Difference between revisions of "Mark"

<p> It was not unusual for Jews in the Roman [[Empire]] to have both Jewish and Roman names. In the case of John Mark, his two names reflect respectively this Jewish and Roman background. </p> <p> '''In Jerusalem''' </p> <p> Mark was a Jew brought up in Jerusalem. His parents were reasonably wealthy, as they owned a large house and had servants (&nbsp;Acts 12:12-13). (Also, at least one of Mark’s close relatives was wealthy enough to own land; &nbsp;Acts 4:36-37; &nbsp;Colossians 4:10.) Mark’s house must have been a regular meeting place for the apostles and other Christians in Jerusalem, as Peter, on escaping from prison, knew that he would find the Christians there (&nbsp;Acts 12:12). If this was the house usually used by the apostles as a meeting place, it was the house of ‘the upper room’ where Jesus had earlier gathered with his disciples (&nbsp;Luke 22:11-13; &nbsp;Acts 1:13; cf. also &nbsp;John 20:19; &nbsp;John 20:26). </p> <p> There is a further point in favour of the suggestion that Mark’s house was the house of the upper room. This is the reference Mark himself makes to a certain young man who had followed Jesus and the disciples from the house to the [[Garden]] of Gethsemane, clothed only in his nightwear (&nbsp;Mark 14:51-52). It was a common practice for an author to include a brief personal detail or story but not to mention his own name directly (cf. &nbsp;John 13:23; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 12:2). </p> <p> '''With Paul and Barnabas''' </p> <p> Whether the house of the upper room was Mark’s home or not, Mark certainly would have known Peter and the other leading Christians who often visited his home (&nbsp;Acts 12:12-14). When Paul and Barnabas visited Jerusalem with an offering from the church at Antioch, they met Mark. They were so impressed with him that they took him back to Antioch, and later took him with them on what has become known as Paul’s first missionary journey (&nbsp;Acts 12:25; &nbsp;Acts 13:5). </p> <p> After only a short time, Mark left Paul and Barnabas and returned to Jerusalem (&nbsp;Acts 13:13). To Paul this showed that Mark was not reliable, and he refused to allow Mark to go with him and Barnabas on their next missionary journey. Paul and Barnabas quarrelled over the matter and parted. Paul went ahead with his planned journey, but with a new partner, while Mark went with Barnabas to [[Cyprus]] (&nbsp;Acts 15:36-41). </p> <p> '''In Rome and Asia Minor''' </p> <p> The Bible has no record of Mark’s activities over the next ten years or so. But there is evidence in other early records that he spent some time with Peter, helping Peter to evangelize the provinces of northern Asia Minor where God had not allowed Paul to preach (&nbsp;1 Peter 1:1; cf. &nbsp;Acts 16:6-8). </p> <p> Peter and Mark then visited Rome and taught the Christians there. When Peter left Rome, the Roman Christians asked Mark (who had stayed behind) to preserve the story of Jesus as they had heard it from Peter. In due course Mark produced the book known as Mark’s Gospel, a book that strongly carries the flavour of Peter (see MARK, GOSPEL OF). </p> <p> Mark was still in Rome when Paul arrived as a prisoner the first time (Philem 23-24). Mark had matured over the years, and Paul readily acknowledged this. He bore no grudges, and recommended Mark to the Colossian church as one who could be of help to it (&nbsp;Colossians 4:10). </p> <p> On leaving Rome, Mark most likely went to Colossae as planned. He was probably still there when Paul later wrote to Timothy (who was in Ephesus, not far away), asking him to get Mark and bring him to Rome. Paul was back in prison after a brief time of freedom and travel, and he wanted to see Timothy and Mark before he was executed (&nbsp;2 Timothy 4:11). </p> <p> Whether the two reached Rome before Paul’s execution is uncertain, but Mark was certainly in Rome at the time of Peter’s visit soon after. Over their years of working together, Mark and Peter had become so close that Peter called Mark his son. Mark may even have been converted through Peter, back in the days when Peter frequented Mark’s house in Jerusalem. Now, as Peter neared the end of his life, he linked Mark’s name with his own in writing a letter to the churches of Asia Minor that together they had helped to establish (&nbsp;1 Peter 1:1; &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13). </p>

