Difference between revisions of "Jerusalem"

<p> <b> 1. The name </b> .-Two forms occur in the NT: ( <i> a </i> ) Ιερουσαλήμ, the ‘genuinely national form,’ ‘hieratic and Hebraising,’ used ‘where a certain sacred significance is intended, or in solemn appeals’; it occurs forty times in Acts, and is also found in the letters of St. Paul, in Hebrews, and in the Apocalypse; it is indeclinable, and without the article except when accompanied by an adjective; ( <i> b </i> ) Ιεροσόλυμα, the hellenized form, favoured by Josephus, and occurring over twenty times in Acts, and in the narrative section of Galatians. As a rule it is a neuter plural, with or without the article. In each case the aspirate is doubtful. For a discussion of the forms see G. A. Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 259ff.; W. M. Ramsay, <i> Luke the [[Physician]] </i> , London, 1908, p. 51ff.; and T. Zahn, <i> Introduction to the NT </i> , Eng. translation, Edinburgh, 1909, ii, 592ff. </p> <p> <b> 2. Topography </b> .-The chief authority for Jerusalem in the 1st cent. a.d.-its topography no less than its history-is the Jewish writer Josephus. His historical works cover the period with which we have here to deal, and it is to the details there furnished that we owe most of our knowledge of the fortunes and aspect of the city in the [[Apostolic]] Age. Any account of the topography of Jerusalem at this time must necessarily follow the descriptions of Josephus, as interpreted by the majority of modern scholars. It has always to be kept in mind, however, that there is considerable difference of opinion on many points, and that the views of the minority, or even of an individual, although we may not be able to accept them, are to be regarded with respect. </p> <p> i. The City Walls, as they existed at the time of the siege in a.d. 70, first claim attention. </p> <p> ( <i> a </i> ) <i> First Wall </i> .-In historical order, but not according to the standpoint of the besiegers, for whom the first wall was the third, the walls of Jerusalem on the north side proceed from the interior to the exterior of the city. At all times the south side of the city had only one encompassing wall, but during most of our period there were three walls-the third only in part-upon the north side. The first of these northern walls commenced on the W. of Jerusalem near the modern Jaffa Gate, and ran in an easterly direction along the northern face of the so-called S. W. Hill, crossing the Tyropœon Valley, which then markedly divided the city from N. to S., and joining the W. wall of the Temple enclosure. At its W. extremity it was marked by the three towers of Herod the Great-Hippicus, Phasaël, and [[Mariamne]] (or Mariamme); and at the Temple end it ran near to the bridge which gave access from the S. W. Hill to the outer court of the Temple. This point is now marked by the modern <i> [[Bab]] es-Silsileh </i> , and Wilson’s [[Arch]] found here stands over the remains of an older bridge which is doubtless the viaduct of Josephus’s time. From the Tower of Hippicus the wall ran southwards and followed approximately the line of the modern W. wall, but it extended further south, turning S. E. along Maudslay’s Scarp and proceeding in a straight course to the Pool of Siloam, at the mouth of the Tyropaeon Valley. At this time the pool possibly lay outside the wali (F. J. Bliss and A. C. Dickie, <i> Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-1897 </i> , pp. 304, 325), although G. A. Smith places it inside ( <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 224). After crossing the Tyropaeon, at some point or other, the wall was continued in a N.E. direction, running along the slope of Ophel to join the Temple enclosure at its S.E. angle. A considerable part of this wall upon the S. side of the city has been excavated by Warren, Guthe, Bliss, and Dickie. The last two explorers found remains of two walls with a layer of debris between. Bliss is of opinion that the under wall is the one destroyed by Titus, and he says further: ‘There is no evidence, nor is it probable, that the south line was altered between the time of Nehemiah and that of Titus’ ( <i> Excav. at Jerus. </i> , p. 319). </p> <p> We are here concerned with the subsequent history of the wall upon the S. side only in so far as after the destruction by Titus it appears to have been rebuilt on a new line to form the S. side of the Roman camp upon the S.W. Hill, this being the line of the modern city wall on the S. The part upon the W., together with Herod’s three towers, was spared by Titus and utilized by him for the ‘Camp.’ So also, we may infer, was the wall skirting the W. side of the Tyropaeon, running N. and S. from the neighbourhood of the bridge to the region of the Pool of [[Siloam]] to form the E. boundary of the S.W. Hill. This wall is not mentioned by Josephus, but its presence may be concluded from the fact that Titus had to commence siege operations anew against that division of the city which stood on the S.W. Hill (‘the Upper City’). According to C. W. Wilson, the ground enclosed by the walls of the Upper City extended to 74½ acres. The new wall drawn on the S. side over the summit of the hill reduced the area to about 48½ acres, only a little short of the normal dimensions of a ‘Camp’ ( <i> [[Golgotha]] and the [[Holy]] [[Sepulchre]] </i> , p. 143f. </p> <p> ( <i> b </i> ) <i> Second Wall </i> .-According to Josephus, this commenced at the Gate Genath (or Gennath) in the First Wall, and circled round the N. quarter of the city, running up to Antonia, the castle situated at the N.W. corner of the Temple area. It had fourteen*[Note: τέσσαρας καὶ δέκα (Niese); Whiston reads ‘forty’ (BJ v. iv. 3).]towers, compared with sixty on the First Wall and ninety on the Third. Its extent was therefore limited in comparison with the others. There is much discussion as to its actual line in view of the importance of this for the determination of the site of Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre. This is a question that falls to be treated under the [[Gospel]] Age, although we have an interest in the projection of the wall towards the N., since upon this depends the view taken of the line of the Third Wall. With the majority of modern investigators we decide for a limited compass, no part being further N. than the extremity which went up from the Tyropaeon to Antonia. The Gate Genath has not been located, but it must have been in the neighbourhood of the three great towers, and perhaps lay inside of all three. C. M. Watson concludes from a study of the records and from personal investigation of the site that the Second Wall was most probably built by Antipater, father of Herod the Great. He interprets Josephus as speaking of ‘a new construction necessitated by the growth of the new suburb on the northwestern hill’ ( <i> The Story of Jerusalem </i> , p. 85). The Second Wall is usually identified with the North Wall of Nehemiah (Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 204). In the opinion of Smith ‘we do not know how the Second Wall ran from the First to the Tyropaeon; we do not know whether it ran inside or outside the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre’ ( <i> ib. </i> p. 249). Wilson also leaves the question open ( <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 137). </p> <p> (c) <i> Third Wall </i> .-As already noted, the line of the Third Wall is bound up with the question of the line of the Second Wall. Following Robinson, both Merrill ( <i> [[Ancient]] Jerusalem </i> , ch. xxiv.) and Paton ( <i> Jerusalem in Bible Times </i> , pp. 111-115) place it a considerable distance N. of the modern city wall. Most other students of the subject are content to accept the present North Wall as marking the site of the Third or Agrippa’s Wall. Conder ( <i> The City of Jerusalem </i> , pp. 162-166) occupies an intermediate position, giving a northerly extension beyond the present limits only on the side W. of the Damascus Gate. The wall was commenced about a.d. 41 on a colossal plan; but, suspicion having been aroused, operations had to be suspended by order of Claudius. The wall was hurriedly completed before the days of the siege. The main purpose of the Third Wall was to enclose within the fortified area of the city the new suburb of Bezetha, which had grown up since Herod the Great’s time on the ridge N. of the Temple and Antonia. The most conspicuous feature on the wall was the Tower of Psephinus at the N.W. corner, which is named in conjunction with the three great towers of Herod, and may have existed at an earlier time (Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , ii. 487), being also the work of Herod ( <i> Encyclopaedia Biblica </i> ii. 2428). The W. extremity of the wall was at Hippicus; the N.W. point at Psephinus; the N.E. point, according to Josephus, at the Tower of the Corner, opposite the ‘Monument of the Fuller’; and the E. extremity at the old wall in the Kidron Valley, <i> i.e. </i> the N.E. point of the Temple enclosure. Merrill’s view ( <i> Anc. Jerus. </i> , pp. 44, 51) is that the line of this wall in its southerly trend would cut the line of the present wall a little E. of Herod’s Gate; in other words, the present N.E. corner of the city was not within the walls of Jerusalem before its destruction by Titus. This view has much to commend it, although it is not admitted by those who advocate that the Third Wall followed the line of the present wall in its entire course (Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 245ff.). </p> <p> ii. Temple Walls.