is the general level preserved and so thickly do the hills stand behind and between one another, that, when seen from the coast, or the western part of the maritime plain, it has quite the appearance of a wall. This general monotony of profile is however, relieved at intervals, by certain centers of elevation. </p> <p> Between these elevated points runs the watershed of the country, sending off on either hand - to the Jordan valley on the east, and the Mediterranean on the west - the long, tortuous arms of ifs many torrent beds. The valleys, on the two sides of the watershed, differ considerably in character. Those on the east are extremely steep and rugged, while the western valleys are more gradual in their slope. </p> <p> '''Fertility.''' - When the highlands of the country are more closely examined, a considerable difference will be found to exist in the natural condition and appearance of their different portions. The south, as being nearer the arid desert and farther removed from the drainage of the mountains, is drier and less productive than the north. The tract below Hebron, which forms the link between the hills of Judah and the desert, was known to the ancient Hebrews by a term originally derived from its dryness - [[Negeb]] . This was the south country. </p> <p> As the traveller advances north of this tract, there is an improvement; but perhaps no country equally cultivated is more monotonous, bare or uninviting in its aspect than a great part of the highlands of Judah and Benjamin, during the larger portion of the year. The spring covers even those bald gray rocks with verdure and color, and fills the ravines with torrents of rushing water; but in summer and autumn, the look of the country from Hebron up to Bethel is very dreary and desolate. At Jerusalem, this reaches its climax. </p> <p> To the west and northwest of the highlands, where the sea-breezes are felt, there is considerably more vegetation. Hitherto, we have spoken of the central and northern portions of Judea. Its eastern portion - a tract some nine or ten miles in width by about thirty-five miles in length, which intervenes between the centre and the abrupt descent to the Dead Sea - is far more wild and desolate, and that, not for a portion of the year only, but throughout it. This must have been always what it is now - an uninhabited desert, because uninhabitable. </p> <p> No descriptive sketch of this part of the country can be complete which does not allude to the caverns, characteristic of all limestone districts, but here, existing in astonishing numbers. Every hill and ravine is pierced with them, some very large and of curious formation - perhaps partly natural, partly artificial - others mere grottos. Many of them are connected with most important, and interesting events of the ancient history of the country. Especially is this true of the district now under consideration. Machpelah, Makkedah, [[Adullam]] En-gedi, names inseparably connected with the lives, adventures and deaths of Abraham, Joshua, David and other Old [[Testament]] worthies, are all within the small circle of the territory of Judea. </p> <p> The bareness and dryness which prevail more or less in Judea are owing partly to the absence of wood, partly to its proximity to the desert, and partly to a scarcity of water, arising from its distance from the Lebanon. But to this discouraging aspect, there are some important exceptions. The valley of ''Urtas'' , south of Bethlehem, contains springs which, in abundance and excellence, rival even those of ''Nablus'' . The huge "Pools of Solomon" are enough to supply a district for many miles round them; and the cultivation, now going on in that neighborhood, shows what might be done with a soil which required only irrigation, and a moderate amount of labor, to evoke a boundless produce. </p> <p> It is obvious that, in the ancient days of the nation, when Judah and Benjamin possessed the teeming population indicated in the Bible, the condition and aspect of the country must have been very different. Of this, there are, not wanting, sure evidences. There is no country in which the ruined towns bear so large a proportion to those still existing. [[Hardly]] a hill-top of the many within sight that is not covered with vestiges of some fortress or city. But, besides this, forests appear to have stood in many parts of Judea until the repeated invasions and sieges caused their fall; and all this vegetation must have reacted on the moisture of the climate, and, by preserving the water in many a ravine and natural reservoir where now it is rapidly dried by the fierce sun of the early summer, must have influenced, materially , the look and the resources of the country. </p> <p> Advancing northward from Judea, the country, ([[Samaria]] ), becomes gradually more open and pleasant. [[Plains]] of good soil occur between the hills, at first, small, but afterward, comparatively large. The hills assume here a more varied aspect than in the southern districts, springs are more abundant and more permanent until at last, when the district of ''Jebel Nablus'' is reached - the ancient [[Mount Ephraim]] - the traveller encounters an atmosphere and an amount of vegetation and water which are greatly superior to anything he has met with in Judea, and even sufficient to recall much of the scenery of the West. </p> <p> Perhaps the springs are the only objects which in themselves, and apart from their associations, really strike an English traveller with astonishment and admiration. Such glorious fountains as those of ''Ain-Jalud'' or the ''Ras El-Mukatta'' - where a great body of the dearest water wells silently but swiftly out from deep blue recesses worn in the foot of a low cliff of limestone rock, and at once, forms a considerable stream - are rarely to be met with out of irregular, rocky, mountainous countries, and being such unusual sights can hardly be looked on by the traveler, without surprise and emotion. </p> <p> The valleys which lead down from the upper level in this district to the valley of the Jordan are less precipitous than in Judea. The eastern district of the ''Jebel Nablus'' contains some of the most fertile end valuable spots in the Holy Land. Hardly less rich is the extensive region which lies northwest of the city of Shechem ( ''Nablus'' ), between it and Carmel, in which the mountains gradually break down into the plain of Sharon. </p> <p> But with all its richness and all its advance on the southern part of the country, there is a strange dearth of natural wood about this central district. It is this which makes the wooded sides of [[Carmel]] and the park-like scenery of the adjacent slopes and plains so remarkable. No sooner, however, is the plain of Eadraelon passed than a considerable improvement is perceptible. The low hills which spread down from the mountains of Galilee, and form the barrier between the plains of Akka and Esdraelon, are covered with timber, of moderate size, it is true, but of thick, vigorous growth, and pleasant to the eye. [[Eastward]] of these hills, rises the round mass of Tabor dark with its copses of oak, and set on, by contrast, with the bare slopes of ''Jebel Ed-Duhy'' , (the so called "Little Hermon") and the white hills of Nazareth. </p> <p> A few words must be said in general description of the '''Shefelah''' , or maritime lowland, which intervenes between the sea and the highlands. This region, only slightly elevated above the level of the Mediterranean, extends without interruption from ''El-Arish'' , south of Gaza, to Mount Carmel. It naturally divides itself into two portions, each of about half its length; the lower one, the wider, and the upper one, the narrower. The lower half is the plain of the Philistines-Philistia, or, as the Hebrews called it, the '''Shefelah''' , or Lowland. The upper half is the [[Sharon]] , or Saron, of the Old and New Testaments. </p> <p> The Philistine plain is on an average 15 or 16 miles in width, from the coast to the beginning of the belt of hills, which forms the gradual approach to the high land of the mountains of Judah. The larger towns, as Gaza and Ashdod, which stand near the shore, are surrounded with huge groves of olive, and sycamore, as in the days King David. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 27:28. </p> <p> The whole plain appears to consist of brown, loamy soil, light, but rich, and almost without a stone. It is now, as it was when the Philistines possessed it, one enormous cornfield; an ocean of wheat covers the wide expense between the hills and the sand dunes of the seashore, without interruption of any kind - no break or hedge, hardly even a single olive tree. Its fertility is marvellous; for the prodigious crops which if raises are produced, and probably have been produced. Almost year by year. For the last forty centuries, without any of the appliances which we find necessary for success. </p> <p> The plain of Sharon is much narrower than the plain of the Philistines-Philistia. It is about 10 miles wide from the sea to the foot of the mountains, which are, here, of a more abrupt character than those of Philistia, and without the intermediate hilly region there occurring. </p> <p> The one ancient port of the Jews, the "beautiful", city of Joppa, occupied a position central between the '''Shefelah''' and Sharon. [[Roads]] led from these various cities to each other to Jerusalem, [[Neapolis]] and Sebaste in the interior, and to [[Ptolemais]] and Gaza on the north and south. The commerce of Damascus, and beyond Damascus, of [[Persia]] and India, passed this way to Egypt, Rome and the infant colonies of the West; and that traffic and the constant movement of troops backward and forward must have made this plain, at the time of [[Christ]] , one of the busiest and most populous regions of Syria. </p> <p> '''The Jordan valley.''' - The chacteristics already described are hardly peculiar to Palestine, but there is one feature, as yet only alluded to, in which she stands alone. This feature is the Jordan - the one river of the country. The river is elsewhere described; ''See '' [[Jordan]] '','' but it and the valley through which it rushes down its extraordinary descent must be here briefly characterized. This valley begins with the river at its remotest springs of ''Hasbeiya'' , on the northwest side of Hermon, and accompanies it to the lower end of the Dead Sea, a length of about 150 miles. During the whole of this distance, its course is straight and its direction nearly due north and south. </p> <p> The springs of ''Hasbeiya'' are 1700 feet above the level of the Mediterranean and the northern end of the Dead Sea is 1317 feet below it, so that, between these two points, the valley falls with more or less regularity, through a height of more than 3000 feet. But though the river disappears at this point, the valley still continues its descent below the waters of the Dead Sea till it reaches a further depth of 1308 feet. So that the bottom of this extraordinary crevasse is actually more than 2600 feet below the surface of the ocean. </p> <p> In width, the valley varies. In its upper and shallower portion, as between Banias and the lake of Merom ([[Huleh]] ), it is about five miles across. Between the lake of Merom and the Sea or Galilee, it contracts, and becomes more of an ordinary ravine or glen. It is in its third and lower portion that the valley assumes its more definite and regular character. During the greater part of this portion, it is about seven miles wide from the one wall to the other. </p> <p> The eastern mountains preserve their straight line of direction, and their massive horizontal wall-like aspect, during almost the whole distance. The western mountains are more irregular in height, their slopes less vertical. North of Jericho, they recede in a kind of wide amphitheatre, and the valley becomes twelve miles broad - a breadth which it, thenceforward, retains to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. </p> <p> Buried, as it is, between such lofty ranges, and shielded from every breeze, the climate of the Jordan valley is extremely hot and relaxing. Its enervating influence is shown by the inhabitants of Jericho. All the irrigation necessary for the cultivation, which formerly existed, is obtained front the torrents of the western mountains. For all purposes to which a river ordinarily applied the Jordan is useless. The Dead Sea, which is the final receptacle of the Jordan, is described elsewhere. ''See '' '''Sea, The Salt''' ''.'' </p> <p> '''Climate.''' - "Probably there is no country in the world of the same extent which has a greater variety of climate than Palestine. On Mount Hermon, at its northern border, there is perpetual snow. From this, we descend successively by the peaks of [[Bashan]] and upper Galilee, where the oak and pine flourish, to the hills of Judah and Samaria, where the vine and fig tree are at home, to the plains of the seaboard, where the palm and banana produce their fruit, down to the sultry shores of the Sea, on which we find tropical heat and tropical vegetation." - McClintock and Strong. </p> <p> As, in the time of our Saviour, &nbsp;Luke 12:64, the rains come chiefly from the south or southwest. They commence at the end of October or beginning of November, and continue, with greater or less constancy, till the end of February or March. It is not a heavy, continuous rain, so much as a succession of severe showers or storms, with intervening periods of fine, bright weather. Between April and November, there is, with the rarest exceptions, an uninterrupted succession of fine weather and skies without a cloud. Thus, the year divides itself into two, and only two, seasons - as indeed we see it constantly divided in the Bible - "winter and summer;" "cold and heat;" "seed-time and harvest." </p> <p> '''Botany.''' - The botany of Syria and Palestine differs but little from that of Asia Minor, which is one of the most rich and varied on the globe. Among trees, the oak is by far the most prevalent. The trees of the genus '''Pistacia''' rank next to the oak in abundance, and of these there are three species in Syria. There is also the carob or locust tree ( '''Ceratonia siliqua''' ), the pine, sycamore, poplar and walnut. </p> <p> Of planted trees and large shrubs, the first in importance is the vine, which is most abundantly cultivated all over the country, and produces, as in the time of the Canaanites, enormous bunches of grapes. This is especially the case in the southern districts, those of Eshcol being still particularly famous. Next to the vine, or even in some respects, its superior in importance, ranks the olive, which nowhere grows in greater luxuriance and abundance than in Palestine, where the olive orchards form a prominent feature throughout the landscape, and have done so from time immemorial. The fig forms another most important crop in Syria and