Difference between revisions of "Lebanon"

<p> <strong> LEBANON </strong> , now <em> Jebel Lebnân </em> , is mentioned more than 60 times in the OT. The name, from the root <em> lâbân </em> (‘white’), was probably given on account of the mountain’s covering of snow. The snow of [[Lebanon]] is mentioned in Jeremiah 18:14 . Many passages refer to its beauty, particularly in relation to its cedars and other trees (see Psalms 72:16 , [[Song]] of [[Solomon]] 4:11 , Hosea 14:5; Hosea 14:7 ). From Lebanon was obtained wood for building the first ( 2 Chronicles 2:8 ) and the second ( Ezra 3:7 ) Temple. Lebanon was famous for its fruitfulness ( Psalms 72:16 ) and its wine ( Hosea 14:7 ). </p> <p> The term ‘Lebanon’ may be considered in most places as referring to the whole mountain mass, more correctly distinguished as Lebanon and [[Anti-Lebanon]] ( <strong> [[Libanus]] </strong> and <strong> [[Antilibanus]] </strong> of Jdt 1:7 ). The two ranges traverse N. Syria, running roughly parallel, from S.W. to N.E., and are separated by a deep valley the <em> biq‘ah </em> of Joshua 11:17; Joshua 12:7 known to-day as <em> el-Buqa </em> . The western range, Lebanon proper, is nearly 100 miles long, but the eastern, if [[Hermon]] is deducted as a separate entity, is only 65 miles long. The former range is divided from the mountains of [[Galilee]] by the deep chasm made by the <em> Litâni </em> river in its passage seawards. In the N. a somewhat similar gorge formed by the <em> Nahr el-Kebîr </em> , the ancient Eleutherus, divides it from the <em> Jebel Nusairiyeh </em> . The summits of the range rise in height from south to north. In the S. a few points attain to almost 7000 feet; in the centre, E. of Beyrout, <em> Jebel Kuneiseh </em> is 6960 feet, and <em> Jebel Sannîn </em> 8554 feet; further N., to the S.E. of Tripoli, is a great semicircular group of mountains, sometimes known as the ‘Cedar group,’ on account of the famous group of these trees in their midst, where the highest point, <em> Jebel Mukhmal </em> , reaches 10, 207 feet, and several other points are almost as lofty. Geologically the Lebanon is built of three main groups of strata. [[Lowest]] comes a thick layer of hard limestone, named after its most characteristic fossil ( <em> [[Cidaris]] glandaria </em> ) Glandaria limestone; above this are strata of Nubian sandstone, yellow and red in colour, and in places 1500 feet thick, overlaid and interlaced with strata of limestone containing fossil echinoderms and ammonites; and thirdly, above this group, and forming the bulk of the highest peaks, is another layer, many thousand feet thick in places, of a limestone containing countless fossils known as hippurites, radiolites, and such like. The sandstone strata are most important, for where they come to the surface is the richest soil and the most plentiful water, and here flourish most luxuriantly the pines which are such a characteristic feature of W. Lebanon scenery. A great contrast exists between the W. and E. slopes. The former are fertile and picturesque, while down their innumerable valleys course numberless mountain streams to feed the many rivers flowing seawards. The E. slopes are comparatively barren, and, except at one point, near <em> Zahleh </em> , there is no stream of importance. Of the Lebanon rivers besides the <em> Nahr Litâni </em> (Leontes) and the <em> Nahr el-Kebîr </em> (Eleutherus), the following may be enumerated from S. to N. as the more important: <em> Nahr ez-Zaherani, Nahr el-‘Auwali </em> (Bostrenus), <em> Nahr Beirût </em> (Magoras), <em> Nahr el-Kelb </em> (Lycus), <em> Nahr Ibrahîm </em> (Adonis), and the <em> Nahr Qadîsha </em> or ‘holy river,’ near Tripoli. </p> <p> The Lebanon is still fairly well wooded in a few places, though very scantily compared with ancient times, when Hiram, king of Tyre, supplied Solomon with ‘cedar trees, fir trees, and algum trees out of Lebanon’ (1 Kings 5:6 , 2 Chronicles 2:8 ). In regard to cultivation there has been a very great improvement in recent years, and the terraced lower slopes of the mountain are now covered with mulberry, walnut, and olive trees as well as vines. Many of the views