<div> '''1: χάραγμα ''' (Strong'S #5480 — Noun Neuter — charagma — khar'-ag-mah ) </div> <p> denotes "a stamp, impress," translated "mark" in &nbsp;Revelation 13:16,17 , etc. See Graven. </p> <div> '''2: στίγμα ''' (Strong'S #4742 — Noun Neuter — stigma — stig'-mah ) </div> <p> denotes "a tattooed mark" or "a mark burnt in, a brand" (akin to stizo, "to prick"), translated "marks" in &nbsp;Galatians 6:17 . "It is probable that the Apostle refers to the physical sufferings he had endured since he began to proclaim Jesus as [[Messiah]] and Lord [e.g., at [[Lystra]] and Philippi]. It is probable, too, that this reference to his scars was intended to set off the insistence of the [[Judaizers]] upon a body-mark which cost them nothing. Over against the circumcision they demanded as a proof of obedience to the law he set the indelible tokens, sustained in his own body, of his loyalty to the Lord Jesus. As to the origin of the figure, it was indeed customary for a master to brand his slaves, but this language does not suggest that the Apostle had been branded by His Master. [[Soldiers]] and criminals also were branded on occasion; but to neither of these is the case of Paul as here described analogous. The religious devotee branded himself with the peculiar mark of the god whose cult he affected; so was Paul branded with the marks of his devotion to the Lord Jesus. It is true such markings were forbidden by the law, &nbsp;Leviticus 19:28 , but then Paul had not inflicted these on himself. </p> <div> '''3: σκοπός ''' (Strong'S #4649 — Noun Masculine — skopos — skop-os' ) </div> <p> primarily "a watcher, watchman" (as in the Sept., e.g., &nbsp;Ezekiel 3:17 ), then, "a mark on which to fix the eye" (akin to skopeo, "to look at"), is used metaphorically in &nbsp;Philippians 3:14 , of "an aim or object," RV, "goal." See Goal. </p>

<p> [[Mark]] (''Märk'' ). John whose surname was Mark, &nbsp;Acts 12:12, was the son of Mary, a woman of piety who lived at Jerusalem. The disciples occasionally assembled at her house for prayer, and she was sister to Barnabas. &nbsp;Colossians 4:10. He is also called Marcus. Peter styles Mark his son, &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13; meaning his spiritual son—that he was converted by that apostle. Mark left Jerusalem for Antioch with Paul and Barnabas, &nbsp;Acts 12:25, and accompanied them on their first missionary journey. He left them at Perga and returned to Jerusalem. This afterward led to a serious dispute between Paul and Barnabas. &nbsp;Acts 13:5; &nbsp;Acts 13:13; &nbsp;Acts 15:39. They therefore separated, Mark sailing with his uncle Barnabas to Cyprus. &nbsp;Acts 15:36-39. At a later period he was again with Paul during his first imprisonment at Rome, &nbsp;Colossians 4:10, and he regained Paul's confidence. &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:11. We find him also with Peter, &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13, with whom he is said to have travelled, and to have been his amanuensis. Nothing further of him is recorded in the Scripture; but we may identify him with the author of the second Gospel, and may readily believe ecclesiastical history which tells us that he was bishop of the church in Alexandria. Whether he died a natural death or by martyrdom is uncertain. </p>

<p> ''''' mark ''''' : In the King James Version this word is used 22 times as a noun and 26 times as a predicate. In the former case it is represented by 5 Hebrew and 3 Greek words; in the latter by 11 Hebrew and 2 Greek words. As a noun it is purely a physical term, gaining almost a technical significance from the "mark" put upon Cain (&nbsp; [[Genesis]] 4:15 the King James Version); the <i> '''''stigmata''''' </i> of Christ in Paul's body (&nbsp;Galatians 6:17 ); the "mark of the beast" (&nbsp;Revelation 16:2 ). </p> <p> As a verb it is almost exclusively a mental process: e.g. "to be attentive," "understand": בּין , <i> ''''' bı̄n ''''' </i> (&nbsp; Job 18:2 the King James Version), rightly rendered