Palestine. </p> <p> (Besides these are the almond, pomegranate, orange, pear, banana, quince and mulberry among fruit trees. Of vegetables, there are many varieties, such as the egg plant, pumpkin, asparagus, lettuce, melon and cucumber. Palestine is especially distinguished for its wild flowers, of which there are more than five hundred varieties. The geranium, pink, poppy, narcissus, honeysuckle, oleander, jessamine, tulip and iris are abundant. The various grains are also very largely cultivated. - Editor). </p> <p> '''Zoology.''' - It will be sufficient, in this article, to give a general survey of the fauna of Palestine, as the reader will find more particular information in the several articles, which treat of the various animals, under their respective names. Jackals and foxes are common; the hyena and wolf are also occasionally observed; the lion is no longer a resident in Palestine or Syria. A species of squirrel of which the term '''orkidaun''' , ''"The Leaper",'' has been noticed on the lower and middle parts of Lebanon. Two kinds of hare, rats and mice, which are said to abound, the jerboa, the porcupine, the short-tailed field-mouse, may be considered as the representatives of the '''Rodentia''' . </p> <p> Of the [[Pachydermata]] , the wild boar, which is frequently met with on [[Taber]] and Little Hermon, appears to be the only living wild example. There does not appear to be at present any wild ox in Palestine. Of domestic animals, we need only mention the Arabian or one-humped camel, the ass, the mule and the horse, all of which are in general use. The buffalo ( '''Bubalus buffalo''' ) is common. The ox of the country is small and unsightly in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, but in the richer pastures, the cattle, though small, are not unsightly. The common sheep of Palestine is the broadtail, with its varieties. Goats are extremely common everywhere. </p> <p> Palestine abounds in numerous kinds of birds. Vultures, eagles, falcons, kites, owls of different kinds represent the '''Raptorial''' order. In the south of Palestine especially, reptiles of various kinds abound. It has been remarked that, in its physical character, Palestine presents on a small scale, an epitome of the natural features of all regions, mountainous and desert, northern and tropical, maritime and inland, pastoral, arable and volcanic. </p> <p> '''Antiquities.''' - In the preceding descriptions, allusion has been made to many of the characteristic features of the Holy Land; but it is impossible to close this account, without mentioning a defect which is even more characteristic - its lack of monuments and personal relics of the nation, which possessed it for so many centuries, and gave it its claim to our veneration and affection. When compared with other nations of equal antiquity - Egypt, Greece, Assyria - the contrast is truly remarkable. </p> <p> In Egypt and Greece, and also in Assyria, as far as our knowledge at present extends, we find a series of buildings reaching down from the most remote and mysterious antiquity, a chain of which hardly a link is wanting, and which records the progress of the people in civilization, art and religion, as certainly as the buildings of the medieval architects do that of the various nations of modern Europe. </p> <p> But in Palestine, it is not too much to say that, there does not exist a single edifice, or part of an edifice, of which we can be sure that it is of a date, anterior to the Christian era. And as with the buildings, so with other memorials. </p> <p> With one exception, the museums of Europe do not possess a single piece of pottery or metal work, a single weapon or household utensil, an ornament or a piece of armor of Israelite make, which can give us the least conception of the manners or outward appliances of the nation before the date of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. </p> <p> The coins form the single exception. M. Renan has named two circumstances, which must have had a great effect in suppressing art or architecture amongst the ancient Israelites, while their very existence proves that the people had no genius in that direction. These are </p> <p> (1) the prohibition of sculptured representations of living creatures, and </p> <p> (2) the command not to build a Temple anywhere, but at Jerusalem. </p>

<p> <strong> PALESTINE </strong> </p> <p> 1. [[Situation]] and name. The land of Palestine is the territory which lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian Desert as E. and W. boundaries, and whose N. and S. boundaries may be approximately stated at 31° and 33° 20’ N. Lat. respectively. These boundaries have not always been clearly fixed; but the convention is generally agreed upon that Palestine is separated from Egypt by the <em> [[Wady]] el-’Arîsh </em> or ‘River of Egypt,’ and from Syria by the <em> Kasmiyeh </em> or Lîtani River, the classical Leontes. Biblical writers fixed the limits of the territory by the towns Dan and Beersheba, which are constantly coupled when the author desires to express in a picturesque manner that a certain event affected the whole of the Israelite country ( <em> e.g </em> . &nbsp; Judges 20:1 ). The name ‘Palestine’ [AV [Note: Authorized Version.] in &nbsp; Joel 3:4; in &nbsp; Exodus 15:14 , &nbsp; Isaiah 14:29; &nbsp; Isaiah 14:31 Peter <strong> alestina; </strong> RV [Note: Revised Version.] <strong> Philistia </strong> ], being derived from that of the <em> Philistines </em> , properly belongs only to the strip of coast-land south of Carmel, which was the ancient territory of that people. There is no ancient geographical term covering the whole region now known as Palestine: the different provinces Canaan, Judah, Israel, Moab, Edom, etc. are enumerated separately when necessary. The extension of the word to include the entire Holy Land, both west and east of the Jordan, is subsequent to the introduction of Christianity. </p> <p> <strong> 2. [[Geology]] and geography </strong> . The greater part of the country is of a chalky limestone formation, which overlies a layer of red sandstone that appears on the E. shore of the Dead Sea and elsewhere. Under the red sandstone are the archæan granitic rocks which form a large part of the Sinai Peninsula. Above the chalk is a layer of nummulitic limestone, which appears on some mountains. Volcanic rock, the result of ancient eruptions, appears in the Hauran, Galilee (especially in the neighbourhood of Safed), and elsewhere. For fuller information on the geology of the country, see art. Geology. With respect to the surface, Palestine divides naturally into a series of narrow strips of country running from north to south, and differing materially from one another in character. ( <em> a </em> ) The first of these is the <em> Maritime Plain </em> running along the coast of the Mediterranean from the neighbourhood of Sidon and Tyre southward, and disappearing only at the promontory of Carmel. This plain widens southward from Carmel to a maximum breadth of about 20 miles, while to the north of that promontory it develops into the great plain of Esdraelon, which intersects the mountain region and affords the most easy passage into the heart of the country. This plain is covered with a most fertile alluvial soil. ( <em> b </em> ) The second strip is the mountainous ridge of Judæa and Samaria, on the summit of which are Hebron, Jerusalem, and other important towns and villages; and which, with the single interruption of the piain of Esdraelon, runs continuously from the south border of the country to join the system of the Lebanon. ( <em> c </em> ) The third strip is the deep depression known as the <em> Ghôr </em> , down which runs the Jordan with its lakes. ( <em> d </em> ) The fourth strip is the great plateau of Bashan, Moab, and Edom, with a lofty and precipitous face towards the west, and running eastward till it is lost in the desert. </p> <p> <strong> 3. [[Water]] supply, climats, natural products. </strong> There is no conspicuous river in Palestine except the Jordan and its eastern tributaries, and these, being for the greater part of their course in a deep hollow, are of little or no service for irrigation. In consequence, Palestine is dependent as a whole for its water supply on springs, or on artificial means of storage of its winter rains. Countless examples of both exist, the former especially in Galilee, parts of which are abundantly fertile by nature, and would probably repay beyond all expectation a judicious expenditure of capital. The case of Judæa is a little different, for here there are extensive tracts which are nearly or quite waterless, and are more or less desert in consequence. </p> <p> The climate of Palestine is, on the whole, that of the sub-tropical zone, though, owing to the extraordinary variation of altitudes, there is probably a greater range of average local temperature than in any other region of its size on the world’s surface. On the one hand, the summits of Hermon and of certain peaks of the Lebanon are covered with snow for the greater part of the year; on the other hand, the tremendous depression, in the bottom of which lies the Dead Sea, is practically tropical, both in climate and in vegetation. The mean local temperature is said to range from about [[62° F]]  in the upland district to almost [[100° F]]  in the region of Jericho. </p> <p> Rainfall is confined to the winter months of the year. Usually in the end of October or November the rainy season is ushered in with a heavy thunderstorm, which softens the hard-baked surface of the land. This part of the rainy season is the ‘ <strong> former rain </strong> ’ of the Bible (as in &nbsp; Joel 2:23 ). Ploughing commences immediately after the rains have thus begun. The following months have heavy showers, alternating with days of beautiful sunshine, till March or April, when the ‘ <strong> latter rain </strong> ’ falls and gives the crops their final fertilization before the commencement of the dry season. During this part of the year, except by the rarest exception, no rain falls: its place is supplied by night dews, which in some years are extraordinarily heavy. Scantiness of the rainfall, however, is invariably succeeded by poverty or even destruction of the crops, and the rain is watched for as anxiously now as it was in the time of Ahab. </p> <p> Soon after the cessation of the rains, the wild flowers, which in early spring decorate Palestine like a carpet, become rapidly burnt up, and the country assumes an appearance of barrenness that gives no true idea of its actual fertility. The dry summer is rendered further unpleasant by hot east winds, blowing from over the Arabian Desert, which have a depressing and enervating effect. The south wind is also dry, and the west wind damp (cf. &nbsp;1 Kings 18:45 , &nbsp; Luke 12:54 ). The north wind, which blows from over the Lebanon snows, is always cold, often piercingly so. </p> <p> As already hinted, the <em> flora </em> displays an extraordinary range and richness, owing to the great varieties of the climate at different points. The plants of the S. and of the Jordan Valley resemble those found in Abyssinia or in Nubia: those of the upper levels of Lebanon are of the kinds peculiar to snow-clad regions. Wheat, barley, millet, maize, peas, beans, lentils, olives, figs, mulberries, vines, and other fruit; cotton, nuts of various species; the ordinary vegetables, and some (such as <em> solanum </em> or ‘egg-plant’) that do not, as a rule, find their way to western markets; sesame, and tobacco which is grown in some districts are the most characteristic crops produced by the country. The prickly pear and the orange, though of comparatively recent introduction, are now among its staple products. The <em> fauna </em> includes (among wild animals) the bat, hyæna, wolf, jackal, wild cat, ibex, gazelle, wild boar, hare, and other smaller animals. The bear is now confined to Hermon, and possibly one or two places in Lebanon; the cheetah is rare, and the lion (&nbsp; 1 Samuel 17:34 , &nbsp; 1 Kings 13:24 etc.) is extinct. So also is the hippopotamus, bones of which have been found in excavations. Among wild birds we may mention the eagle, vulture, stork, and partridge: there is a great variety of smaller birds. Snakes and lizards abouod, and crocodiles are occasionally to be seen in the <em> Nahr ez-Zerka </em> near Cæsarea. The domesticated animals are the camel, cow, buffalo (only in the Jordan Valley), sheep, horse, donkey, swine (only among Christians), and domestic fowl. The dog can scarcely be called domesticated: it is kept by shepherds for their flocks, but otherwise prowls about the streets of towns and villages seeking a living among the rubbish thrown from the houses. </p> <p> <strong> 4. History, races, antiquities </strong> . The earliest dawn of history in Palestine has left no trace in the country itself, so far as we can tell from the limited range of excavations hitherto carried out. There was, however, a [[Babylonian]] supremacy over the country in the fourth millennium b.c., of which the records left by the kings of [[Agade]] speak. These records are as yet only imperfectly known, and their discussion in a short article like the present would be out of place. A very full account of all that is as yet known of these remote waifs of history will be found in L. B. Paton’s excellent <em> History of Syria and Palestine </em> . </p> <p> About b.c. 3000 we first reach a period where excavation in Palestine has some information to give. It appears that the inhabitants were then still in the neolithic stage of culture, dwelling in caves, natural or artificial. The excavation of Gezer has shown that the site of that city was occupied by an extensive community of this race. They were non-Semitic; but as they practised cremation, the bones were too much destroyed to make it possible to assign them to their proper place among the Mediterranean races. Further discoveries may ultimately lead to this question being settled. It is possible that the <em> [[Horites]] </em> of &nbsp; [[Genesis]] 14:6 and elsewhere may have been the survivors of this race. </p> <p> About b.c. 2500 the first Semitic settlers seem to have established themselves in the country. These were the people known to Bible students as <em> Canaanites </em> or <em> [[Amorites]] </em> . The success of attempts that have been made to distinguish these names, as indicating two separate stocks must be considered doubtful, and it is perhaps safer to treat the two names as synonymous. About b.c. 2000, as appears by the reference to ‘Amraphel, king of Shinar’ (= Hammurabi), occurred the battle of the four kings and five recorded in &nbsp; Genesis 14:1-24 the first event on Palestinian soil of which a Palestinian record is preserved. </p> <p> The dominion of Egypt over S. Palestine, or at least the influence of Egyptian civilization, must early have been felt, though no definite records of Egyptian conquest older than Tabutmes iii. (about b.c 1500) have come to light. But scarabs and other objects referable to the Usertesens (about b.c. 2800 2500, according to the opinions of various chronologists) are not infrequently found in excavations, which speak of close intercourse between the Canaanites and the civilization of the Nile valley. Of the Canaanites very extensive remains yet await the spade of the excavator in the mounds that cover the remains of the ancient cities of Palestine. The modern peasantry of the country closely resemble the ancient Canaanites in physical character, to judge from the remains of the latter that excavation has revealed; indeed, in all probability the substratum of the population has remained unchanged in racial affinities throughout the vicissitudes that the country has suffered. By the conquests of Tahutmes iii. ( <em> c </em> . 