in the Lebanon are of most romantic beauty, and the climate of many parts is superb. [[Wild]] animals are certainly scarcer than in olden days. In the time of Tiglath-pileser 1. the elephant was hunted here, but it has long been extinct. Jackals, gazelles, hyænas, wolves, bears, and panthers (in order of commonness) are found and, inland from Sidon, the coney ( <em> Hyrax </em> ) abounds. </p> <p> Politically the Lebanon rejoices in a freer and better government than any other part of Syria, as, since the massacres of 1860, a [[Christian]] governor, appointed with the approval of the European Powers, rules on behalf of the Sultan. The district, except in the N., is now extensively supplied with excellent carriage roads, and the range is crossed by the French railway from [[Beyrout]] to Damascus, the highest point traversed being 4880 feet above sea-level. </p> <p> Between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon is the great hollow known to the [[Greeks]] as <strong> CÅ“le-Syria </strong> , and to-day called <em> Buqa‘ el-‘Azîz </em> . [[Considered]] geologically, this wide valley is a product of the same great ‘fault’ as produced the deep [[Jordan]] valley. It is now a great, fertile, but little cultivated, plain, from 3 to 6 miles wide, and in its rise, not far from Baalbek, two famous rivers, the <em> Litâni </em> (Leontes), which flows S., and the <em> Nahr el-Asi </em> or Orontes, which flows N., and enters the sea near Antioch. This hollow plain, besides being crossed transversely by the [[Damascus]] railway and road, is traversed over more than half its length by the new line past Baalbek, Homs, and [[Hamath]] to Aleppo Some part of this plain, ‘the valley of the Lebanon, would appear to have been conquered by the [[Israelites]] ( Joshua 11:17 ). </p> <p> The <strong> Anti-Lebanon </strong> is to-day known as <em> Jebel esh-Sherki </em> or ‘the east mountain,’ the equivalent of ‘Lebanon towards the sun-rising’ of Joshua 13:5 . In Song of Solomon 7:4 it is referred to as ‘the tower of Lebanon that looketh towards Damascus.’ In Deuteronomy 1:7; Deuteronomy 3:25; Deuteronomy 11:24 , Joshua 1:4; Joshua 9:1 , the Heb. ‘Lebanon’ is in the LXX [Note: Septuagint.] tr. [Note: translate or translation.] ‘Anti-Lebanon.’ Anti-Lebanon is somewhat arbitrarily divided from Hermon, which is structurally its S. extremity, by a, pass (along which the French diligence road runs), and especially by the <em> [[Wady]] Barada </em> . In the N. it terminates in the plain around Homs. Its highest point is <em> Tâla’ at Mûsa </em> (8755 feet), but several other peaks are almost as lofty. A valley, like the <em> Buqa‘ </em> in miniature, traverses the S. part of the range from N. to S., and in this rises the <em> Nahr Yafûfeh </em> , which empties its waters down the <em> Wady Yafûfeh </em> to join the <em> Litâni </em> ; and the <em> Nahr Barada </em> , which, after rising in a beautiful pool at the S.W. extremity of this plain, runs down the <em> Wady Barada </em> to Damascus. The N. part of this range is very bare and wild. </p> <p> E. W. G. Masterman. </p>

<p> or LIBANUS, signifying <em> white, </em> from its snows,—the most elevated mountain or mountain chain in Syria, celebrated in all ages for its cedars; which, as is well known, furnished the wood for Solomon's temple. This mountain is the centre, or nucleus, of all the mountain ridges which, from the north, the south, and the east, converge toward this point; but it overtops them all. This configuration of the mountains, and the superiority of Lebanon, are particularly striking to the traveller approaching both from the [[Mediterranean]] on the west. and the desert on the east. On either side, he first discovers, at a great distance, a clouded ridge, stretching from north to south, as far as the eye can see; the central summits of which are capped with clouds, or tipped with snow. This is Lebanon, which is often referred to in [[Holy]] [[Writ]] for its streams, its timber, and its wines; and at the present day the seat of the only portion of freedom of which [[Syria]] can boast. </p> <p> The altitude of [[Lebanon]] is so considerable, that it appears