Difference between revisions of "Lebanon"

<p> [[Lebanon]] ( ''Lĕb'A-Non'' ), ''Exceeding White.'' A double mountain range to the north of Palestine, consisting of a western chain, Lebanon proper, and an eastern. "Lebanon toward the sun-rising," &nbsp;Joshua 13:5, called by classic writers Anti-Libanus, and enclosing a valley from five to eight miles broad—" the valley of Lebanon," &nbsp;Joshua 11:17; called by classic writers Cœlo-Syria. The western range, the Lebanon proper, begins on the north near the banks of the Eleutherus, which passes through the plain of Emesa, the "entrance of Hamath," &nbsp;Numbers 34:8, to the Mediterranean, and runs for a distance of 90 geographical miles, in the direction from northeast to southwest, parallel with the Mediterranean, to the banks of the Litany, the ancient Leontes, which, draining Cœlo-Syria and breaking through the Lebanon by a wild gorge, enters the Mediterranean a few miles north of Tyre. The average height of this range is from 6000 to 8000 feet. "The smell of thy garments is like the smell of Lebanon." &nbsp;Song of Solomon 4:11. The eastern chain, the Anti-Lebanon, runs nearly parallel with the western. Its highest point is Mount Hermon. Its western descent toward CœloSyria is abrupt and steep; to the east it gradually sinks into the plains of the desert. Its general aspect is bleak and barren, the abode of wild beasts and birds of prey. From both ranges numerous rivers descend—the Eleutherus, Leontes, Jordan, Abana, and Pharpar (which see); and the cold-flowing waters of the springs and streams of Lebanon were and are still proverbial. </p>

<p> ''''' leb´a ''''' - ''''' non ''''' ( לבנון , <i> ''''' lebānōn ''''' </i> ; [[Septuagint]] Λίβανος , <i> ''''' Lı́banos ''''' </i> ; [[Vulgate]] (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390-405 A.D.) <i> Libanus </i> ): </p> 1. Name: <p> Derived from the root לבן , <i> ''''' lābhēn ''''' </i> , "to be white," probably from the snow which covers its summits the greater part of the year. "White mountains" are found in almost every country. The light color of the upper limestone may, however, form a sufficient reason for the name. In prose the article is usually connected with the name. In poetry it is more often without the article. In the Septuagint, however, the article is generally present both in prose and poetry. </p> 2. General Description: <p> The Lebanon range proper borders the east coast of the Mediterranean, for a distance of 100 miles, running North-Northeast and South-Southwest from the mouth of the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> river, the classic Leontes (which enters the sea a little North of Tyre), to the mouth of the Eleuthurus ( <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Kebir ''''' </i> ), a few miles North of Tripolis. This river comes through a depression between Lebanon and the <i> ''''' Nuseiriyeh ''''' </i> mountains, known as "the entrance to Hamath," and connects with a caravan route to the [[Euphrates]] through Palmyra. For a considerable distance North of the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> , the mountain summits average from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. in height, and the range is more or less dissected by short streams which enter the Mediterranean. Most prominent of these is the <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ez ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Zaherâny ''''' </i> , which, after running 25 or 30 miles in a southerly direction through the center of the range, like the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> , turns abruptly West opposite Mt. Hermon, reaching the sea between Tyre and Sidon. In roughly parallel courses <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ‛Awleh ''''' </i> and Nahr Damur descend to the sea between Sidon and Beyrout, and <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Beyrout ''''' </i> just North of the city. Throughout this district the mountain recesses are more or less wooded. Opposite Beyrout the range rises in <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Sannin ''''' </i> to an elevation of 8,560 ft. Thirty miles farther Northeast the summit is reached in <i> ''''' Jebel ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Mukhmal ''''' </i> , at an elevation of 10,225 ft., with several others of nearly the same height. An amphitheater here opens to the West, in which is sheltered the most frequented cedar grove, and from which emerges the <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ḳadı̂sha ''''' </i> ("sacred stream") which enters the Mediterranean at Tripolis. [[Snow]] is found upon these summits throughout the year (&nbsp; Jeremiah 18:14 ), while formerly the level area between them furnished the snow fields from which a glacier descended several miles into the headwaters of the <i> ''''' Ḳadı̂sha ''''' </i> , reaching a level of about 5,000 ft. The glacier deposited in this amphitheater a terminal moraine covering several square miles, which at its front, near <i> ''''' Bsherreh ''''' </i> , is 1,000 ft. in thickness. It is on this that the grove of cedars referred to is growing. </p> <p> The