1500), and Amenhotep iii. ( <em> c </em> . 1450), Palestine became virtually an Egyptian province, its urban communities governed by kings ( <em> i.e </em> . local sheiks) answerable to the Pharaoh, but always quarrelling among themselves. The ‘heretic king’ Amenhotep iv. was too busy with his religious innovations to pay attention to his foreign possessions, and, city by city, his rule in Palestine crumbled away before the Aramæan tribes, named in the Tell el-Amarna tablets the <em> Khabiri </em> . This name is identical with that of the Biblical <em> Hebrews </em> ; but it has not yet been possible to put the Khabiri and the Hebrews into their proper mutual relations. The Hebrews represent themselves as escaped slaves from Egypt who (about the 13th cent. b.c.) were led as a solid whole under a single leader (Joshua) to the complete conquest of Canaan this is the account of the Book of Joshua. According to the older tradition preserved in &nbsp; Judges 1:1-36 , they entered the country without an individual leader, as a number of more or less independent tribes or clans, and effected only a partial conquest, being baffled by the superior strength of certain specified cities. This account is more in accordance with the events as related by the Tell el-Amarna tablets, but further discoveries must be made before the very obscure history of the Israelite immigration can be clearly made out. </p> <p> The Israelite occupation was only partial. The important Maritime Plain was in the hands of a totally distinct people, the <em> Philistines </em> . The favourite, and most probable, modern theory regarding the Philistines is that they were of Cretan origin; but everything respecting that mysterious race is veiled in obscurity. As above mentioned, it is not likely that the change of ownership affected the peasants the [[Gibeonites]] were probably not the only ‘hewers of wood and drawers of water’ (&nbsp; Joshua 9:21 ) that survived of the older stock. And lastly, we cannot doubt that an extensive [[Canaanite]] occupation remained in the towns expressly mentioned in &nbsp; Judges 1:1-36 , as those from which the various tribes ‘drave not out’ their original inhabitants. So far as we can infer from excavation an inference thoroughly confirmed by a consideration of the barbarous history of the Judges the effect of the Israelite entrance into Canaan was a retrogression in civilization, from which the country took centuries to recover. </p> <p> The history of the development of these incoherent units into a kingdom is one of ever-fresh interest. It is recorded for us in the Books of Judges and 1Samuel, and the course of events being known to every reader, it is unnecessary to recapitulate them here. It is not unimportant to notice that the split of the short-lived single kingdom into two, after the death of Solomon, was a rupture that had been foreshadowed from time to time as in the brief reign of [[Abimelech]] over the northern province (&nbsp;Judges 9:1-57 ), and the attempt of the northerners to set up Ish-bosheth as king against David (&nbsp; 2 Samuel 2:3 ), frustrated by Ish-bosheth’s ill-timed insult to [[Abner]] (&nbsp; 2 Samuel 3:7 ): Abner’s answer (v. 10) recognizes the dichotomy of Judah and Israel as already existing. This division must have had its roots in the original peopling of the country by the Hebrews, when the children of Judah went southward, and the children of Joseph northward (&nbsp; Judges 1:3-28 ). </p> <p> Space will not permit us to trace at length the fortunes of the rival kingdoms, to their highest glory under the contemporary kings [[Uzziah]] and Jeroboarn ii., and their rapid decline and final extinction by the great Mesopotamian empires. We may, however, pause to notice that, as in the case of the Canaanites, many remains of the Israelite dominion await the excavator in such towns as lay within Israelite territory; and the [[Siloam]] Tunnel epigraph, and one or two of minor importance, promise the welcome addition of a few inscriptions. On the other hand, the remains of the population are scantier for it need hardly be said that the modern Jewish inhabitants of Palestine are all more or less recent importations. </p> <p> The Northern Kingdom fell before Assyria, and was never heard of again. Tangible remains of the Assyrian domination were found at Gezer, in the shape of a couple of contract-tablets written there in the Assyrian language and formulæ about b.c. 650; and the modern sect of Samaritans is a living testimony to the story of the re-settling of the Northern Kingdom under Assyrian auspices (&nbsp;2 Kings 17:24-41 ). </p> <p> The Southern Kingdom had a different fate. It was extinguished by Babylon about 135 years later, in b.c. 586. In 538 the captives were permitted to return to their land by Cyrus, after his conquest of Babylon. They re-built Jerusalem and the Temple: the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah are the record of this work of restoration. </p> <p> In b.c. 333 Syria fell to Alexander the Great after the battle of Issus. After his death followed a distracting and complicated period of conflict between his successors, which, so far as Palestine was concerned, had the effect of opening the country for the first time to the influence of Greek culture, art, and religion. From this time onward we find evidence of the foundation of such buildings as theatres, previously quite unknown, and other novelties of Western origin. Although many of the Jews adopted the Greek tongue, there was a staunch puritan party who rigidly set their faces against all such Gentile contaminations. In this they found themselves opposed to the Seleucid princes of Syria, among whom [[Antiochus]] Epiphanes especially set himself deliberately to destroy the religion of Judaism. This led to the great revolt headed by [[Mattathias]] the priest and his sons, which secured for the Jews a brief period of independence that lasted during the second half of the 2nd cent. b.c., under John [[Hyrcanus]] (grandson of Mattathias) and his successors. The kingdom was weakened by family disputes; in the end Rome stepped in, Pompey captured Jerusalem in b.c. 63, and henceforth Palestine lay under Roman suzerainty. Several important tombs near Jerusalem, and elsewhere, and a large number of remains of cities and fortresses, survive from the age of the family of Mattathias. The conquest of Joppa, under the auspices of Simon Maccabæus, son of Mattathias ( 1Ma 13:11 ), was the first capture of a seaport in S. Palestine throughout the whole of Israelite history. </p> <p> The Hasmonæan dynasty gave place to the Idumæan dynasty of the Herods in the middle of the 1st cent. b.c., Herod the Great becoming sole governor of <em> Judæa </em> (under Roman suzerainty) in b.c. 40. It was into this political situation that Christ was born b.c. 4. Remains of the building activities of Herod are still to be seen in the sub-structures of the Temple, the Herodian towers of Jerusalem, and (possibly) a magnificent tomb near Jerusalem traditionally called the Tomb of Mariamme. Herod died shortly after Christ’s birth, and his dominions were subdivided into provinces, each under a separate ruler: but the native rulers rapidly declined in power, and the Roman governors as rapidly advanced. The Jews became more and more embittered against the Roman yoke, and at last a violent rebellion broke out, which was quelled by Titus in a.d. 70, when Jerusalem was destroyed and a large part of the Jews slain or dispersed. A remnant remained, which about 60 years later again essayed to revolt under their leader Bar Cochba: the suppression of this rebellion was the final deathblow to Jewish nationality. After the destruction of Jerusalem many settled in Tiberias, and formed the nucleus of the important Galilæan Rabbinic schools, remains of which are still to be seen in the shape of the synagogues of Galilee. These interesting buildings appear to date from the second century a.d. </p> <p> After the partition of the Roman Empire, Palestine formed part of the Empire of the East, and with it was Christianized. Many ancient settlements, with tombs and small churches some of them with beautiful mosaic pavements survive in various parts of the country: these are relics of the Byzantine [[Christians]] of the 5th and 6th centuries. The native Christians of Syria, whose families were never absorbed into Islam, are their representatives. These, though Aramæan by race, now habitually speak Arabic, except in Ma‘lula and one or two other places in N. Lebanon, where a [[Syriac]] dialect survives. </p> <p> This early Christianity received a severe blow in 611, when the country was ravaged by Chosroës ii., king of Persia. [[Monastic]] settlements were massacred and plundered, and the whole country reduced to such a state of weakness that without much resistance it fell to Omar, the second [[Caliph]] of Islam. He became master of Syria and Palestine in the second quarter of the seventh century. Palestine thus became a Moslem country, and its population received the Arab element which is still dominant within it. It may be mentioned in passing that coins of Chosroës are occasionally found in Palestine; and that of the early Arab domination many noteworthy buildings survive, chief of which is the glorious dome that occupies the site of the Hebrew Temple at Jerusalem. </p> <p> The Moslem rule was at first by no means tyrannical; but, as the spirit of intolerance developed, the Christian inhabitants were compelled to undergo many sufferings and indignities. This, and the desire to wrest the holy places of [[Christendom]] from the hands of the infidel, were the ostensible reasons for the in vasions of the brigands who called themselves Crusaders, and who established in Jerusalem a kingdom on a feudal basis that lasted throughout the 12th century. An institution so exotic, supported by men morally and physically unfit for life in a sub-tropical climate, could not outlast the first enthusiasm which called it into being. Worn out by immorality, by leprosy and other diseases, and by mutual dissensions, the unworthy champions of the Cross disappeared before the heroic Saladin, leaving as their legacy to the country a score or so of place names; a quantity of worthless ecclesiastical traditions; a number of castles and churches, few of which possess any special architectural interest, and many of which, by a strange irony, have been converted into mosques; and, among the Arab natives, an unquenchable hatred of Christianity. </p> <p> We must pass over the barbarous <em> Mongolian </em> invasions, the last of which was under Timur or [[Tamerlane]] at the end of the 14th century. But we must not omit to mention the Turkish conquest in 1516, when Syria obtained the place which it still holds in the Ottoman Empire. </p> <p> R. A. S. Macalister. </p>

<p> [[Palestine]] ( ''Păl'Es-T'' ''Îne'' ), ''Land Of Sojourners.'' &nbsp;Joel 3:4; comp. &nbsp;Exodus 15:14; &nbsp;Isaiah 14:29; &nbsp;Isaiah 14:31. A small country east of the Mediterranean Sea, sacred alike to Jew, Mohammedan, and Christian. In length it is about 140 miles, in average breadth not more than 40 between the Mediterranean westward, and the deep Jordan valley to the east, while to the north it is closed in by Lebanon and Anti-libanus, and bordered on the south by the desert. It lay on the direct route between the great ancient empires of Asia and northern Africa, and exposed to peril from both. The physical structure of Palestine is peculiar. It is mountainous, but among these mountains are plains and valleys and torrent-beds. The mountain mass which occupies the central part is bordered on each side east and west by a lowland belt. On the west the plains of Philistia and Sharon lie between the Mediterranean and the hills, interrupted by a ridge which, shooting out from the main highlands, terminates in the bold promontory of Carmel. To the north of this ridge the low plain widens and extends in one part its undulating surface quite across the country to the Jordan. And still farther to the north is Phœnicia with headlands down to the sea. The eastern depression is most remarkable. It is a deep cleft in which lie a chain of lakes connected by the Jordan. And the bottom of this cleft is, in its lower part, far below (1300 feet) the level of the Mediterranean Sea. Owing to this extraordinary depression, the slopes on the eastern side of the central elevated land are much more abrupt and rugged than on the west. The southern hill country is dry and bare. There is little wood; it is near upon the desert, and possesses few springs of water. The hill tops are rounded and monotonous—the eastern part of the tract being but an arid wilderness. And a noteworthy feature in these hills is the abundance of caverns, partly natural, partly, perhaps, artificial. [[Northward]] the country improves. There are more fertile plains winding among the lulls, more vegetation and more wood, till in the north the swelling hills are clothed with beautiful trees, and the scenery is pleasing, oftentimes romantic. In central and north Palestine, too, there are gushing fountains of water, imparting fertility to the valleys through which they pour their streams. The Philistine plain is one vast grainfield, yielding the most abundant increase. And dry and barren as are many of the hills at present, there is evidence enough that in earlier happier days they were terraced, wooded, and productive: "a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and depths that spring out of valleys and hills; a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive and honey... a land whose stones ''Are'' iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig brass." &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:7-9. Palestine was early inhabited by seven tribes—as, Hittites, Gergashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:1; and other tribes are also noted as occupying adjacent regions. &nbsp;Genesis 10:15-19; &nbsp;Genesis 15:18-21; &nbsp;Numbers 13:28-29. It became afterwards the land of Israel; but, when judgment fell upon the Hebrews for their sins, they were removed, and there was at different times a large influx of foreign population, eastern nations, &nbsp;2 Kings 17:24; &nbsp;Ezra 4:9-10, Greeks, etc.; so that even in our Lord's time the inhabitants of Palestine were of a mixed character; and in later ages additional foreign elements were introduced. See Judæa, Galilee. </p>