from the reports of travellers to have snow on its highest eminences all the year round. [[Volney]] says, that it thus remains toward the north-east, where it is sheltered from the sea winds and the rays of the sun. Maundrell found that part of the mountain which he crossed, and which in all probability was by no means the highest, covered with deep snow in the month of May. Dr. E. D. Clarke, in the month of July, saw some of the eastern summits of Lebanon, or Anti-Libanus, near Damascus, covered with snow, not lying in patches, as is common in the summer season with mountains which border on the line of perpetual congelation, but do not quite reach it, but with that perfect white, smooth, and velvet-like appearance, which snow only exhibits when it is very deep,—a striking spectacle in such a climate, where the beholder, seeking protection from a burning sun, almost considers the firmament to be on fire. At the time this observation was made, the thermometer, in an elevated situation near the sea of Tiberias, stood at 102½ in the shade. [[Sir]] Frederic Henniker passed over snow in July; and Ali Bey describes the same eastern ridge as covered with snow in September. Of the noble cedars which once adorned the upper parts of this mountain but few now remain, and those much decayed. Burckhardt, who crossed Mount [[Libanus]] in 1810, counted about thirty-six large ones, fifty of middle size, and about three hundred smaller and young ones: but more might exist in other parts of the mountain. The wine, especially that made about the convent of Canobin, still preserves its ancient celebrity; and is reported by travellers, more particularly by Rauwolff, [[Le]] Bruyn, and [[De]] la Roque, to be of the most exquisite kind for flavour and fragrance. The rains which fall in the lower regions of Lebanon, and the melting of the snow in the upper ones, furnish an abundance of perennial streams, which are alluded to by Solomon, [[Song]] of [[Solomon]] 4:15 . On the declivities of the mountain grew the vines which furnished the rich and fragrant wine which Hosea celebrated, Hosea 14:7 , and which may still be obtained by proper culture. </p> <p> The cedar of Lebanon has, in all ages, been reckoned as an object of unrivalled grandeur and beauty in the vegetable kingdom. It is, accordingly, one of the natural images which frequently occur in the poetical style of the [[Hebrew]] prophets; and is appropriated to denote kings, princes, and potentates of the highest rank. Thus, the [[Prophet]] Isaiah, whose writings abound with metaphors and allegories of this kind, in denouncing the judgments of [[God]] upon the proud and arrogant, declares that "the day of the Lord of [[Hosts]] shall be upon all the cedars of Lebanon that are high and lifted up, and upon all the oaks of Bashan," Isaiah 2:13 . The king of [[Israel]] used the same figure in his reply to the challenge of the king of Judah: "The thistle that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in Lebanon, saying, [[Give]] thy daughter to my son to wife: and there passed by a wild beast that was in Lebanon, and trod down the thistle," 2 Kings 14:9 . The spiritual prosperity of the righteous man is compared by the [[Psalmist]] to the same noble plant: "The righteous shall flourish as the palm- tree; he shall grow as the cedar in Lebanon." To break the cedars, and shake the enormous mass on which they grow, are the figures that [[David]] selects to express the awful majesty and power of Jehovah: "The voice of the Lord is powerful; the voice of the Lord is full of majesty. The voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars: yea, the Lord breaketh the cedars of Lebanon. He maketh them also to skip like a calf; Lebanon and [[Sirion]] like a young unicorn," Psalms 29:4-6 . This description of the divine majesty and power possesses a character of awful sublimity. </p> <p> The stupendous size, the extensive range, and great elevation of Libanus; its towering summits capped with perpetual snow, or crowned with fragrant cedars; its olive plantations; its vineyards, producing the most delicious wines; its clear fountains, and cold-flowing brooks; its fertile