-The remainder of the perimeter of the outer wall of Jerusalem was made up by the E. wall of the Temple, which in Herod’s time coincided with the city wall (Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 234f.). The enclosure of the sanctuary did not, however, extend so far N. as it does to-day. Warren’s Scarp, as it is called, marks the N. limit of the outer court of Herod’s temple ( <i> Expository Times </i> xx. [1903-09] 66). This would cut the E. wall only slightly N. of the present [[Golden]] Gate. An extension to the N. was perhaps made by Agrippa I. (Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , i. 237f.), but even then the N. boundary must have fallen considerably short of the present wall. The fore-court of Antonia must therefore have projected some distance into the present Ḥaram area, and the rock on which the castle stood, while scarped on the other three sides, must on the S. have formed part of the same ridge as that on which the Temple lay. The N. Temple area wall presumably joined this rock, while the W. Temple area wall started from the S.W. point of the fore-court of Antonia and ran S. to meet the S. wall lower down the Tyropaeon Valley. Examination of the rock levels has proved that the S.W. corner of the Temple area is upon the far side of the valley, <i> i.e. </i> upon the S.W. Hill. </p> <p> A proper understanding of this complex of walls is essential to an appreciation of Josephus’s narrative of the siege of a.d. 70, which in turn gives the key to the whole situation within Jerusalem in the time of the apostles. The city was fortified in virtue of its complete circuit of walls. When the most northerly wall was breached it still was fortified by the second N. wall and all that remained. When the second wall was taken, access was given to the commercial suburb (προάστειον) in the Upper Tyropaeon Valley. Antonia formed a fortress by itself, likewise the Temple both in its outer court and in the inner sanctuary. After the Temple was taken the way was open to the ‘Lower City’ and the Akra, which is almost synonymous with the ‘Lower City,’ <i> i.e. </i> the Lower Tyropaeon Valley from the First Wall to the Pool of Siloam together with the S.E. Hill, of which Ophlas formed a part. Lastly, the S.W. Hill, on which stood the ‘Upper City’ with the ‘Upper Agora,’ was completely fortified, and doubtless the [[Palace]] of Herod at the N.W. corner of the ‘Upper City’ also was a strong place within four walls, with the three great towers upon the N. side. </p> <p> iii. Changes in the City during the Apostolic Age.-While there was nothing to equal the great building achievements of Herod the Great, activity was by no means stayed during the interval between the Death of Christ and the [[Destruction]] of Jerusalem (circa, abouta.d. 30-70). This we judge from the fact that it was not until <i> c. </i> [Note: . circa, about.]a.d. 64 that operations in the courts of the Temple were at an end. Even then the cessation of work involved about 18,000 men. To prevent disaffection and privation, they were transferred with the sanction of Agrippa II. to the work of paving the streets of the city (Jos. <i> Ant. </i> XX. ix. 7). Reference has already been made to the building of the Third Wall during the reign of Agrippa I., and this was necessitated by the growth of the suburb Bezetha, or New Town, lying north of Antonia and the Temple on the N.E. ridge. The Lower Aqueduct, which brought water to the Temple enclosure from a distance of 200 stadia, is ascribed to Pontius Pilate during the years preceding his recall and was in a way responsible for his demission of office (a.d. 36). Several palaces were built at this time-all overlooking the Tyropaeon: that of Bernice, near the Palace of the [[Hasmonaeans]] (see below); of Helena, [[Queen]] of Adiabene, who was resident in Jerusalem during the great famine (&nbsp;Acts 11:28); of Monobazus, her son; and of Grapte, a near relative. Agrippa II. enlarged the Hasmonaean Palace, which was situated on the S.W. Hill near the bridge over the Tyropaeon, and when finished overlooked the sanctuary. This was a cause of friction, and led to the building of a screen within the sacred area ( <i> Ant. </i> XX. viii. 11). Most of these notable buildings were destroyed or plundered during the faction fights on the eve of the siege ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> ii. xvii. 6, IV. ix. 11) and during its course (vi. vii. 1). </p> <p> While stone was freely used in construction, it ought to be realized that timber also played a large part-much more so than at the present day (Merrill, <i> Anc. Jerus. </i> , pp. 136, 150, 152). The [[Timber]] [[Market]] was in