<p> Pal´estine. This name, usually applied to the country formerly inhabited by the Israelites, does not occur in the Hebrew Bible. It is, however, derived from Philistia, or the country of the Philistines, which comprised the southern part of the coast plain of Canaan along the Mediterranean. The word Philistia occurs in;;;;;; . From this arose the name Palestine, which was applied by most ancient writers, and even by Josephus, to the whole land of the Israelites. </p> <p> [[Names]] of Palestine </p> <p> The other names of the country may be given in the order of their occurrence in Scripture. </p> <p> Canaan, from Canaan, the fourth son of Ham, from whom the first inhabitants were descended. It is the most ancient name of the country, and is first found as such in . This denomination was confined to the country between the Mediterranean and the Jordan; but in later times it was understood to include Phoenicia , and also the land of the Philistines. </p> <p> Land of Israel. This name was given to the whole country as distributed among and occupied by the tribes of Israel. </p> <p> Land of Promise. So called as the land which God promised to the patriarchal fathers to bestow on their descendants. </p> <p> Land of Jehovah. So called as being in a special and peculiar sense the property of Jehovah, who, as the sovereign proprietor of the soil, granted it to the Hebrews (;; ). </p> <p> The Holy Land. This name only occurs in . The land is here called 'Holy,' as being the Lord's property, and sanctified by his temple and worship. </p> <p> Judah, Judea. This name belonged at first to the territory of the tribe of Judah alone. After the separation of the two kingdoms, one of them took the name of Judah, which contained the territories both of that tribe and of Benjamin. After the Captivity, down to and after the time of Christ, Judea was used in a loose way as a general name for the whole country of Palestine; but in more precise language, and with reference to internal distribution, it denoted nearly the territories of the ancient kingdom, as distinguished from Samaria and Galilee on the west of the Jordan, and Peræa on the east. </p> <p> [[Divisions]] of Palestine </p> <p> The divisions of Palestine were different in different ages. </p> <p> In the time of the Patriarchs, the country was divided among the tribes or nations descended from the sons of Canaan. The precise locality of each nation is not, in every case, distinctly known; but our map exhibits the most probable arrangement. </p> <p> After the Conquest the land was distributed by lot among the tribes. The particulars of this distribution will be best seen by reference to the map. </p> <p> After the [[Captivity]] we hear very little of the territories of the tribes, for ten of them never returned to occupy their ancient domains. </p> <p> In the time of Christ the country on the west of the Jordan was divided into the provinces of Galilee, Samaria, and Judea. Galilee is a name which was applied to that part of Palestine north of the Plain of Esdraelon or Jezreel. This province was divided into Lower or Southern, and Upper or Northern Galilee. Samaria occupied nearly the middle of Palestine; but, although it extended across the country, it did not come down to the sea-shore. Judea, as a province, corresponded to the northern and western parts of the ancient kingdom of that name; but the south-eastern portion formed the territory of Idumæa. On the other side of the Jordan the divisions were, at this time, more numerous and less distinct. The whole country generally was called Peræa, and was divided into eight districts or cantons, namely:— </p> <p> Peræa, in the more limited sense, which was the southernmost canton, extending from the river Arnon to the river Jabbok. </p> <p> Gilead, north of the Jabbok, and highly populous. </p> <p> Decapolis, or the district of ten cities, which were [[Scythopolis]] or [[Bethshan]] (on the west side of the Jordan), Hippos, Gadara, Pella, [[Philadelphia]] (formerly Rabbath), Dium, Canatha, Gerasa, Raphana, and perhaps Damascus. </p> <p> Gaulonitis, extending to the north-east of the Upper Jordan and of the lake of Gennesareth. </p> <p> Batanæa, the ancient Bashan, but less extensive, east of the lake of Gennesareth. </p> <p> Auranitis, also called Ituræa, and known to this day by the old name of [[Hauran]] , to the north of Batanæa and the east of Gaulonitis. </p> <p> Trachonitis, extending to the north of Gaulonitis, and east from Paneas (Cæsarea Philippi) and the sources of the Jordan, where it was separated from Galilee . </p> <p> Abilene, in the extreme north, among the mountains of Anti-Libanus, between [[Baalbec]] and Damascus. The more important of these names have been noticed under their several heads. </p> <p> Situation and Boundaries of Palestine </p> <p> Palestine is the south-western part of Syria, extending from the mountains of Lebanon to the borders of Egypt. It lies about midway between the equator and the polar circle, to which happy position it owes the fine medium climate which it possesses. Its length is embraced between 30° 40′ and 33° 32′ of N. latitude, and between 33° 45′ of E. longitude in the south-west, and 35° 48′ in the north-east. The breadth may be taken at an average of sixty-five miles, the extreme breadth being about 100 miles. The length, from Mount Hermon in the north, to which the territory of Manasseh beyond the Jordan extended , to Kadesh-barnea in the south, to which the territory of Judah reached, was 180 miles. </p> <p> Palestine may be regarded as embracing an area of almost 11,000 square miles. But the real surface is much greater than this estimate would imply; for Palestine being essentially a hilly country, the sides of the mountains and the slopes of the hills enlarge the available surface to an extent which does not admit of calculation. </p> <p> With regard to the lines of boundary, the clearest description of them is that contained in Numbers 34. From the statements there made it appears that the writer, after prolonging the eastern boundary-line from the end of the Dead Sea down the edge of the Arabah, to a point somewhere south of Kadesh-barnea, then turns off westward to form the southern line, which he extends to the Mediterranean, at a point where 'the River of Egypt' falls into the Sea. This River of Egypt is usually, and on very adequate grounds, supposed to be the stream which falls into the Sea near El-Arish. </p> <p> The western border is stated as defined by the Mediterranean coast. But the Hebrews never possessed the whole of this territory. The northern part of the coast, from Sidon to Akko (Acre), was in the hands of the Phoenicians, and the southern part, from [[Azotus]] to Gaza, was retained by the Philistines, except at intervals; and a central portion, about one-third of the whole, from Mount Carmel to [[Jabneh]] (Jamnia) was alone permanently open to the Israelites. </p> <p> The northern boundary-line commenced at the sea somewhere not far to the south of Sidon, whence it was extended to Lebanon, and crossing the narrow valley which leads into the great plain enclosed between [[Libanus]] and Anti-Libanus, terminated at Mount Hermon, in the latter range. </p> <p> The eastern boundary, as respects Canaan Proper, was defined by the Jordan and its lakes; but as respects the whole country, including the portion beyond the Jordan, it extended to Salchah, a town on the eastern limits of Bashan. From this point it must have inclined somewhat sharply to the south-west, to the point where the Wady ed-Deir enters the Zerka, and thence it probably extended almost due south to the Arnon, which was the southern limit of the eastern territory. </p> <p> [[Mineralogy]] of Palestine </p> <p> The mountains on the west of the Jordan consist chiefly of chalk, on which basalt begins to occur beyond [[Cana]] (northward). The so-called white limestone, which is met with around Jerusalem and thence to Jericho, which covers the summit and forms the declivities of the Mount of Olives, and which is also found at Mount Tabor and around Nazareth, is a kind of chalk considerably indurated, and approaching to whitish compact limestone. 'Layers and detached masses of flint are very commonly seen in it. Besides this indurated chalk, a stone is found in the immediate vicinity of Jerusalem, chiefly towards the north, as well as towards Safet, and in other parts of the country, which, together with the dolomite formation occasionally met with, appears to be of what in Germany is called the [[Jura]] formation. Palestine may be most emphatically called the country of salt, which is produced in vast abundance, chiefly in the neighborhood of the Dead Sea, which deserves to be regarded as one of the great natural salt-works of the world.' </p> <p> Under this head it may be noted that the fine impalpable desert-sand, which proves so menacing to travelers, and even to inhabitants, is scarcely found in Palestine Proper; but it occurs beyond Lebanon, near Beirut, and in the neighborhood of Damascus. </p> <p> Palestine is eminently a country of caverns, to which there is frequent allusion in Scripture [CAVES], and which are hardly so numerous in any country of the same extent. Many of them were enlarged by the inhabitants, and even artificial grottoes were formed by manual labor. In these the inhabitants still like to reside; as in summer they afford protection from the heat, and in winter from cold and rain. Even now, in many places, houses are observed built so near to rocks, that their cavities may be used for rooms or sheds suited to the condition of the seasons. Though the country is not infrequently visited by earthquakes, they leave behind no such frightful traces as those of Asia Minor; as the vaults of limestone offer more effectual resistance than the sandstone of the latter country. </p> <p> We are glad to see so competent a witness as Schubert bear his testimony to the natural resources of the soil, which superficial observers, judging only from present appearance, have so often questioned. He says, 'no soil could be naturally more fruitful and fit for cultivation than that of Palestine, if man had not destroyed the source of fertility by annihilating the former green covering of the hills and slopes, and thereby destroying the regular circulation of sweet water, which ascends as vapor from the sea to be cooled in the higher regions, and then descends to form the springs and rivers, for it is well known that the vegetable kingdom performs in this circulation the function of capillary tubes. But although the natives, from exasperation against their foreign conquerors and rulers, and the invaders who have so often overruled this scene of ancient blessings, have greatly reduced its prosperity, still I cannot comprehend how not only scoffers like Voltaire, but early travelers, who doubtless intended to declare the truth, represent Palestine as a natural desert, whose soil never could have been fit for profitable cultivation. Whoever saw the exhaustless abundance of plants on Carmel and the border of the desert, the grassy carpet of Esdraelon, the lawns adjoining the Jordan, and the rich foliage of the forests of Mount Tabor; whoever saw the borders of the lakes of Merom and Gennesareth, wanting only the cultivator to entrust to the soil his seed and plants, may state what other country on earth, devastated by two thousand years of warfare and spoliation, could be more fit for being again taken into cultivation. The bountiful hand of the Most High, which formerly showered abundance upon this renowned land, continues to be still open to those desirous of his blessings.' </p> <p> The following table of levels in Palestine is copied from a recently published supplement to Raumer's Palästina. The measurements are in [[Paris]] feet, above and below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Great Hermon </p> </td> <td> <p> 10,000 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Mount St. Catherine (in Sinai) </p> </td> <td> <p> 8063 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Jebel Mousa (in Sinai) </p> </td> <td> <p> 7033 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Jebel et Tyh (in Sinai) </p> </td> <td> <p> 4300 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Jebel er-Ramah </p> </td> <td> <p> 3000 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Kanneytra </p> </td> <td> <p> 2850 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Hebron </p> </td> <td> <p> 2700 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Mount of [[Olives]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 2536 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Sinjil </p> </td> <td> <p> 2520 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Safet </p> </td> <td> <p> 2500 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Mount Gerizim </p> </td> <td> <p> 2400 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Semua </p> </td> <td> <p> 2225 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Damascus </p> </td> <td> <p> 2186 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Kidron]] (brook) </p> </td> <td> <p> 2140 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Nabulus </p> </td> <td> <p> 1751 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Mount Tabor </p> </td> <td> <p> 1748 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Pass]] of [[Zephath]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 1437 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Desert of et-Tyh </p> </td> <td> <p> 1400 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Nazareth </p> </td> <td> <p> 821 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Zerin </p> </td> <td> <p> 515 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Plain of Esdraelon </p> </td> <td> <p> 459 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Lake of Tiberias </p> </td> <td> <p> 329 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Zerin </p> </td> <td> <p> 91 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Dead Sea </p> </td> <td> <p> 1312 </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> Some of these results are most extraordinary. First, here is the remarkable fact, that the Mount of Olives and the Kidron, and consequently Jerusalem, stand 700 feet higher than the top of Mount Tabor, and about 2500 feet above the level of the Mediterranean. More to the