in the Revised Version (British and American) "consider"; שׁית , <i> '''''shı̄th''''' </i> , "Mark ye well her bulwarks" (&nbsp;Psalm 48:13 ), i.e. turn the mind to, notice, regard; שׁמר , <i> '''''shāmar''''' </i> , i.e. observe, keep in view; so &nbsp;Psalm 37:37 , "Mark the perfect man"; compare &nbsp;Job 22:15 the King James Version. This becomes a unique expression in &nbsp; 1 Samuel 1:12 , where Eli, noticing the movement of Hannah's lips in prayer, is said to have "marked her mouth." Jesus "marked" how invited guests chose out (ἐπεχω , <i> '''''epéchō''''' </i> , i.e. "observed") the chief seats (&nbsp;Luke 14:7 ); so σκοπέω , <i> '''''skopéō''''' </i> (&nbsp;Romans 16:17; &nbsp;Philippians 3:17 ), "Mark them," i.e. look at, signifying keen mental attention, i.e. scrutinize, observe carefully. The only exceptions to this mental signification of the verb are two verses in the Old Testament: &nbsp;Isaiah 44:13 , "He marketh it out with a pencil" ("red ochre," the King James Version "line"), and "with the compasses," where the verb is תּאר , <i> '''''tā'ar''''' </i> , "to delineate," "mark out"; &nbsp;Jeremiah 2:22 , "Thine iniquity is marked (כּתם , <i> '''''kātham''''' </i> , "cut (i.e. engraved)) before me," signifying the deep and ineradicable nature of sin. It may also be rendered "written," as in indelible hieroglyphics. </p> <p> As a noun the term "mark" may signify, according to its various Hebrew and Greek originals, a sign, "a target" an object of assault, a brand or stigma cut or burnt in the flesh, a goal or end in view, a stamp or imprinted or engraved sign. </p> <p> (1) אות , <i> ''''' 'ōth ''''' </i> , "a sign": &nbsp; Genesis 4:15 the King James Version, "The Lord set a mark upon Cain" (the American Standard Revised Version "appointed a sign"). It is impossible to tell the nature of this sign. Delitzsch thinks that the rabbins were mistaken in regarding it as a mark upon Cain's body. He considers it rather "a certain sign which protected him from vengeance," the continuance of his life being necessary for the preservation of the race. It was thus, as the Hebrew indicates, the token of a covenant which God made with Cain that his life would be spared. </p> <p> (2) מטּרא , <i> ''''' maṭṭārā' ''''' </i> , "an aim," hence, a mark to shoot at. [[Jonathan]] arranged to shoot arrows as at a mark, for a sign to David (&nbsp; 1 Samuel 20:20 ); Job felt himself to be a target for the [[Divine]] arrows, i.e. for the Divinely decreed sufferings which wounded him and which he was called to endure (&nbsp;Job 16:12 ); so Jeremiah, "He hath set me as a mark for the arrow" (&nbsp;Lamentations 3:12 ); closely akin to this is מפגּע , <i> '''''miphgā‛''''' </i> , an object of attack (&nbsp;Job 7:20 ), where Job in bitterness of soul feels that God has become his enemy, and says, 'Why hast thou made me the mark of hostile attack?'; "set me as a mark for thee." See [[Target]] . </p> <p> (3) תּו , <i> ''''' tāw ''''' </i> , "mark" (&nbsp; Ezekiel 9:4 , &nbsp;Ezekiel 9:6 ). In Ezekiel's vision of the destruction of the wicked, the mark to be set upon the forehead of the righteous, at Yahweh's command, was, as in the case of the blood sprinkled on the door-posts of the [[Israelites]] (&nbsp;Exodus 12:22 , &nbsp;Exodus 12:23 ), for their protection. As the servants of God (&nbsp;Revelation 7:2 , &nbsp;Revelation 7:3 ) - the elect - were kept from harm by being sealed with the seal of the living God in their foreheads, so the man clothed in linen, with a writer's inkhorn by his side, was told to mark upon their foreheads those whom God would save from judgment by His sheltering grace. <i> '''''Tāw''''' </i> also appears (&nbsp;Job 31:35 ) for the attesting mark made to a document (the Revised Version (British and American) "signature," margin "mark"). </p> <p> The equivalent Hebrew letter <i> ''''' tāw ''''' </i> ת in the Phoenician alphabet and on the coins of the [[Maccabees]] had the form of a cross ( ρ Ο2 Tπ ). In oriental synods it was used as a signature by bishops who could not write. The cross, as a sign of ownership, was burnt upon the necks or thighs of horses and camels. It may have been the "mark" set upon the forehead of the righteous in Ezekiel's