vales, and odoriferous shrubberies,—combine to form in [[Scripture]] language, "the glory of Lebanon." But that glory, liable to change, has, by the unanimous consent of modern travellers, suffered a sensisible decline. The extensive forests of cedar, which adorned and perfumed the summits and declivities of those mountains, have almost disappeared. Only a small number of these "trees of God, planted by his almighty hand," which, according to the usual import of the phrase, signally displayed the divine power, wisdom, and goodness, now remain. Their countless number in the days of Solomon, and their prodigious bulk, must be recollected, in order to feel the force of that sublime declaration of the prophet: "Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering," </p> <p> Isaiah 40:16 . Though the trembling sinner were to make choice of Lebanon for the altar; were to cut down all its forests to form the pile; though the fragrance of this fuel, with all its odoriferous gums, were the incense; the wine of Lebanon pressed from all its vineyards, the libation; and all its beasts, the propitiatory sacrifice; all would prove insufficient to make atonement for the sins of men; would be regarded as nothing in the eyes of the supreme [[Judge]] for the expiation of even one transgression. The just and holy law of God requires a nobler altar, a costlier sacrifice, and a sweeter perfume,—the obedience and death of a divine [[Person]] to atone for our sins, and the incense of his continual intercession to secure our acceptance with the Father of mercies, and admission into the mansions of eternal rest. The conversion of the [[Gentile]] nations from the worship of idols and the bondage of corruption, to the service and enjoyment of the true God, is foretold in these beautiful and striking terms: "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them: and the desert shall rejoice, and blossom as the rose. It shall blossom abundantly, and rejoice even with joy and singing; the glory of Lebanon shall be given unto it, the excellency of [[Carmel]] and Sharon: they shall see the glory of the Lord. and the excellency of our God." Isaiah 35:4 . </p>

<p> "exceeding white", namely, with snow, as Mont Blanc. In [[Hebrew]] Lebanon, related to "alp". The double mountain range N. of Palestine, running in parallel lines from S.W. to N.E., having between the fertile valley anciently called Coelosyria, now [[El]] Beka'a (where are the grand ruins of the temple of the sun), about six or seven miles wide, "the valley of Lebanon" (Joshua 11:17). The range is about 80 miles long, 15 broad. It forms the northern head of the [[Jordan]] valley and the southern head of the [[Orontes]] valley. (See HAMATH.) The western range is the region of the [[Hivites]] and [[Giblites]] (Joshua 13:5; Judges 3:3). (See GIBLITES.) The eastern range was Antilibanus, or "Lebanon toward the sunrising." The wady et Teim separates the southern part of [[Antilibanus]] from [[Lebanon]] and also from the [[Galilee]] hills. The river [[Leontes]] (Litany) sweeps round its southern end, and drains Coelo-Syria, falling into the [[Mediterranean]] five miles N. of Tyre. </p> <p> Lebanon runs parallel to the coast in the plain of Emesa opening from the Mediterranean, in [[Scripture]] "the entering in (i.e. entrance) of Hamath" (1 Kings 8:75). The river [[Eleutherus]] (nahr el Kebir) here sweeps round its northern end. The average height is 7,000 ft. But one peak, Dhor el Khodib, N. of the cedars, is 10,051 ft.; and [[Hermon]] in Antilebanon is 10,125 ft.. Lebanon is of grey limestone, with belts of recent sandstone along the western slopes. [[Eastward]] in the glens of Antilibanus flow toward [[Damascus]] [[Abana]] (Barada) and [[Pharpar]] (nahr el Awaj). All that now represents Hiram's cedar forests is the cluster called "the cedars," 6,172 ft. above the sea, in the center of the vast recess or semicircle formed by the highest summits of Lebanon above the deep valley of the sacred river Kadisha. (See CEDARS.) Odorous flowers and aromatic shrubs and vines still yield" the smell of Lebanon" wafted by the mountain breeze (Song of [[Solomon]] 4:11). </p> <p> The