south, Hebron stands on still higher ground; and while it is 2700 feet above the sea on the one hand, the Asphaltic Lake lies 4000 feet below it on the other. This fact has no known parallel in any other region, and within so short a distance of the sea; and the extraordinary depression of the lake (1337feet below the sea level) adequately accounts for the very peculiar climate which its remarkable basin exhibits. The points at Tiberias to the north, and [[Kadesh]] to the south of the Dead Sea, are both, and nearly equally, below the Mediterranean level, and taken, together, they show the great slope both from the north and from the south towards the Dead Sea. confirming the discovery of Dr. Robinson, that the water-shed to the south of the Asphaltic Lake is towards its basin, and that, therefore, the Jordan could not at any time, as the country is at present constituted, have flowed on southward to the Elanitic Gulf, as was formerly supposed. </p> <p> Mountains of Palestine </p> <p> As all the principal mountains of Palestine are noticed in this work under their respective names, it is unnecessary to offer any observations under this head. </p> <p> The most important or the most distinguished of the plains and valleys of Palestine are those of Lebanon, of the Jordan, of Jericho, of Esdraelon, and of the Coast. </p> <p> The Plain of Lebanon may be described as the valley which is enclosed between the parallel mountain ranges of Libanus and Anti-Libanus. This enclosed plain is the Cœle-Syria of the ancients, and now bears the name of el-Bekka (the Valley). It is about ninety miles in length, from north to south, by eleven miles in breadth, nearly equal throughout, except that it widens at the northern end and narrows at the southern. This plain is, perhaps, the most rich and beautiful part of Syria. </p> <p> The Plain of the Jordan. By this name we understand the margin of the lakes, as well as the valley watered by the river. Here the heat is still greater than in the valley of Lebanon, and as water is usually wanting, the whole plain is barren and desolate. </p> <p> The Plain of Jericho is but an opening or expansion in the plain of the Jordan, towards the Dead Sea. It is partly desert, but, from the abundance of water and the heat of the climate, it might be rendered highly productive; indeed, the fertility of this plain has been celebrated in every age. But of all the productions which once distinguished it, and the greater part of which it enjoyed in common with Egypt, very few now remain. </p> <p> The Plain of Esdraelon is often mentioned in sacred history (;;;;; ), as the great battle-field of the Jewish and other nations, under the names of the Valley of Megiddo and the Valley of Jezreel; and by Josephus as the Great Plain. This extensive plain, exclusive of three great arms which stretch eastward towards the valley of the Jordan, may be said to be in the form of an acute triangle, having the measure of thirteen or fourteen miles on the north, about eighteen on the east, and above twenty on the south-west. In the western portion it seems perfectly level, with a general declivity towards the Mediterranean; but in the east it is somewhat undulated by slight spurs and swells from the roots of the mountains: from the eastern side three great valleys go off to the valley of the Jordan. These valleys are separated by the ridges of Gilboa and Little Hermon, and the space which lies between these two ridges is the proper valley of Jezreel, which name seems to be sometimes given to the whole Plain of Esdraelon. The valley of Jezreel is a deep plain, and about three miles across. Before the verdure of spring and early summer has been parched up by the heat and drought of the late summer and autumn, the view of the Great Plain is, from its fertility and beauty, very delightful. The plain itself is almost without villages, but there are several on the slopes of the enclosing hills, especially on the side of Mount Carmel. </p> <p> The Plain of the [[Coast]] is that tract of land which extends along the coast, between the sea and the mountains. In some places, where the mountains approach the sea, this tract is interrupted by promontories and rising grounds; but, taken generally, the whole coast of Palestine may be described as an extensive plain of various breadth. Sometimes it expands into broad plains, at others it is contracted into narrow valleys. With the exception of some sandy tracts the soil is throughout rich, and exceedingly productive. The climate is everywhere very warm, and is considered rather insalubrious as compared with the upland country. It is not mentioned by any one collective name in Scripture. The part fronting Samaria, and between Mount Carmel and Jaffa, near a rich pasture-ground, was called the Valley of Sharon; and the continuation southward, between Jaffa and Gaza, was called The Plain, as distinguished from the hill-country of Judah. </p> <p> Rivers of Palestine </p> <p> The Jordan is the only river of any note in Palestine, and besides it there are only two or three perennial streams. The greater number of the streams which figure in the history, and find a place in the maps, are merely torrents or watercourses. </p> <p> The Jordan. We should like to consider this river simply as the stream issuing from the reservoir of the Lake Huleh, but custom requires its source to be traced to some one or more of the streams which form that reservoir. The two largest streams, which enter the lake on the north, are each formed by the junction of two others. It is usual to refer the origin of a river to its remotest sources; but in this case the largest and longest, being the most easterly of the two streams, does not appear to have been at any time identified with the Jordan—that honor having for ages been ascribed to the western stream; this river has distinct sources, at Banias and at Tel-el-Kâdi. It is the former of these where a stream issues from a spacious cavern under a wall of rock which Josephus describes as the main source of the Jordan. </p> <p> The true Jordan—the stream that quits the lake Huleh—passes rapidly along the narrow valley, and between well-shaded banks, to the lake of Gennesareth: the distance is about nine miles. Nearly two miles below the lake is a bridge, called Jacob's bridge; and here the river is about eighty feet wide, and four feet deep. </p> <p> On leaving the Lake of [[Gennesareth]] the river enters a very broad valley, or Ghor, which varies in width from five to ten miles between the mountains on each side. Within this valley there is a lower one, and within that, in some parts, another still lower, through which the river flows; the inner valley is about half a mile wide, and is generally green and beautiful, covered with trees and bushes, whereas the upper or large valley is for the most part, sandy or barren. The distance between the Lake of Gennesareth and the Dead Sea, in a direct line, is about sixty miles. In the first part of its course the stream is clear, but it becomes turbid as it advances to the Dead Sea, probably from passing over beds of sandy clay. The water is very wholesome, always cool and nearly tasteless. The breadth and depth of the river vary much in different places and at different times of the year. Dr. Shaw calculates the average breadth at thirty yards, and the depth at nine feet. In the season of flood, in April and early in May, the river is full, and sometimes overflows its lower banks, to which fact there are several allusions in Scripture. </p> <p> The Kishon, that 'ancient river,' by whose wide and rapid stream the hosts of [[Sisera]] were swept away , has been noticed under the proper head [KISHON]. </p> <p> The Belus, now called Nahr Kardanus, enters the bay of Acre higher up than the Kishon. It is a small stream, fordable even at its mouth in summer. It is not mentioned in the Bible, and is chiefly celebrated for the tradition, that the accidental vitrefaction of its sands taught man the art of making glass. </p> <p> The other streams of note enter the Jordan from the east; these are the [[Jarmuth]] (or Yarmuk), the Jabbok, and the Arnon, of which the last two have been noticed under their proper heads. The Jarmuth, called also Sheriatel-Mandhour, anciently Hieromax, joins the Jordan five miles below the lake of Gennesareth. Its source is ascribed to a small lake, almost a mile in circumference, at Mezareib, which is thirty miles east of the Jordan. It is a beautiful stream, and yields a considerable body of water to the Jordan [[[Arnon; Jabbok]]]  </p> <p> [[Lakes]] of Palestine </p> <p> The river Jordan in its course forms three remarkable lakes, in the last of which, called the Dead Sea, it is lost— </p>

<p> ''''' pal´es ''''' - ''''' tı̄n ''''' ( פּלשׁת , <i> ''''' pelesheth ''''' </i> ; Φυλιστιείμ , <i> ''''' Phulistieı́m ''''' </i> , Ἀλλόφυλοι , <i> ''''' Allóphuloi ''''' </i> ; the King James Version &nbsp; Joel 3:4 (the Revised Version (British and American) "Philistia"), "Palestina"; the King James Version &nbsp; Exodus 15:14; &nbsp;Isaiah 14:29 , &nbsp;Isaiah 14:31; compare &nbsp;Psalm 60:8; &nbsp;Psalm 83:7; &nbsp;Psalm 87:4; &nbsp;Psalm 108:9 ): </p> <p> I. [[Physical]] [[Conditions]] </p> <p> 1. General Geographical Features </p> <p> 2. Water-Supply </p> <p> 3. Geological Conditions </p> <p> 4. Fauna and [[Flora]] </p> <p> 5. Climate </p> <p> 6. Rainfall </p> <p> 7. [[Drought]] and [[Famine]] </p> <p> II. Palestine In The [[Pentateuch]] </p> <p> 1. Places [[Visited]] by Abraham </p> <p> 2. Places Visited by Isaac </p> <p> 3. Places Visited by Jacob </p> <p> 4. [[Mentioned]] in Connection with Judah </p> <p> 5. Review of [[Geography]] of Genesis </p> <p> 6. Exodus and Leviticus </p> <p> 7. Numbers </p> <p> 8. Deuteronomy </p> <p> III. Palestine In The Historic Books Of The [[[[O]] Ld]]  Testament </p> <p> 1. Book of Joshua </p> <p> 2. Book of Judges </p> <p> 3. Book of Ruth </p> <p> 4. Books of Samuel </p> <p> 5. Books of Kings </p> <p> 6. Post-exilic [[Historical]] Books </p> <p> IV. Palestine In The Poetic Books Of The Old TESTAMENT </p> <p> 1. Book of Job </p> <p> 2. Book of Psalms </p> <p> 3. Book of Proverbs </p> <p> 4. Song of Songs </p> <p> V. Palestine In The [[Prophets]] </p> <p> 1. Isaiah </p> <p> 2. Jeremiah </p> <p> 3. Ezekiel </p> <p> 4. Minor Prophets </p> <p> VI. Palestine In The [[Apocrypha]] </p> <p> 1. Book of [[Judith]] </p> <p> 2. Book of Wisdom </p> <p> 3. 1 Maccabees </p> <p> 4. 2 Maccabees </p> <p> VII. Palestine In The New Testament </p> <p> 1. Synoptic Gospels </p> <p> 2. Fourth Gospel </p> <p> 3. Book of Acts </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> <p> The word properly means "Philistia," but appears to be first used in the extended sense, as meaning all the "Land of Israel" or "Holy Land" (&nbsp;Zechariah 2:12 ), by [[Philo]] and by [[Ovid]] and later Roman authors (Reland, <i> Palestine Illustr </i> ., I, 38-42). </p> I. Physical Conditions. <p> The Bible in general may be said to breathe air of Palestine; and it is here intended to show how important for sound criticism is the consideration of its geography, and of the numerous incidental allusions to the natural features, fauna, flora, cultivation, and climate of the land in which most of the Bible books were written. With the later history and topography of Palestine, after 70 AD, we are not here concerned, but a short account of its present physical and geological conditions is needed for our purpose. </p> <p> <b> 1. General Geographical Features: </b> </p> <p> Palestine West of the Jordan, between Dan and Beersheba, has an area of about 6,000 square miles, the length from Hermon southward being nearly 150 miles, and the width gradually increasing from 20 miles on the North to 60 miles on the South. It is thus about the size of Wales, and the height of the Palestinian mountains is about the same as that of the Welsh. East of the Jordan an area of about 4,000 square miles was included in the land of Israel. The general geographical features are familiar to all. </p> <p> (1) The land is divided by the deep chasm of the Jordan valley - an ancient geological fault continuing in the Dead Sea, where its depth (at the bottom of the lake) &nbsp;Isaiah 2,600 ft. below the Mediterranean. </p> <p> (2) West of the valley the mountain ridge, which is a continuation of Lebanon, has very steep slopes on the East and long spurs on the West, on which side the foothills (Hebrew <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> or "lowland") form a distinct district, widening gradually southward, while between this region and the sea the plains of Sharon and Philistia stretch to the sandhills and low cliffs of a harborless coast. </p> <p> (3) In Upper Galilee, on the North, the mountain ridge rises to 4,000 ft. above the Mediterranean. Lower Galilee, to the South, includes rounded hills less than 1,000 ft. above the sea, and the triangular plain of Esdraelon drained by the River [[Kishon]] between the Gilboa watershed on the East and the long spur of Carmel on the West. </p> <p> (4) In Samaria the mountains are extremely rugged, but a small plain near [[Dothan]] adjoins that of Esdraelon, and another stretches East of Shechem, 2,500 ft. above the level of the Jordan valley. In Judea the main ridge rises toward Hebron and then sinks to the level of the Beersheba plains about 1,000 ft. above the sea. The desert of Judah forms a plateau (500 ft. above sea-level), between this ridge and the Dead Sea, and is throughout barren and waterless; but the mountains - which average about 3,000 ft. above the sea - are full of good springs and suitable for the cultivation of the vine, fig and olive. The richest lands are found in the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> region - especially in Judea - and in the corn plains of Esdraelon, Sharon, and Philistia. </p> <p> (5) East of the Jordan the plateau of Bashan (averaging 1,500 ft. above the sea) is also a fine corn country. South of this, Gilead presents a mountain region rising to 3,600 ft. above sea-level at <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Osha' ''''' </i> , and sloping gently on the East to the desert. The steep western slopes are watered by the Jabbok River, and by many perennial brooks. In North Gilead especially the wooded hills present some of the most picturesque scenery of the Holy Land. South of Gilead, the Moab plateau (about 2,700 ft. above sea-level) is now a desert, but is fitted for raising grain, and, in places, for vines. A lower shelf or plateau (about 500 to 1,000 ft. above sea-level) intervenes between the main plateau and the Dead Sea cliffs, and answers to the Desert of Judah West of the lake. </p> <p> <b> 2. Water-Supply: </b> </p> <p> The water-supply of Palestine is abundant, except in the desert regions above noticed, which include only a small part of its area. The Jordan runs into the Dead Sea, which has no outlet and