view from this summit reveals the geographical features of the region in a most satisfactory manner. Toward the East lies Coele-Syria (the modern <i> ''''' Buka ''''' </i> ), 7,000 ft. below the summit, bordered on the eastern side by the mountain wall of Anti-Lebanon, corresponding to the cliffs of [[Moab]] East of the Jordan valley, opposite Judea. This depression in fact is but a continuation of the great geological fault so conspicuous in the Jordan valley (see [[Arabah]] ). As one looks down into this valley, <i> ''''' Ba‛albek ''''' </i> appears at the base of Anti-Lebanon, only 20 miles away. The valley is here about 10 miles wide, and forms the watershed between the Orontes and the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> . To the Northeast the valley of the Orontes is soon obscured by intervening peaks, but to the Southwest the valley of the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> closes up only where the glistering peak of Mt. Hermon pierces the sky, as the river turns abruptly toward the sea 40 miles distant. Toward the West, the blue waters of the Mediterranean, only 25 miles distant as the crow flies, show themselves at intervals through the gorges cut by the rapid streams which have furrowed the western flanks of the mountain (&nbsp; Song of Solomon 4:15 ); 3,500 ft. beneath is the amphitheater many square miles in area, filled with the terminal moraine from which the <i> ''''' Ḳadı̂sha ''''' </i> river emerges, and on which the grove of cedars (compare &nbsp;1 Kings 4:33; &nbsp;Psalm 92:12; &nbsp;Hosea 14:5 ) appears as a green spot in the center. [[Onward]] to the West the river gorge winds its way amid numerous picturesque village sites and terraced fields, every foot of which is cultivated by a frugal and industrious people. To the traveler who has made the diagonal journey from Beirut to the cedars, memory fills in innumerable details which are concealed from vision at any one time. He has crossed <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Kelb ''''' </i> ("Dog River"), near its mouth, where he has seen [[Egyptian]] and [[Assyrian]] inscriptions dating from the time of Sennacherib's invasion. [[Ascending]] this river, after passing numerous villages surrounded by mulberry and olive groves, vineyards, and fields of wheat, and pausing to study the ruins of a temple dating from Roman times, and having crossed a natural bridge at <i> ''''' Jisr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' el ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' [[Hagar]] ''''' </i> with a span of 120 ft., rising 75 ft. above the stream, he arrives, at the end of the second day, at the ruins of the famous temple of [[Venus]] destroyed by the order of [[Constantine]] on account of the impurity of the rites celebrated in it. Here, too, is a famous spring, typical of many others which gush forth on either side of the Lebanon range from beneath the thick deposits of limestone which everywhere crown its summit. The flow of water is enormous, and at certain seasons of the year is colored red with a mineral matter which the ancients regarded with mysterious reverence (see <i> LB </i> , III, 244). The lower part of the amphitheater is covered with verdure and a scanty growth of pine and walnut trees, but the upper part merges in the barren cliffs which lie above the snow line. Onward, alternately through upturned limestone strata, left by erosion in fantastic forms, and through barren areas of red sandstone, where the cedars of Lebanon would flourish if protected from the depredations of man and his domestic animals, he crosses by turns at higher and higher levels the headwaters of the <i> ''''' Ibrahim ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Fedar ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' Jozeh ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' [[Byblus]] ''''' </i> and the <i> ''''' [[Botrys]] ''''' </i> rivers, and at length reaches, on the fourth day, the <i> ''''' Ḳadı̂sha ''''' </i> , 5 miles below the cedars of Lebanon. [[Viewed]] from the Mediterranean the Lebanon range presents a continuous undulating outline of light-colored limestone peaks, the whole rising so abruptly from the sea that through most of the distance there is barely room for a road along the shore, while in places even that is prevented by rocky promontories projecting boldly into the sea. The only harbors of importance are at Beyrout and Tripolis, and these are only partially protected, being open to the Northwest. The eastern face of the range falling down into Coele-Syria is very abrupt, with no foothills and but one or two important valleys. </p> 3. Geology: <p> Geologically considered, the Lebanon consists of three conformable strata of rock thrown up in an anticline with its steepest face to the East. The lowest of these are several thousand ft. thick, consisting of hard limestone containing few fossils, the most characteristic of which is <i> Cidaris </i> <i> glandaria </i> , from which the formation has been named Glandarian limestone. In its foldings this has been elevated in places to a height of 5,000 ft. Through erosion it is exposed in numerous places, where