Bezetha, the new suburb. For ordinary building purposes wood was brought from a distance, but during the siege the Romans availed themselves of the trees growing in the environs, totally altering the external aspect of the city. Still more fatal to its beauty was the havoc wrought by fire within the Temple area, and in the various quarters of the city after the victory of the Romans, and most of all in the execution of Titus’s order to raze the city to the ground. In spite of Josephus’s testimony, all writers are not of one mind regarding the extent of the ruin. Thus Wilson says of the ‘Upper City’ at least: ‘Many houses must have remained intact. The military requirements of the Roman garrison necessitated some demolition; but there is no evidence that a plough was passed over the ruins, or that Titus ever intended that the city should never be rebuilt’ ( <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 52; cf. Merrill, <i> Anc. Jerus. </i> , p. 179). </p> <p> iv. [[Sacred]] sites pertaining to the Apostolic Age.-For this department of our subject we must call in the aid of tradition, in so far as this appears to be in any measure worthy of credence. The sites to be dealt with are mostly suggested by the narrative of the Book of Acts. </p> <p> ( <i> a </i> ) <i> The Caenaculum </i> .-Outside the present S. city wall on the S.W. Hill lies a complex of buildings, which since the 16th cent. have been in Moslem possession and are termed <i> en-Nebi Dâ’ûd </i> . Underground is supposed to be the Tomb of David, but this part is not open to the inspection of Christians. Immediately above this is a vaulted room (showing 14th cent. architecture), which is now identified with the ‘large upper room’ in which the Last Supper was held, where Christ appeared to His disciples, in which the early Christians assembled, and where the Holy Ghost was given. It is supposed to be the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark. According to a later tradition-which probably arose from a confusion of this Mary with the Mother of Jesus-this is also the scene of the death of the Virgin. Here also [[Stephen]] was thought to be martyred (still later). The earliest tradition with which we are here concerned dates from the 4th cent, a.d., being preserved by [[Epiphanius]] ( <i> de Mens. et [[Pond]] </i> . xiv. [Migne, <i> Patr. Graeca </i> , xliii. col. 259ff.]; cf. Wilson, <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 173): </p> <p> ‘He [Hadrian] found the whole city razed to the ground, and the Temple of the Lord trodden under foot, there being only a few houses standing, and the Church of God, a small building, on the place where the disciples on their return from the Mount of Olives, after the Saviour’s Ascension, assembled in the upper chamber. This was built in the part of [[Sion]] which had escaped destruction, together with some buildings round about Sion, and seven synagogues that stood alone in Sion like cottages.’ </p> <p> Since then there have been many changes in the buildings themselves and in their owners, but the tradition has been constant. What it is worth still awaits the test, but, as Stanley says: ‘there is one circumstance which, if proved, would greatly endanger the claims of the “Caenaculum.” It stands above the vault of the traditional Tomb of David, and we can hardly suppose that any residence, at the time of the [[Christian]] era, could have stood within the precincts of the [[Royal]] Sepulchre’ ( <i> [[Sinai]] and [[Palestine]] </i> , new ed., London, 1877, p. 456). It may be noted that the Tomb of David is now sought, although it has not been found, on the S.E. Hill, where, in the opinion of most, the ‘City of David,’ or Zion, lay (Paton, <i> Jerusalem </i> , p. 74f.). From the language of &nbsp;Acts 2:29 the tomb was evidently in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem (cf. <i> Ant. </i> XIII. viii. 4, XVI. vii. 1, <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> I. ii. 5). Sanday is prepared to give the tradition about the Caenaculum ‘an unqualified adhesion’ ( <i> Sacred Sites of the [[Gospels]] </i> , p. 78), and proceeds to argue the matter at length (pp. 78-88). His argument is contested by G. A. Smith ( <i> Jerusalem </i> , ii. 567ff.), whose opinion is that ‘while the facts alleged (by Dr. Sanday) are within the bounds of possibility, they are not very probable’ (p. 568). Wilson is more favourable, and thinks that here ‘amidst soldiers and civilians drawn from all parts of the known world, the Christians may have settled down on their return from Pella, making many converts and worshipping in a small building [see Epiphanius, as above] which in happier times was to become the “Mother Church of Sion,” the “mother of all the churches” ’ ( <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 54; cf. T. Zahn, <i> Introduction to the NT </i> , ii. 447f.). </p> <p> ( <i> b </i> ) <i> The Temple and its precincts </i> .