which maintains its level solely by evaporation, being consequently very salt; the surface is nearly 1,300 ft. below the Mediterranean, whereas the Sea of Galilee (680 ft. below sea-level) is sweet and full of fish. The Jordan is fed, not only by the snows of Hermon, but by many affluent streams from both sides. There are several streams also in Sharon, including the [[Crocodile]] River under Carmel. In the mountains, where the hard dolomite limestone is on the surface, perennial springs are numerous. In the lower hills, where this limestone is covered by a softer chalky stone, the supply depends on wells and cisterns. In the Beersheba plains the water, running under the surface, is reached by scooping shallow pits - especially those near Gerar, to be noticed later. </p> <p> <b> 3. Geological Conditions: </b> </p> <p> The fertility and cultivation of any country depends mainly on its geological conditions. These are comparatively simple in Palestine, and have undergone no change since the age when man first appeared, or since the days of the Hebrew patriarchs. The country was first upheaved from the ocean in the Eocene age; and, in the subsequent Miocene age, the great crack in the earth's surface occurred, which formed a narrow gulf stretching from that of the <i> ''''' ‛A ''''' </i> qabah on the South almost to the foot of Hermon. Further upheaval, accompanied by volcanic outbreaks which covered the plateaus of Golan, Bashan, and Lower Galilee with lava, cut off the Jordan valley from the Red Sea, and formed a long lake, the bottom of which continued to sink on the South to its present level during the Pleiocene and Pluvial periods, after which - its peculiar fauna having developed meanwhile - the lake gradually dried up, till it was represented only, as it now is, by the swampy <i> ''''' Ḥûleh ''''' </i> , the pear-shaped Sea of Galilee, and the Dead Sea. These changes all occurred long ages before the appearance of man. The beds upheaved include: (1) the Nubian Sandstone (of the Greensand period), which was sheared along the line of the Jordan fault East of the river, and which only appears on the western slopes of Hermon, Gilead, and Moab; (2) the limestones of the Cretaceous age, including the hard dolomite, and softer beds full of characteristic fossils; (3) the soft Eocene limestone, which appears chiefly on the western spurs and in the foothills, the angle of upheaval being less steep than that of the older main formation. On the shores of the Mediterranean a yet later sandy limestone forms the low cliffs of Sharon. See [[Geology Of Palestine]] . </p> <p> <b> 4. Fauna and Flora: </b> </p> <p> As regards fauna, flora and cultivation, it is sufficient here to say that they are still practically the same as described throughout the Bible. The lion and the wild bull ( <i> Bos primigenius </i> ) were exterminated within historic times, but have left their bones in the Jordan gravels, and in caves. The bear has gradually retreated to Hermon and Lebanon. The buffalo has been introduced since the Moslem conquest. Among trees the apple has fallen out of cultivation since the Middle Ages, and the cactus has been introduced; but Palestine is still a land of grain, wine and oil, and famous for its fruits. Its trees, shrubs and plants are those noticed in the Bible. Its woods have been thinned in Lower Galilee and Northern Sharon, but on the other hand the copse has often grown over the site of former vineyards and villages, and there is no reason to think that any general desiccation has occurred within the last 40 centuries, such as would affect the rainfall. </p> <p> <b> 5. Climate: </b> </p> <p> The climate of Palestine is similar to that of other Mediterranean lands, such as Cyprus, [[Sicily]] or Southern Italy; and, in spite of the fevers of mosquito districts in the plains, it is much better than that of the Delta in Egypt, or of Mesopotamia. The summer heat is oppressive only for a few days at a time, when (espescially in May) the dry wind - deficient in ozone - blows from the eastern desert. For most of the season a moisture-laden sea breeze, rising about 10 AM, blows till the evening, and fertilizes all the western slopes of the mountains. In the bare deserts the difference between 90ø F. by day and 40ø F. by night gives a refreshing cold. With the east wind the temperature rises to 105ø F., and the nights are oppressive. In the Jordan valley, in autumn, the shade temperature reaches 120ø F. In this season mists cover the mountains and swell the grapes. In winter the snow sometimes lies for several days on the watershed ridge and on the [[Edomite]] mountains, but in summer even Hermon is sometimes quite snowless at 9,000 ft. above the sea. There is perhaps no country in which such a range of climate can be found, from the Alpine to the tropical, and none in which the range of fauna and flora is consequently so large, from the European to the African. </p> <p> <b> 6. Rainfall: </b> </p> <p> The rainfall of Palestine is between 20,30 inches annually, and the rainy season is the same as in other Mediterranean countries. The "former rains" begin with the thunderstorms of November, and the "latter rains" cease with April showers. From December to February - except in years of drought - the rains are heavy. In most years the supply is quite sufficient for purposes of cultivation. The plowing begins in autumn, and the corn is rarely spoiled by storms in summer. The fruits ripen in autumn and suffer only from the occasional appearance of locust swarms. There appears to be no reason to suppose that climate or rainfall have undergone any change since the times of the Bible; and a consideration of Bible allusions confirms this view. </p> <p> <b> 7. Drought and Famine: </b> </p> <p> Thus, the occurrence of drought, and of consequent famine, is mentioned in the Old Testament as occasional in all times (&nbsp;Genesis 12:10; &nbsp;Genesis 26:2; &nbsp;Genesis 41:50; &nbsp;Leviticus 26:20; &nbsp;2 Samuel 21:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 8:35; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:6; &nbsp;Jeremiah 14:1; &nbsp;Joel 1:10-12; &nbsp;Haggai 1:11; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:17 ), and droughts are also noticed in the [[Mishna]] ( <i> ''''' Ta‛ănı̄th ''''' </i> , i. 4-7) as occurring in autumn, and even lasting throughout the rainy season till spring. Good rains were a blessing from God, and drought was a sign of His displeasure, in Hebrew belief (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:14; &nbsp;Jeremiah 5:24; &nbsp;Joel 2:23 ). A thunderstorm in harvest time (May) was most unusual (&nbsp;1 Samuel 12:17 , &nbsp;1 Samuel 12:18 ), yet such a storm does still occur as a very exceptional phenomenon. By "snow in harvest" (&nbsp;Proverbs 25:13 ) we are not to understand a snowstorm, for it is likened to a "faithful messenger," and the reference is to the use of snow for cooling wine, which is still usual at Damascus. The notice of fever on the shores of the Sea of Galilee (&nbsp;Matthew 8:14 ) shows that this region was as unhealthy as it still is in summer. The decay of irrigation in Sharon may have rendered the plain more malarious than of old, but the identity of the Palestinian flora with that of the Bible indicates that the climate, generally speaking, is unchanged. </p> II. Palestine in the Pentateuch. <p> <b> 1. Places Visited by Abraham: </b> </p> <p> The Book of Genesis is full of allusions to sites sacred to the memory of the Hebrew patriarchs. In the time of Abraham the population consisted of tribes, mainly Semitic, who came originally from Babylonia, including Canaanites ("lowlanders") between Sidon and Gaza, and in the Jordan valley, and Amorites ("highlanders") in the mountains (&nbsp;Genesis 10:15-19; &nbsp;Numbers 13:29 ). Their language was akin to Hebrew, and it is only in Egypt that we read of an interpreter being needed (&nbsp;Genesis 42:23 ), while excavated remains of seal-cylinders, and other objects, show that the civilization of Palestine was similar to that of Babylonia. </p> (1) Shechem. <p> The first place noticed is the shrine or "station" ( <i> ''''' māḳōm ''''' </i> ) of Shechem, with the [[Elon]] Moreh, the [[Septuagint]] "high oak"), where Jacob afterward buried the idols of his wives, and where Joshua set up a stone by the "holy place" (&nbsp; Genesis 12:6; &nbsp;Genesis 35:4; &nbsp;Joshua 24:26 ). Samaritan tradition showed the site near <i> ''''' Balâṭa ''''' </i> ("the oak") at the foot of Mt. Gerizim. The "Canaanite was then in the land" (in Abraham's time), but was exterminated (&nbsp;Genesis 34:25 ) by Jacob's sons. From Shechem Abraham journeyed southward and raised an altar between Bethel ( <i> ''''' Beitı̂n ''''' </i> ) and [[Hal]] ( <i> ''''' Ḥayân ''''' </i> ), East of the town of Luz, the name of which still survives hard-by at the spring of <i> ''''' Lôzeh ''''' </i> (&nbsp;Genesis 12:8; &nbsp;Genesis 13:3; &nbsp;Genesis 28:11 , &nbsp;Genesis 28:19; &nbsp;Genesis 35:2 ). </p> (2) The Negeb. <p> But, on his return from Egypt with large flocks (&nbsp;Genesis 12:16 ), he settled in the pastoral region, between Beersheba and the western Kadesh (&nbsp;Genesis 13:1; &nbsp;Genesis 20:1 ), called in Hebrew the <i> ''''' neghebh ''''' </i> , "dry" country, on the edge of the cultivated lands. From East of Bethel there is a fine view of the lower Jordan valley, and here [[Lot]] "lifted up his eyes" (&nbsp;Genesis 13:10 ), and chose the rich grass lands of that valley for his flocks. The "cities of the Plain" ( <i> ''''' kikkār ''''' </i> ) were clearly in this valley, and Sodom must have been near the river, since Lot's journey to [[Zoar]] (&nbsp;Genesis 19:22 ) occupied only an hour or two (&nbsp;Genesis 19:15 , &nbsp;Genesis 19:23 ) through the plain to the foot of the Moab mountains. These cities are not said to have been visible from near Hebron; but, from the hilltop East of the city, Abraham could have seen "the smoke of the land" (&nbsp;Genesis 19:28 ) rising up. The first land owned by him was the garden of [[Mamre]] (&nbsp;Genesis 13:18; &nbsp;Genesis 18:1; &nbsp;Genesis 23:19 ), with the cave-tomb which tradition still points out under the floor of the Hebron mosque. His tent was spread under the "oaks of Mamre" (&nbsp;Genesis 18:1 ), where his mysterious guests rested "under the tree" (&nbsp;Genesis 18:8 ). One aged oak still survives in the flat ground West of the city, but this tree is very uncommon in the mountains of Judah. In all these incidental touches we have evidence of the exact knowledge of Palestine which distinguishes the story of the patriarchs. </p> (3) Campaign of Amraphel. <p> Palestine appears to have been an outlying province of the empire of. Hammurabi, king of Babylon in Abraham's time; and the campaign of [[Amraphel]] resembled those of later Assyrian overlords exacting tribute of petty kings. The route (&nbsp;Genesis 14:5-8 ) lay through Bashan, Gilead and Moab to Kadesh (probably at Petra), and the return through the desert of Judah to the plains of Jericho. Thus Hebron was not attacked (see &nbsp;Genesis 14:13 ), and the pursuit by Abraham and his [[Amorite]] allies led up the Jordan valley to Dan, and thence North of Damascus (&nbsp;Genesis 14:15 ). The [[Salem]] whose king blessed Abraham on his return was thought by the Samaritans, and by Jerome, to be the city near the Jordan valley afterward visited by Jacob (&nbsp;Genesis 14:18; &nbsp;Genesis 33:18 ). See Jerusalem . </p> (4) Gerar. <p> Abraham returned to the southern plains, and "sojourned in Gerar" (&nbsp;Genesis 20:1 ), now <i> ''''' Umm ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Jerrâr ''''' </i> , 7 miles South of Gaza. The wells which he dug in this valley (&nbsp;Genesis 26:15 ) were no doubt shallow excavations like those from which the Arabs still obtain the water flowing under the surface in the same vicinity ( <i> SWP </i> , III, 390), though that at Beersheba (&nbsp;Genesis 21:25-32 ), to which Isaac added another (&nbsp;Genesis 26:23-25 ), may have been more permanent. Three masonry wells now exist at <i> ''''' Bı̂r ''''' </i> <i> ''''' es ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Seba‛ ''''' </i> , but the masonry is modern. The planting of a "tamarisk" at this place (&nbsp;Genesis 21:33 ) is an interesting touch, since the tree is distinctive of the dry lowlands. From Beersheba Abraham journeyed to "the land of Moriah" Septuagint "the high land") to sacrifice Isaac (&nbsp;Genesis 22:2 ); and the mountain, according to Hebrew tradition (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 3:1 ), was at Jerusalem, but according to the Samaritans was Gerizim near the Elon [[Moreh]] - a summit which could certainly have been seen "afar off" (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 3:4 ) on "the third day." </p> <p> <b> 2. Places Visited by Isaac: </b> </p> <p> Isaac, living in the same pastoral wilderness, at the western Kadesh (&nbsp;Genesis 25:11 ) and at [[Gerar]] (&nbsp;Genesis 26:2 ), suffered like his father in a year of drought, and had similar difficulties with the Philistines. At Gerar he sowed grain (&nbsp;Genesis 26:12 ), and the vicinity is still capable of such cultivation. [[Thence]] he retreated Southeast to [[Rehoboth]] ( <i> ''''' Ruḥeibeh ''''' </i> ), North of Kadesh, where ancient wells like those at Beersheba still exist (&nbsp;Genesis 26:22 ). To Beersheba he finally returned (&nbsp;Genesis 26:23 ). </p> <p> <b> 3. Places Visited by Jacob: </b> </p> <p> When Jacob fled to [[Haran]] from Beersheba (&nbsp;Genesis 28:10 ) he slept at the "place" (or shrine) consecrated by Abraham's altar near Bethel, and like any modern Arab visitor to a shrine - erected a memorial stone (&nbsp;Genesis 28:18 ), which he renewed twenty years later (&nbsp;Genesis 35:14 ) when God appeared to him "again" (&nbsp;Genesis 35:9 ). </p> (1) Haran to Succoth. <p> His return journey from Haran to Gilead raises an interesting question. The distance is about 350 miles from Haran to the [[Galeed]] or "witness heap" (&nbsp;Genesis 31:48 ) at [[Mizpah]] - probably <i> ''''' Sûf ''''' </i> in North Gilead. This distance [[Laban]] is said to have covered in 7 days (&nbsp;Genesis 31:23 ), which would be possible for a force mounted on riding camels. But the news of Jacob's flight reached Laban on the 3rd day (&nbsp;Genesis 31:22 ), and some time would elapse before he could gather his "brethren." Jacob with his flocks and herds must have needed 3 weeks for the journey. It is remarkable that the vicinity of Mizpah still presents ancient monuments like the "pillar" (&nbsp;Genesis 31:45 ) round which the "memorial cairn" ( <i> ''''' yeghar ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' sāhădhūthā ''''' </i> ) was formed. From this place Jacob journeyed to [[Mahanaim]] (probably <i> ''''' Maḥmah ''''' </i> ), South of the Jabbok river - a place which afterward became the capital