it presents picturesque castellated columns, whose bluish-gray sides are beautifully fluted by atmospheric agencies. The second formation consists of several hundred feet of red-colored sandstone alternating with soft limestone and clay deposits, occasionally containing a poor quality of bituminous coal, with pyrites and efflorescent salts. It is this that occasionally colors the water of the spring at Adonis. The characteristic fossil is <i> Trigonia </i> <i> syriaca </i> . [[Altogether]] this formation attains a thickness of 1,000 ft., and it is on its exposed surfaces that the most of the Lebanon pines are found. It contains also many signs of volcanic action. The third formation consists of hippurite limestone, a cretaceous formation, in some places almost wholly composed of fragments of the fossils from which it derives its name. This formation appears on all the highest summits, where in most cases it is nearly horizontal, and in places attains a thickness of 5,000 ft. Between the summits of the range and the foothills this formation has been almost wholly carried away by erosion, thus exposing the underlying formations. Cretaceous strata of still later age are found at low levels near the sea, which in places are covered by small deposits of Tertiary limestone, and by a porous sandstone of the Pleistocene age. </p> 4. Scenery: <p> The scenery of the western slopes of Lebanon is most varied, magnificent, and beautiful, and well calculated, as indeed it did to impress the imagination of the Hebrew poets. Originally it was heavily covered with forests of pine, oak and cedar; but these have for the most part long since disappeared, except in the valley of <i> ''''' Nahr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Ibrahim ''''' </i> , which is still thickly wooded with pine, oak and plane trees. Of the cedars there remain, besides the grove at the head of the <i> ''''' Ḳadı̂sha ''''' </i> , only two or three, and they are of less importance. Every available spot on the western flanks of the Lebanon is cultivated, being sown with wheat or planted with the vine, the olive, the mulberry and the walnut. [[Irrigation]] is extensively practiced. When we let the eye range from the snowy summits of the mountain over all that lies between them and the orange groves of Sidon on the seashore, we understand why the Arabs say that "Lebanon bears winter on its head, spring on its shoulders, autumn in its lap, while summer lies at its feet." </p> <p> In the more desolate places jackals, hyenas, wolves, and panthers are still found (compare &nbsp;2 Kings 14:9 ). </p> 5. History: <p> The original inhabitants of Lebanon were Hivites and [[Gebalites]] (&nbsp;Judges 3:3; &nbsp;Joshua 13:5 , &nbsp;Joshua 13:6 ). The whole mountain range was assigned to the Israelites, but was never conquered by them. It seemed generally to have been subject to the Phoenicians. At present it is occupied by various sects of Christians and Mohammedans, of whom the Maronites, Druzes and [[Orthodox]] Greeks are most active and prominent. Since 1860 the region has been under the protection of European powers with a Christian governor. No exact figures are available, but the population at present numbers probably about 275,000. </p> <p> Ruins of ancient temples are numerous throughout Lebanon. Bacon estimates that within a radius of 20 miles of <i> ''''' Ba‛albek ''''' </i> there are 15 ruined sun-temples, the grandeur and beauty of which would have made them famous but for the surpassing splendor of <i> ''''' Ba‛albek ''''' </i> . </p> 6. Anti-Lebanon: <p> Anti-Libanus (&nbsp;Judith 1:7; &nbsp;Joshua 13:5; &nbsp;Song of Solomon 7:4 ) is an extension northward of the great mountain system facing on the East the great geological fault most conspicuous in the valley of the Jordan (see Jordan , Valley Of ), extending from the [[Gulf]] of Akabah to [[Antioch]] on the Orontes [[River.]] The system begins at the Barada River just North of Mt. Hermon, and, running parallel to Mt. Lebanon for 65 miles, terminates at <i> ''''' Ḥums ''''' </i> , the "entering in of Hamath." The highest points of the range reach an elevation of over 8,000 ft. Eastward the range merges into the plateau of the great [[Syrian]] desert. South of <i> ''''' Ba‛albek ''''' </i> the <i> ''''' Yahfufah ''''' </i> , a stream of considerable importance, empties into the <i> ''''' Litâny ''''' </i> , while the <i> ''''' Barada ''''' </i> (the "Abana" of Scripture), rising in the same plateau, flows eastward to Damascus, its volume being greatly increased by fountains coming in from the base of the dissected plateau. </p> Literature. <p> The geographical and geological descriptions are largely obtained by the writer from an extended excursion through the region in the company of Professor Day of the [[Protestant]] College at Beirut, whose knowledge of the region is most intimate and comprehensive. For more detailed information see Robinson, <i> Brp 2 </i> , II, 435 ff, 493; G. A. Smith, <i> Hghl </i> , 45 ff; Burton and Drake, <i> Unexplored Syria </i> ; [[Benjamin]] W. Bacon, and G.F. Wright in <i> [[Records]] of the Past </i> , 1906, V, 67-83,195-204; Baedeker-Socin, <i> Palestine </i> . </p>