line of cultivation runs at the height of 6,000 ft. Every available space is utilized for figtrees, vines, mulberry trees, and olives. Numerous villages nestle amidst the rocks. The trees striking their roots into the fissures of rocks illustrate Hosea 14:5, "Israel shall strike forth his roots as Lebanon." Lebanon is a delightful retreat from the sultry heat of the plains and of Palestine, cooled as it is by the snows which crown its peaks. Jeremiah (Jeremiah 18:14) asks, "will a man leave the snow of Lebanon which cometh from the rock of the field (a poetical name for Lebanon towering above the surrounding plain)? Or shall the cold flowing waters that come from another place (from the distant rocks) be forsaken?" None. Yet [[Israel]] forsakes [[Jehovah]] the living fountain, ever near, for broken cisterns. Hyaenas, panthers, jackals, wolves, and bears still haunt its glens and peaks (compare [[Song]] of Solomon 4:8; 2 Kings 14:9). </p> <p> The river [[Adonis]] (nahr Ibrahim) springs from a cave beneath the high peak Sunnin. The plain of Phoenicia, two miles wide, runs at the base of Lebanon between it and the sea. The eastern slopes are less abrupt and fertile than the western. Maronite [[Christians]] people the northern part of the range; [[Druses]] abound more in the southern. Lebanon was assigned to Israel, but never conquered (Joshua 13:2-6; Judges 3:1-3). It was under the Phoenicians in Solomon's time and subsequently (1 Kings 5:2-6; Ezra 3:7). Antilibanus is less peopled than Lebanon, and has more wild beasts: Song of Solomon 4:8, "look from the top of Amana, from ... [[Shenir]] and Hermon ... the lions' den ... the mountains of the leopards," referring to the two higher peaks, Hermon, and that near the fountain of Abana, where panthers still are found. "The tower of Lebanon which looketh toward Damascus" is Hermon (Song of Solomon 7:4). </p>

[[Psalm]] 29:6Jeremiah 18:1 <p> Sandy beaches lie along its [[Mediterranean]] coast. Rugged mountains rise in the interior. The country itself is dominated by two mountain ridges, the [[Lebanon]] and [[Anti-Lebanon]] mountains. Both ranges run parallel to the coast. The Lebanon range extends for about 105 miles along the coast, from modern-day [[Tripoli]] in the north to [[Tyre]] in the south. </p> <p> The mountain ranges are about 6,230 feet high. Some summits reach a height of more than 11,000 feet: the highest peak is el-Qurnat el-Sawda (11,024 ft.). Between the higher parts of the range lie valleys and ravines. </p> <p> The [[Holy]] Valley, which collects the water from the [[Mountain]] of the Cedars, is one of the most important valleys. It was in this region that the [[Maronites]] found refuge in the beginning of their history. This Holy [[Valley]] has retained its significance throughout the ages. [[Ain]] Qadisha (Spring of the Holy Valley) is highly revered. It gushes forth in the heart of a cedar forest and mountainside near Bsherrih. Another famous valley is the Valley of Adonis, through which the [[River]] of [[Adonis]] flows; and to where the pilgrimage of Adonis took place in the spring of the year. See [[Pagan Gods]] . </p> <p> In the Bible, Lebanon is celebrated in various capacities. It is frequently featured in the Old Testament, in a general way, as the northern boundry of [[Palestine]] (Deuteronomy 1:24; Joshua 1:4 ), dividing it from [[Phoenicia]] and Syria. Its imposing rage was emblematic of natural strength and solidarity, therefore a perfect poetic foil to the majesty of [[God]] revealed in a thunderstorm so powerful that it “maketh them to skip like a calf” (Psalm 29:6 ). It was a proverbially lush land, noted for its magnificent forests (Isaiah 60:13 ), especially the “cedars of Lebanon” (Judges 9:15; Isaiah 2:13 ). For the tree-poor Palestinians, Lebanon's cedars symbolized the ultimate in natural wealth and beauty. The psalmist calls these ancient and beautiful cedars the “trees of the Lord which He hath planted” (Psalm 104:16 ). It is said that some of the cedars remaining in Lebanon are at least 2,500 years old. They share with the famous redwoods of [[California]] the distinction of being the oldest living things on