of South Gilead (&nbsp;Genesis 32:1 f; &nbsp; 1 Kings 4:14 ); but, on hearing of the advance of [[Esau]] from Edom, he retreated across the river (&nbsp;Genesis 32:22 ) and then reached [[Succoth]] (&nbsp;Genesis 33:17 ), believed to be <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Der‛ala ''''' </i> , North of the stream. </p> (2) From the Jordan to Hebron. <p> [[Crossing]] the Jordan by one of several fords in this vicinity, Jacob approached Shechem by the perennial stream of <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Fâr‛ah ''''' </i> , and camped at [[Shalem]] ( <i> ''''' Sâlim ''''' </i> ) on the east side of the fertile plain which stretches thence to Shechem, and here he bought land of the [[Hivites]] (&nbsp; Genesis 33:18-20 ). We are not told that he dug a well, but the necessity for digging one in a region full of springs can only be explained by [[Hivite]] jealousy of water rights, and the well still exists East of Shechem (compare &nbsp;John 4:5 f), not far from the Elon Moreh where were buried the <i> ''''' terāphı̄m ''''' </i> (&nbsp;Genesis 35:4 ) or "spirits" (Assyrian, <i> ''''' tarpu ''''' </i> ) from Haran (&nbsp;Genesis 31:30 ) under the oak of Abraham. These no doubt were small images, such as are so often unearthed in Palestine. The further progress of Jacob led by Bethel and Bethlehem to Hebron (&nbsp;Genesis 35:6 , &nbsp;Genesis 35:19 , &nbsp;Genesis 35:27 ), but some of his elder sons seem to have remained at Shechem. Thus, Joseph was sent later from Hebron (&nbsp;Genesis 37:14 ) to visit his brethren there, but found them at Dothan. </p> (3) Dothan. <p> Dothan (&nbsp;Genesis 37:17 ) lay in a plain on the main trade route from Egypt to Damascus, which crossed the low watershed at this point and led down the valley to Jezreel and over Jordan to Bashan. The "well of the pit" ( <i> SWP </i> , II, 169) is still shown at <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Dothân ''''' </i> , and the Ishmaelites, from [[Midian]] and Gilead, chose this easy caravan route (&nbsp;Genesis 37:25 , &nbsp;Genesis 37:28 ) for camels laden with the Gilead balm and spices. The plain was fitted for feeding Jacob's flocks. The products of Palestine then included also honey, pistachio nuts, and almonds (&nbsp;Genesis 43:11 ); and a few centuries later we find notice in a text of Thothmes Iii of honey and balsam, with oil, wine, wheat, spelt, barley and fruits, as rations of the Egyptian troops in Canaan (Brugsch, <i> Hist Egypt </i> , I, 332). </p> <p> <b> 4. Mentioned in Connection with Judah: </b> </p> <p> The episode of Judah and [[Tamar]] is connected with a region in the <i> ''''' Shephēlāh ''''' </i> , or low hills of Judea. Adullam ( <i> ''''' ‛Aı̂d ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> ), [[Chezib]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Ain ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Kezbeh ''''' </i> ), and [[Timnath]] ( <i> ''''' Tibneh ''''' </i> ) are not far apart (&nbsp; Genesis 38:1 , &nbsp;Genesis 38:5 , &nbsp;Genesis 38:12 ), the latter being in a pastoral valley where Judah met his "sheep shearers." Tamar sat at "the entrance of Enaim" (compare &nbsp;Genesis 38:14 , &nbsp;Genesis 38:22 the English Revised Version) or [[Enam]] (&nbsp; Joshua 15:34 ), perhaps at <i> ''''' Kefr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ‛Ana ''''' </i> , 6 miles Northwest of Timnath. She was mistaken for a <i> ''''' ḳedhēshāh ''''' </i> , or votary (sacred prostitute) of [[Ashtoreth]] (&nbsp;Genesis 38:15 , &nbsp;Genesis 38:21 ), and we know from Hammurabi's laws that such votaries were already recognized. The mention of Judah's signet and staff (&nbsp;Genesis 38:18 ) also reminds us of Babylonian customs as described by Herodotus (i. 195), and signet-cylinders of Babylonian style, and of early date, have been unearthed in Palestine at Gezer and elsewhere (compare the "Babylonian garment," &nbsp;Joshua 7:21 ). </p> <p> <b> 5. Review of the Geography of Genesis: </b> </p> <p> [[Generally]] speaking, the geography of Gen presents no difficulties, and shows an intimate knowledge of the country, while the allusions to natural products and to customs are in accord with the results of scientific discovery. Only one difficulty needs notice, where [[Atad]] (&nbsp;Genesis 50:10 ) on the way from Egypt to Hebron is described as "beyond the Jordan." In this case the Assyrian language perhaps helps us, for in that tongue <i> ''''' Yaur ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' danu ''''' </i> means "the great river," and the reference may be to the Nile itself, which is called <i> ''''' Yaur ''''' </i> in Hebrew ( <i> ''''' ye'ōr ''''' </i> ) and Assyrian alike. </p> <p> <b> 6. Exodus and Leviticus: </b> </p> <p> Exodus is concerned with Egypt and the Sinaitic desert, though it may be observed that its simple agricultural laws (&nbsp;Exodus 21 through 23), which so often recall those of Hammurabi, would have been needed at once on the conquest of Gilead and Bashan, before crossing the Jordan. In &nbsp; Leviticus 11 we have a list of animals most of which belong to the desert - as for instance the "coney" or hyrax (&nbsp; Leviticus 11:5; &nbsp;Psalm 104:18; &nbsp;Proverbs 30:26 ), but others - such as the swine (&nbsp;Leviticus 11:7 ), the stork and the heron (&nbsp;Leviticus 11:19 ) - to the <i> ''''' ‛A ''''' </i> rabah and the Jordan valley, while the hoopoe (the King James Version "lapwing," &nbsp;Leviticus 11:19 ) lives in Gilead and in Western Palestine. In Deuteronomy 14 the fallow deer and the roe (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 14:5 ) are now inhabitants of Tabor and Gilead, but the "wild goat" (ibex), "wild ox" (buball), "pygarg" (addax) and "chamois" (wild sheep), are found in the <i> ''''' ‛Arabah ''''' </i> and in the deserts. </p> <p> <b> 7. Numbers: </b> </p> <p> In Numbers, the conquest of Eastern Palestine is described, and most of the towns mentioned are known (21:18-33); the notice of vineyards in Moab (&nbsp;Numbers 21:22 ) agrees with the discovery of ancient rock-cut wine presses near [[Heshbon]] ( <i> SEP </i> , I, 221). The view of Israel, in camp at [[Shittim]] by [[Balaam]] (&nbsp;Numbers 22:41 ), standing on the top of [[Pisgah]] or Mt. Nebo, has been shown to be possible by the discovery of <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> Neba, where also rude dolmens recalling Balak's altars have been found ( <i> SEP </i> , I, 202). The plateau of Moab (&nbsp;Numbers 32:3 ) is described as a "land for cattle," and still supports Arab flocks. The camps in which Israel left their cattle, women and children during the wars, for 6 months, stretched (&nbsp;Numbers 33:49 ) from Beth-jeshimoth ( <i> ''''' Suweimeh ''''' </i> ), near the northeastern corner of the Dead Sea over Abel-shittim ("the acacia meadow" - a name it still bears) in a plain watered by several brooks, and having good herbage in spring. </p> <p> <b> 8. Deuteronomy: </b> </p> (1) Physical Allusions. <p> The description of the "good land" in Deuteronomy (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:7 ) applies in some details with special force to Mt. Gilead, which possesses more perennial streams than Western Palestine throughout - "a land of brooks of water, of fountains and springs, flowing forth in valleys and hills"; a land also "of wheat and barley, and vines and fig-trees and pomegranates, a land of olive-trees and honey" is found in Gilead and Bashan. Palestine itself is not a mining country, but the words (&nbsp;Matthew 8:9 ), "a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig copper," may be explained by the facts that iron mines existed near Beirut in the 10th century AD, and copper mines at [[Punon]] North of [[Petra]] in the 4th century AD, as described by [[Jerome]] ( <i> Onomasticon </i> , under the word "Phinon"). In Deuteronomy also (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:29; compare &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:4; &nbsp;Joshua 8:30 ) Ebal and Gerizim are first noticed, as beside the "oaks of Moreh." Ebal the mountain of curses (3, 077 ft. above sea-level) and Gerizim the mountain of blessings (2, 850 ft.) are the two highest tops in Samaria, and Shechem lies in a rich valley between them. The first sacred center of Israel was thus established at the place where Abraham built his first altar and Jacob dug his well, where Joseph was buried and where Joshua recognized a holy place at the foot of Gerizim (&nbsp;Joshua 24:26 ). The last chapters of Deuteronomy record the famous Pisgah view from Mt. [[Nebo]] (34:1-3), which answers in all respects to that from <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Neba ''''' </i> , except as to Dan, and the utmost (or "western") sea, neither of which is visible. Here we should probably read "toward" rather than "to," and there is no other hill above the plains of Shittim whence a better view can be obtained of the Jordan valley, from Zoar to Jericho, of the watershed mountains as far North as Gilboa and Tabor, and of the slopes of Gilead. </p> (2) Archaeology. <p> But besides these physical allusions, the progress of exploration serves to illustrate the archaeology of Deuteronomy. Israel was commanded (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:3 ) to overthrow the Canaanite altars, to break the standing stones which were emblems of superstition, to burn the <i> ''''' 'ăshērāh ''''' </i> poles (or artificial trees), and to hew down the graven images. That these commands were obeyed is clear. The rude altars and standing stones are now found only in Moab, and in remote parts of Gilead, Bashan, and Galilee, not reached by the power of reforming kings of Judah. The <i> ''''' 'ăshērāh ''''' </i> poles have disappeared, the images are found, only deep under the surface. The carved tablets which remain at Damascus, and in Phoenicia and Syria, representing the gods of Canaan or of the Hittites, have no counterpart in the Holy Land. Again when we read of ancient "landmarks" (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 19:14; &nbsp;Proverbs 22:28; &nbsp;Proverbs 23:10 ), we are not to understand a mere boundary stone, but rather one of those monuments common in [[Babylonia]] - as early at least as the 12th century Bc - on which the boundaries of a field are minutely described, the history of its grant by the king detailed, and a curse (compare &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:17 ) pronounced against the man who should dare to remove the stone. See illustration under [[Nebuchadnezzar]] . </p> III. Palestine in the Historic Books of the Old Testament. <p> <b> 1. Book of Joshua: </b> </p> <p> Joshua is the great geographical book of the Old Testament; and the large majority of the 600 names of places, rivers and mountains in Palestine mentioned in the Bible are to be found in this book. </p> (1) Topographical Accuracy. <p> About half of this total of names were known, or were fixed by Dr. Robinson, between 1838,1852, and about 150 new sites were discovered (1872-1878,1881-1882) in consequence of the 1-in. trigonometrical survey of the country, and were identified by the present writer during this period; a few interesting sites have been added by M. Clermont-Ganneau (Adullam and Gezer), by A. Henderson (Kiriathjearim), by W.F. Birch (Zoar at <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' esh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Shâghûr ''''' </i> ), and by others. Thus more than three-quarters of the sites have been fixed with more or less certainty, most of them preserving their ancient names. It is impossible to study this topography without seeing that the Bible writers had personal knowledge of the country; and it is incredible that a Hebrew priest, writing in Babylonia, could have possessed that intimate acquaintance with all parts of the land which is manifest in the geographical chapters of Joshua. The towns are enumerated in due order by districts; the tribal boundaries follow natural lines - valleys and mountain ridges - and the character of various regions is correctly indicated. Nor can we suppose that this topography refers to conditions subsequent to the return from captivity, for these were quite different. [[Simeon]] had ceased to inhabit the south by the time of David (&nbsp; 1 Chronicles 4:24 ), and the lot of Dan was colonized by men of Benjamin after the captivity (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 8:12 , &nbsp;1 Chronicles 8:13; &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:34 , &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:35 ). [[Tirzah]] is mentioned (&nbsp;Joshua 12:24 ) in Samaria, whereas the future capital of Omri is not. [[Ai]] is said to have been made "a heap forever" (&nbsp;Joshua 8:28 ), but was inhabited apparently in Isaiah's time (&nbsp;Isaiah 10:28 = Aiath) and certainly after the captivity (&nbsp; Ezra 2:28; &nbsp;Nehemiah 7:32; &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:31 = Aija). At latest, the topography seems to be that of Solomon's age, though it is remarkable that very few places in Samaria are noticed in the Book of Joshua. </p> (2) The [[Passage]] of the Jordan. <p> Israel crossed Jordan at the lowest ford East of Jericho. The river was in flood, swollen by the melting snows of Hermon (&nbsp;Joshua 3:15 ); the stoppage occurred 20 miles farther up at Adam ( <i> ''''' ed ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Dâmieh ''''' </i> ), the chalky cliffs at a narrow place being probably undermined and falling in, thus damming the stream. A M oslem writer asserts that a similar stoppage occurred in the 13th century AD, near the same point. (See [[Jordan River]] .) The first camp was established at Gilgal ( <i> ''''' Jilgûlieh ''''' </i> ), 3 miles East of Jericho, and a "circle" of 12 stones was erected. Jericho was not at the medieval site ( <i> ''''' er ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Rı̂ḥa ''''' </i> ) South of Gilgal, or at the Herodian site farther West, but at the great spring <i> ''''' ‛Ain ''''' </i> <i> ''''' es ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Sulṭân ''''' </i> , close to the mountains to which the spies escaped (&nbsp;Joshua 2:16 ). The great mounds were found by Sir C. [[Warren]] to consist of sun-dried bricks, and further excavations (see <i> Mitteil </i> . <i> der deutschen Orient-Gesell </i> ., December, 1909, No. 41) have revealed little but the remains of houses of various dates. </p> (3) Joshua's First Campaign. <p> The first city in the mountains attacked by Israel was Ai, near Chayan, 2 miles Southeast of Bethel. It has a deep valley to the North, as described (&nbsp;Joshua 8:22 ). The fall of Ai and Bethel (&nbsp;Joshua 8:17 ) seems to have resulted in the peaceful occupation of the region between Gibeon and Shechem (Josh 8:30 through 9:27); but while the Hivites submitted