vision. </p> <p> (4) קעקע , <i> ''''' ḳa‛ăḳa‛ ''''' </i> , "a stigma" cut or burnt. The Israelites were forbidden (&nbsp; Leviticus 19:28 ) to follow the custom of other oriental and heathen nations in cutting, disfiguring or branding their bodies. </p> <p> The specific prohibition "not to print any marks upon" themselves evidently has reference to the custom of tattooing common among savage tribes, and in vogue among both men and women of the lower orders in Arabia, Egypt, and many other lands. It was intended to cultivate reverence for and a sense of the sacredness of the human body, as God's creation, known in the Christian era as the temple of the Holy Spirit. See also [[Cuttings In The Flesh]] . </p> <p> (5) σκοπός , <i> ''''' skopós ''''' </i> , something seen or observed in the distance, hence, a "goal." The Christian life seemed to Paul, in the intensity of his spiritual ardor, like the stadium or race-course of the Greeks, with runners stretching every nerve to reach the goal and win the prize. "I press on toward the goal (the King James Version "mark") unto the prize" (&nbsp; Philippians 3:14 ). The mark or goal is the ideal of life revealed in Christ, the prize, the attainment and possession of that life. </p> <p> In The Wisdom of &nbsp;Song of [[Solomon]] 5:21 "they fly to the mark" is from εὔστοχοι , <i> ''''' eústochoi ''''' </i> , "with true aim" (so the Revised Version (British and American)). </p> <p> (6) στίγμα , <i> ''''' stı́gma ''''' </i> , "a mark pricked or branded upon the body." [[Slaves]] and soldiers, in ancient times, were stamped or branded with the name of their master. Paul considered and called himself the bondslave of Jesus Christ. The traces of his sufferings, scourging, stonings, persecution, wounds, were visible in permanent scars on his body (compare &nbsp; 2 Corinthians 11:23-27 ). These he termed the <i> '''''stigmata''''' </i> of Jesus, marks branded in his very flesh as proofs of his devotion to his [[Master]] (&nbsp;Galatians 6:17 ). </p> <p> This passage gives no ground for the Romanist superstition that the very scars of Christ's crucifixion were reproduced in Paul's hands and feet and side. It is also "alien to the lofty self-consciousness" of these words to find in them, as some expositors do, a contrast in Paul's thought to the scar of circumcision. </p> <p> (7) χάραγμα , <i> ''''' cháragma ''''' </i> , "a stamp" or "imprinted mark." "The mark of the beast" (peculiar to Revelation) was the badge of the followers of Antichrist, stamped on the forehead or right hand (&nbsp; Revelation 13:16; compare &nbsp;Ezekiel 9:4 , &nbsp;Ezekiel 9:6 ). It was symbolic of character and was thus not a literal or physical mark, but the impress of paganism on the moral and spiritual life. It was the sign or token of apostasy. As a spiritual state or condition it subjected men to the wrath of God and to eternal torment (&nbsp;Revelation 14:9-11 ); to noisome disease (&nbsp;Revelation 16:2 ); to the lake of fire (&nbsp;Revelation 19:20 ). Those who received not the mark, having faithfully endured persecution and martyrdom, were given part in the first resurrection and lived and reigned with Christ a thousand years (&nbsp;Revelation 20:4 ). The "beast" symbolizes the anti-Christian empires, particularly Rome under Nero, who sought to devour and destroy the early Christians. </p> <p> (8) μώλωψ , <i> ''''' mṓlōps ''''' </i> , "bruise," &nbsp; [[Sirach]] 23:10 (the Revised Version (British and American) "bruise"); 28:17. </p>

<p> (Μάρκος '','' from the frequent Latin surname ''Marcus,'' as the word is Anglicized only in &nbsp;Colossians 4:10; &nbsp;Philemon 1:24; &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13), the evangelist, is probably the same as "John whose surname was Mark" (&nbsp;Acts 12:12; &nbsp;Acts 12:25). [[Grotius]] indeed maintains the contrary, on the ground that the earliest historical writers nowhere call the evangelist by the name of John, and that they always describe him as the companion of Peter and not of Paul. But John was the Jewish name, and Mark, a name of frequent use among the Romans, was adopted afterwards, and gradually superseded the other. The places in the N.T. enable us to trace the process. The John Mark