earth. </p> <p> Cedars, as well as other woods of Lebanon, were used in great abundance in the construction of David's palace and Solomon's [[Temple]] and palace buildings (1 Kings 5:10-18; 1 Kings 7:2 ). [[Cedar]] was obtained also for the building of the second Temple or the Temple of [[Zerubbabel]] (Ezra 3:7 ). </p> <p> The forests of Lebanon have been victims of human greed and irresponsibility. They were exploited by [[Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]] long before biblical times, and they continued to supply precious timber well into the [[Roman]] Era. Under the Ottoman [[Empire]] (A.D. 1516), the forest almost entirely disappeared. Today there is not much left of the cedar woods; almost all of them are gone. The olive tree also played an important part in ancient times and is still cultivated. </p> <p> Tyre to which Ezekiel 27-28 is devoted, was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world. [[Along]] with the older port of Sidon, it was one of the centers of Phoenician civilization. See Ezekiel 27-28 . </p> <p> Many foreign powers have controlled the Phoenician city-states. They include, in order of rule, the Egyptians, Hittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Persians. In 332 B.C. [[Alexander]] the Great conquered Lebanon. The region came under the control of the Roman Empire in 64 B.C. </p> <p> [[Philip]] [[Lee]] </p>

<p> White, a long chain of mountains on the north of Palestine, so named from the whitish limestone of which they are composed and in part perhaps from their snowy whiteness in winter. It consists of two main ridges running northeast and southwest, nearly parallel with each other and with the coast of the Mediterranean. See view in Joshua 11:17 , at present Bukkah. It opens towards the north, but is exceedingly narrow towards the south, where the river Litany, anciently Orontes, issues form the valley and flows west to the sea, north of Tyre. The western ridge is generally higher than the eastern, and several of its peaks are thought to be towards, 10,000 feet high. One summit, however, in the eastern range, namely, Mount Hermon, now called Jebel-esh-Sheikh, is higher still, and rises nearly into the region of perpetual ice. See [[Hermon]] . An [[Arab]] poet says of the highest peak of Lebanon, "The Sannin bears winter on his head, spring upon his shoulders, and autumn in his bosom, while summer lies sleeping at his feet." </p> <p> The [[Hebrew]] writers often allude to this sublime mountain range, Isaiah 10:34 35:2 , rising like a vast barrier on their north, Isaiah 37:24 . They speak of its sea of foliage agitated by the gales, [[Psalm]] 72:16; of its noble cedars and other trees, Isaiah 60:13 Jeremiah 22:23; of its innumerable herds, the whole of which, however, could not atone for one sin, Isaiah 40:16; its snow-cold streams, Jeremiah 18:14 , and its balsamic perfume, Hosea 14:5 . [[Moses]] longed to enter the [[Holy]] Land, that he might "see that goodly mountain and Lebanon," Deuteronomy 3:24,25; and [[Solomon]] says of the Beloved, the type of Christ, "his countenance is as Lebanon," [[Song]] of Song of Solomon 5:15 . "The tower of [[Lebanon]] which looketh towards Damascus," Song of Song of Solomon 7:4 , is brought to recollection by the accounts given by modern travelers of the ruins of ancient temples, built of stones of vast size. Many such ruinous temples have been discovered in different parts of Lebanon, several of them on conspicuous points, high up in the mountains, where the labor of erecting them must have been stupendous. </p> <p> At present, Lebanon is inhabited by a hardy and turbulent race of mountaineers. Its vast wilderness of mountains forms almost a world by itself. Its western slopes particularly, rising by a succession of terraces from the plain of the coast, are covered with vines, olives, mulberries, and figs; and occupied, as well as the valleys among the mountains, by numberless villages. [[Anti-Lebanon]] are Drues and Maronites; the former Mohammedan mystics, and the latter bigoted Romanists. Among them are interspersed many [[Greeks]] and Armenians. </p> <p> For "cedar of Lebanon," see [[Cedar]] . </p>