the Amorites of Jerusalem and of the South attacked Gibeon ( <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Jı̂b ''''' </i> ) and were driven down the steep pass of Beth-horon ( <i> ''''' Beit ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ‛Aûr ''''' </i> ) to the plains (&nbsp;Joshua 10:1-11 ). Joshua's great raid, after this victory, proceeded through the plain to Makkedah, now called <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Mughâr ''''' </i> , from the "cave" (compare &nbsp;Joshua 10:17 ), and by [[Libnah]] to [[Lachish]] ( <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḥesy ''''' </i> ), whence he went up to Hebron, and "turned" South to [[Debir]] ( <i> ''''' edh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Dhâherı̂yeh ''''' </i> ), thus subduing the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> of Judah and the southern mountains, though the capital at Jerusalem was not taken. It is now very generally admitted that the six letters of the Amorite king of Jerusalem included in <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Amarna ''''' </i> [[Letters]] may refer to this war. The <i> ''''' ‛Abı̂ri ''''' </i> or <i> ''''' Ḥabiri ''''' </i> are therein noticed as a fierce people from Seir, who "destroyed all the rulers," and who attacked Ajalon, Lachish, Ashkelon, [[Keilah]] (on the main road to Hebron) and other places. See [[Exodus]] , The . </p> (4) The Second Campaign. <p> The second campaign (&nbsp;Joshua 11:1-14 ) was against the nations of Galilee; and the Hebrew victory was gained at "the waters of Merom" (&nbsp;Joshua 11:5 ). There is no sound reason for placing these at the <i> ''''' Ḥûleh ''''' </i> lake; and the swampy Jordan valley was a very unlikely field of battle for the Canaanite chariots (&nbsp;Joshua 11:6 ). The kings noticed are those of [[Madon]] ( <i> ''''' Madı̂n ''''' </i> ), [[Shimron]] ( <i> ''''' Semmunieh ''''' </i> ), Dor (possibly <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Thorah ''''' </i> ), "on the west," and of [[Hazor]] ( <i> ''''' Ḥazzûr ''''' </i> ), all in Lower Galilee. The pursuit was along the coast toward Sidon (&nbsp;Joshua 11:8 ); and Merom may be identical with Shimron-meron (&nbsp;Joshua 12:20 ), now <i> ''''' Semmunieh ''''' </i> , in which case the "waters" were those of the perennial stream in <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Melek ''''' </i> , 3 miles to the North, which flow West to join the lower part of the Kishon. Shimron-meron was one of the 31 royal cities of Palestine West of the Jordan (Josh 12:9-24). </p> <p> The regions left unconquered by Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 13:2-6 ) were those afterward conquered by David and Solomon, including the Philistine plains, and the [[Sidonian]] coast from [[Mearah]] ( <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Mogheirı̂yeh ''''' </i> ) northward to [[Aphek]] ( <i> ''''' Afḳa ''''' </i> ) in Lebanon, on the border of the Amorite country which lay South of the "land of the Hittites" (&nbsp;Joshua 1:4 ). Southern Lebanon, from [[Gebal]] ( <i> ''''' Jubeil ''''' </i> ) and the "entering into Hamath" (the [[Eleutherus]] Valley) on the West, to Baal-gad (probably at <i> ''''' ‛Ain ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Judeideh ''''' </i> on the northwestern slope of Hermon) was also included in the "land" by David (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:6-10 ). But the whole of Eastern Palestine (Josh 13:7-32), and of Western Palestine, except the shore plains, was allotted to the 12 tribes. Judah and Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh), being the strongest, appear to have occupied the mountains and the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> , as far North as Lower Galilee, before the final allotment. </p> <p> Thus, the lot of Simeon was within that inherited by Judah (&nbsp;Joshua 19:1 ), and that of Dan seems to have been partly taken from Ephraim, since Joseph's lot originally reached to Gezer (&nbsp;Joshua 16:3 ); but Benjamin appears to have received its portion early (compare &nbsp;Joshua 15:5-11; &nbsp;Joshua 16:1 , &nbsp;Joshua 16:2; 18:11-28). This lot was larger than that of Ephraim, and Benjamin was not then the "smallest of the tribes of Israel" (&nbsp;1 Samuel 9:21 ), since the destruction of the tribe did not occur till after the death of Joshua and [[Eleazar]] (&nbsp;Judges 20:28 ). </p> <p> The twelve tribes were distributed in various regions which may here briefly be described. [[Reuben]] held the Moab plateau to the Arnon ( <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Môjub ''''' </i> ) on the South, and to the "river of Gad" ( <i> ''''' Wâdy ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Nā'aûr ''''' </i> ) on the North, thus including part of the Jordan valley close to the Dead Sea. [[Gad]] held all the West of Gilead, being separated from the [[Ammonites]] by the upper course of the Jabbok. All the rest of the Jordan valley East of the river was included in this lot. Manasseh held Bashan, but the conquest was not completed till later. Simeon had the <i> ''''' neghebh ''''' </i> plateau South of Beersheba. Judah occupied the mountains South of Jerusalem, with the <i> ''''' shephēlāh ''''' </i> to their West, and claimed Philistia South of Ekron. Benjamin had the Jericho plains and the mountains between Jerusalem and Bethel. The border ran South of Jerusalem to Rachel's tomb (&nbsp; 1 Samuel 10:2 ), and thence West to Kiriath-jearim ('Erma) and Ekron. Dan occupied the lower hills West of Benjamin and Ephraim, and claimed the plain from [[Ekron]] to [[Rakkon]] ( <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' er ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Raḳḳeit ''''' </i> ) North of Joppa. Manasseh had a large region, corresponding to Samaria, and including Carmel, Sharon and half the Jordan valley, with the mountains North of Shechem; but this tribe occupied only the hills, and was unable to drive the Cannanites out of the plains (&nbsp;Joshua 17:11 , &nbsp;Joshua 17:16 ) Ephraim also complained of the smallness of its lot (&nbsp;Joshua 17:15 ), which lay in rugged mountains between Bethel and Shechem, including however, the grain plateau East of the latter city. [[Issachar]] held the plains of Esdraelon and Dothan, with the Jordan valley to the East, but soon became subject to the Canaanites. Zebulun had the hills of Lower Galilee, and the coast from Carmel to Accho. [[Naphtali]] owned the mountains of Upper Galilee, and the rich plateau between Tabor and the Sea of Galilee. [[Asher]] had the low hills West of Naphtali, and the narrow shore plains from [[Accho]] to Tyre. Thus each tribe possessed a proportion of mountain land fit for cultivation of figs, olives and vines, and of arable land fit for corn. The areas allotted appear to correspond to the density of population that the various regions were fitted to support. </p> <p> The [[Levitical]] cities were fixed in the various tribes as centers for the teaching of Israel (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 33:10 ), but a [[Levite]] was not obliged to live in such a city, and was expected to go with his course annually to the sacred center, before they retreated to Jerusalem on the disruption of the kingdom (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 11:14 ). The 48 cities (Josh 21:13-42) include 13 in Judah and Benjamin for the priests, among which Beth-shemesh (&nbsp;1 Samuel 6:13 , &nbsp;1 Samuel 6:15 ) and [[Anathoth]] (&nbsp;1 Kings 2:26 ) are early noticed as Levitical. The other tribes had 3 or 4 such cities each, divided among [[Kohathites]] (10), Gershonites (13), and [[Merarites]] (12). The six Cities of [[Refuge]] were included in the total, and were placed 3 each side of the Jordan in the South, in the center, and in the North, namely Hebron, Shechem and [[Kedesh]] on the West, and [[Bezer]] (unknown), [[Ramoth]] ( <i> ''''' Reimûn ''''' </i> ) and [[Golan]] (probably <i> ''''' Saḥem ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Jaulân ''''' </i> ) East of the river. Another less perfect list of these cities, with 4 omissions and 11 minor differences, mostly clerical, is given in 1 Ch 6:57-81. Each of these cities had "suburbs," or open spaces, extending (&nbsp;Numbers 35:4 ) about a quarter-mile beyond the wall, while the fields, to about half a mile distant, also belonged to the [[Levites]] (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:34 ). </p> <p> <b> 2. Book of Judges: </b> </p> (1) Early Wars. <p> In Judges, the stories of the heroes who successively arose to save Israel from the heathen carry us to every part of the country. "After the death of Joshua" (&nbsp;Judges 1:1 ) the Canaanites appear to have recovered power, and to have rebuilt some of the cities which he had ruined. Judah fought the [[Perizzites]] ("villagers") at Berek ( <i> ''''' Berḳah ''''' </i> ) in the lower hills West of Jerusalem, and even set fire to that city. [[Caleb]] attacked Debir (Jsg &nbsp;Joshua 1:12-15 ), which is described (compare &nbsp;Joshua 15:15-19 ) as lying in a "dry" (the King James Version "south") region, yet with springs not far away. The actual site ( <i> ''''' edh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Dhâherı̂yeh ''''' </i> ) is a village with ancient tombs 12 miles Southwest of Hebron; it has no springs, but about 7 miles to the Northeast there is a perennial stream with "upper and lower springs." As regards the Philistine cities (&nbsp;Judges 1:18 ), the Septuagint reading seems preferable; for the Greek says that Judah "did not take Gaza" nor [[Ashkelon]] nor Ekron, which agrees with the failure in conquering the "valley" (&nbsp;Judges 1:19 ) due to the Canaanites having "chariots of iron." The Canaanite chariots are often mentioned about this time in the <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Amarna ''''' </i> Letters and Egyptian accounts speak of their being plated with metals. Manasseh, Ephraim, Zebulun, Asher and Naphtali, were equally powerless against cities in the plains (&nbsp;Judges 1:27-33 ); and Israel began to mingle with the Canaanites, while the tribe of Dan seems never to have really occupied its allotted region, and remained encamped in the borders of Judah till some, at least, of its warriors found a new home under Hermon (&nbsp;Judges 1:34; 18:1-30) in the time of Jonathan, the grandson of Moses. </p> (2) [[Defeat]] of Sisera. <p> The oppression of Israel by [[Jabin]] 2 of Hazor, in Lower Galilee, appears to have occurred in the time of Rameses II, who, in his 8th year, conquered Shalem ( <i> ''''' Sâlim ''''' </i> , North of Taanach), [[Anem]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Anı̂n ''''' </i> ), Dapur ( <i> ''''' Debûrieh ''''' </i> , at the foot of Tabor), with [[Bethanath]] ( <i> ''''' ‛Ainitha ''''' </i> ) in Upper Galilee (Brugsch, <i> History of Egypt </i> , II, 64). Sisera may have been an Egyptian resident at the court of Jabin (&nbsp; Judges 4:2 ); his defeat occurred near the foot of Tabor (&nbsp;Judges 4:14 ) to which he advanced East from [[Harosheth]] ( <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḥarathı̂yeh ''''' </i> ) on the edge of the sea plain. His host "perished at Endor" (&nbsp;Psalm 83:9 ) and in the swampy Kishon (&nbsp;Judges 5:21 ). The site of the Kedesh in "the plain of swamps" (&nbsp;Judges 4:11 ) to which he fled is doubtful. Perhaps Kedesh of Issachar (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 6:72 ) is intended at <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḳadeis ''''' </i> , 3 miles North of Taanach, for the plain is here swampy in parts. The Canaanite league of petty kings fought from [[Taanach]] to Megiddo (&nbsp;Judges 5:19 ), but the old identification of the latter city with the Roman town of Legio ( <i> ''''' Lejjûn ''''' </i> ) was a mere guess which does not fit with Egyptian accounts placing Megiddo near the Jordan. The large site at <i> ''''' Mugedd‛a ''''' </i> , in the Valley of Jezreel seems to be more suitable for all the Old Testament as well as for the Egyptian accounts ( <i> SWP </i> , II, 90-99). </p> (3) Gideon's Victory. <p> The subsequent oppression by [[Midianites]] and others would seem to have coincided with the troubles which occurred in the 5th, year of Minepthah (see [[Exodus]] , The ). Gideon's home (&nbsp;Judges 6:11 ) at Ophrah, in Manasseh, is placed by Samaritan tradition at <i> ''''' Fer‛ata ''''' </i> , 6 miles West of Shechem, but his victory was won in the Valley of Jezreel (Jdg 7:1-22); the sites of Beth-shittah ( <i> ''''' Shaṭṭa ''''' </i> ) and Abel-meholah ( <i> ''''' ‛Ain ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḥelweh ''''' </i> ) show how Midian fled down this valley and South along the Jordan plain, crossing the river near Succoth ( <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Der‛ala ''''' </i> ) and ascending the slopes of Gilead to [[Jogbehah]] ( <i> ''''' Jubeiḥah ''''' </i> ) and [[Nobah]] (&nbsp;Judges 8:4-11 ). But [[Oreb]] ("the raven") and [[Zeeb]] ("the wolf") perished at "the raven's rock" and "the wolf's hollow" (compare &nbsp;Judges 7:25 ), West of the Jordan. It is remarkable (as pointed out by the present author in 1874) that, 3 miles North of Jericho, a sharp peak is now called "the raven's nest," and a ravine 4 miles farther North is named "the wolf's hollows." These sites are rather farther South than might be expected, unless the two chiefs were separated from the fugitives, who followed [[Zebah]] and [[Zalmunna]] to Gilead. In this episode "Mt. Gilead" (&nbsp;Judges 7:3 ) seems to be a clerical error for "Mt. Gilboa," unless the name survives in corrupt form at <i> ''''' ‛Aı̂n ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Jâlûd ''''' </i> ("Goliath's spring"), which is a large pool, usually supposed to be the spring of [[Harod]] (&nbsp;Judges 7:1 ), where [[Gideon]] camped, East of Jezreel. </p> <p> The story of Abimelech takes us back to Shechem. He was made king by the "oak of the pillar" (&nbsp;Judges 9:6 ), which was no doubt Abraham's oak already noticed; it seems also to be called 'the enchant </p>

<p> Or the </p> <p> small territory on the SE. corner of the Mediterranean, about the size of Wales, being 140 m. from N. to S., and an average of 70 m. from E. to W., is bounded on the N. by Lebanon, on the E. by the Jordan Valley, on the S. by the Sinaitic Desert, and on the W. by the sea; there is great diversity of climate throughout its extent owing to the great diversity of level, and its flora and fauna are of corresponding range; it suffered much during the wars between the Eastern monarchies and Egypt, and in the wars between the [[Crescent]] and the Cross, and is now by a strange fate in the hands of the Turk; it has in recent times been the theatre of extensive exploring operations in the interest of its early history. </p>