of &nbsp;Acts 12:12; &nbsp;Acts 12:25, and the John of &nbsp;Acts 13:5; &nbsp;Acts 13:13, becomes Mark only in &nbsp;Acts 15:39; &nbsp;Colossians 4:10; &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:11; &nbsp;Philemon 1:24. The change of John to Mark is analogous to that of Saul to Paul; and we cannot doubt that the disuse of the Jewish name in favor of the other is intentional, and has reference to the putting away of his former life, and entrance upon a new ministry. No inconsistency arises from the accounts of his ministering to two apostles. The desertion of Paul (&nbsp;Acts 13:13) may have been prompted partly by a wish to rejoin Peter and the apostles engaged in preaching in [[Palestine]] (Benson; see Kuinol's note), and partly from a disinclination to a perilous and doubtful journey. There is nothing strange in the character of a warm impulsive young man, drawn almost equally towards the two great teachers of the faith, Paul and Peter. Had mere cowardice been the cause of his withdrawal, Barnabas would not so soon after have chosen him for another journey, nor would he have accepted the choice. </p> <p> John Mark was the son of a certain Mary, who dwelt at Jerusalem, and was therefore probably born in that city (&nbsp;Acts 12:12). He was of Jewish parentage (&nbsp;Colossians 4:10). He was the cousin (ἀνεψιός ) of Barnabas (&nbsp;Colossians 4:10). It was to Mary's house, as to a familiar haunt, that Peter came after his deliverance from prison (&nbsp;Acts 12:12), and there found "many gathered together praying;" and probably John Mark was converted by Peter from meeting him in his mother's house, for he speaks of "Marcus my son" (&nbsp;1 Peter 5:13). This term has been taken as implying the natural relation by Bengel, Neander, Credner, Hottinger, Tholuck, Stanley ''(Serm. On The Apost. Age,'' p. 95), but this is contrary to the view of the earlier writers (Origen, ap. Eusebius, H. E., 6:25; Eusebius, H. E. 2:15; Jerome, De Vir. h. c. 8). The theory that he was one of the seventy disciples is without any warrant. Another theory, that an event of the night of our Lord's betrayal (A.D. 29), related by Mark alone, is one that befell himself (Olshausen, Lange), must not be so promptly dismissed. "There followed him a certain young man, having a linen cloth cast about his naked body; and the young men laid hold on him: and he left the linen cloth, and fled from them naked" (&nbsp;Mark 14:51-52). </p> <p> The detail of facts is remarkably minute; the name only is wanting. The most probable view is that Mark suppressed his own name, while telling a story which he had the best means of knowing. Awakened out of sleep, or just preparing for it, ill some house in the valley of Kedron, he comes out to see the seizure of the betrayed Teacher, known to him and in some degree beloved already. He is so deeply interested in his fate that he follows him even in his thin linen robe. His demeanor is such that some of the crowd are about to arrest him; then, "fear overcoming shame" (Bengel), he leaves his garment in their hands and flees. We call only say that if the name of Mark is supplied, the narrative receives its most probable explanation. John (&nbsp;John 1:40; &nbsp;John 19:26) introduces himself in this unobtrusive way, and perhaps Luke the same (&nbsp;Luke 24:18). Mary the mother of Mark seems to have been a person of some means and influence, and her house a rallying point for Christians in those dangerous days (&nbsp;Acts 12:12). A.D. 44. Her son, already an inquirer, would soon become more. [[Anxious]] to work for Christ, he went with Paul and Barnabas as their "minister" ''('' ὐπηρέτης) on their first journey; but at Perga, as we have seen above, turned back (&nbsp;Acts 12:25; &nbsp;Acts 13:13). On the second journey Paul would not accept him again as a companion, but Barnabas his kinsman was more indulgent; and thus he became the cause of the memorable "sharp contention" between them (&nbsp;Acts 15:36-40). Whatever was the cause of Mark's vacillation. it did not separate him forever from Paul, for we find him by the side of that apostle in his first imprisonment at Rome (&nbsp;Colossians 4:10; &nbsp;Philemon 1:24). A.D. 56. In the former place a possible journey of Mark to Asia is spoken of. [[Somewhat]] later he is with Peter at Babylon (&nbsp;1 Peter 5:13). Some consider Babylon to be a name here given to Rome in a mystical sense — surely without reason, since the date of a letter is not the place to look for a figure of speech. Of the causes of this visit to Babylon there is no evidence. It may be conjectured that he made the journey to Asia Minor (&nbsp;Colossians 4:10), and thence went on to join Peter at Babylon. On his return to Asia he seems to have been with Timothy at Ephesus when Paul wrote to him during his second imprisonment, and Paul was anxious for his return to Rome (&nbsp;2 Timothy 4:11). A.D. 64. </p> <p> When we desert [[Scripture]] we find the facts doubtful, and even inconsistent. If Papias be trusted (quoted in Eusebius, II.E. 3:39), Mark never was a disciple of our Lord, which he probably infers from &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13. Epiphanius, on the other hand, willing to do honor to the evangelist, adopts the tradition that he was one of the seventy-two disciples who turned back from our Lord at the hard saying in John 6 (Cont. Haer. 51:6, p. 457, Dindorf's recent edition). The same had been said of Luke. Nothing can be decided on this point. The relation of Mark to Peter is of great importance for our view of his Gospel. [[Ancient]] writers with one consent make the evangelist the interpreter (ἑρμηνευτής '')'' of the apostle Peter (Papias in Eusebius, ''H. E.'' 3:39; Irenaeus, ''Haer.'' 3:1; 3:10, 6; Tertullian, c. ''Marc.'' 4:5; Jerome, ''Ad Ifedib.'' vol. ix, etc.). Some explain this word to mean that the office of Mark was to translate into the Greek tongue the [[Aramaic]] discourses of the apostle (Eichhorn, Bertholdt, etc.); while others adopt the more probable view that Mark wrote a Gospel which conformed more exactly than the others to Peters preaching, and thus "interpreted" it to the Church at large (Valesius, Alford, Lange, Fritzsche, Meyer, etc.). The passage from Eusebius favors the latter view; it is a quotation from Papias. "This also [John] the elder said: Mark, being the interpreter of Peter, wrote down exactly whatever things he remembered, but yet not in the order in which Christ either spoke or did them; for he was neither a hearer nor a follower of the Lord's, but he was afterwards, as I [Papias] said, a follower of Peter." The words in italics refer to the word interpreter above, and the passage describes a disciple writing down what his master preached, and not an interpreter orally translating his words. (See [[Gospel Of Mark]]). </p> <p> The report that Mark was the companion of Peter ''At Rome'' is no doubt of great antiquity. Clement of [[Alexandria]] is quoted by Eusebius as giving it for "a tradition which he had received of the elders from the first" ''('' παράδοσιν τῶν ἀνέκαθεν πρεσβυτέρων, Eusebius, ''H. E.'' 6:14; Clem. Alex. ''Hyp.'' p. 6). But the force of this is invalidated by the suspicion that it rests on a misunderstanding of &nbsp;1 Peter 5:13, Babylon being wrongly taken for a typical name of Rome (Eusebits, H. E. 2:15; Jerome, De Vir. ill. c. 8). Sent on a mission to Egypt by Peter (Epiphanius, Haer. 2:6, p. 457, Dindorf; Eusebius, H. E. 2:16), Mark there founded the Church of Alexandria (Jerome, De Vir. ill. c. 8), and preached in various places (Nicephorus, H. E. 2:43), then returned to Alexandria, of which Church he was bishop, and suffered a martyr's death (Nicephorus, ibid. and Jerome, De Vir. ill. c. 8) in the eighth year of Nero. According to the legend, his remains were obtained from Alexandria by the Venetians through a pious stratagem, and conveyed to their city, A.D. 827. [[Venice]] was thenceforward solemnly placed under his protection, and the lion, which mediaeval theology had selected from the apocalyptic beasts as his emblem, became the standard of the republic. The place of the deposition of his body having been lost, a miracle was subsequently wrought for its discovery, A.D. 1094, which figures in many famous works of art. Where his remains now lie is, according to the Roman [[Catholic]] Eustacius, "acknowledged to be an undivulged secret; or, perhaps, in less cautious language, to be utterly unknown. </p>