-Although tradition has fixed on one spot as being the special meeting-place of the first Christians, there can be no doubt they still continued to frequent the Temple. While they had indeed become Christians they did not cease to be Jews, at least not that section which remained in Jerusalem during the years preceding the Fall of the city. Accordingly we find in the Book of Acts a considerable body of evidence regarding the presence of Christians in and about the Temple. A detailed notice of all these references properly belongs to another article (Temple), but a brief mention of those concerning the environs may here be made. </p> <p> (α) ‘Peter and John were going up into the temple at the hour of prayer’ (&nbsp;Acts 3:1). This is topographically exact, whether we take the outer court or the sanctuary proper, which only Jews could enter (&nbsp;Acts 21:28 ff.). There were ramps and stairs and steps at many points. An exception would have to be made if we accepted Conder’s identification of the [[Beautiful]] [[Door]] or Gate (&nbsp;Acts 3:2; &nbsp;Acts 3:10) as being the main entrance on the W., ‘probably at the end of the bridge leading to the Royal Cloister’ ( <i> The City of Jerusalem </i> , p. 129). But for several reasons this cannot be entertained. A. R. S. Kennedy has shown ( <i> Expository Times </i> xx. 270ff.; cf. Schürer, <i> History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] </i> ii i. [1885] 280) that the Beautiful Door is to be sought in the inner courts, and preferably on the E. side of the Court of the Women. Little value can be attached to the tradition that the Golden Gate above the Kidron Valley is the gate referred to in &nbsp;Acts 3:2. </p> <p> (β) The porch or portico along the E. side of the Temple area is the Solomon’s [[Porch]] of &nbsp;Acts 3:11; &nbsp;Acts 5:12. Its appearance may be realized from the frontispiece (by P. Waterhouse) of <i> Sacred Sites of the Gospels </i> , where a full view is given of the so-called Royal Porch on the S. side. This is generally supposed to have had an exit on the W. by a bridge crossing the Tyropaeon (see Conder, above) at Robinson’s Arch, but Kennedy has shown that nearly all moderns are in error about this ( <i> Expository Times </i> xx. 67; cf. Jos. <i> Ant. </i> XV. xi. 5). On the W. and N. sides there were also porches or cloisters which met at the entrance to Antonia. </p> <p> ( <i> c </i> ) <i> Antonia </i> .-This fortress is about the most certainly defined spot within the walls of Jerusalem. To-day it is occupied in part by the Turkish barracks, on the N.W. of the Ḥaram area. In Herod the Great’s time the castle was re-built on a grand scale and strongly fortified. Later it was occupied as a barracks (παρεμβολή, &nbsp;Acts 21:34; &nbsp;Acts 21:37, etc.) by the Romans, who here maintained a legion (τάγμα [ <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> v. v. 8], understood by Schürer [ <i> History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] </i> I. ii. (1890) 55] as = ‘cohort’; this is not accepted by Merrill [ <i> Anc. Jerus </i> . 216f.]). As shown above, it is probable that some slight re-adjustment of the forecourt of Antonia and of the N. side of the Temple area had taken place in the interval following Herod the Great’s reign. From the vivid narrative of &nbsp;Acts 21:27 ff. it is evident that the Temple area was at a lower level than the Castle, for stairs led down to the court. According to Josephus ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> v. v. 8), on the corner where Antonia joined the N. and W. cloisters of the Temple it had gangways down to them both for the passage of the guard at the Jewish festivals. While the exact plan of the ground can hardly be determined, there seems to be no justification for ‘a valley’ and ‘a double bridge,’ as supposed by Sunday and Water-house ( <i> Sacred Sites </i> , p. 108 and plan [p. 116]; cf. Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , ii. 499 n.[Note: . note.]). By cutting down the cloisters a barricade could be erected to prevent entrance to the Temple courts from the Castle, as was done by the Jews in the time of Florus (a.d. 66 [ <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> II. xv. 6; cf. VI. ii. 9, iii. 1]). [[Opinion]] is divided as to whether the Roman procurator made his headquarters in Antonia or in Herod’s Palace on the S.W. Hill, but the evidence seems to be in favour of the latter. This appears most clearly from the proceedings in the time of Florus ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> II. xiv. 8, 9; see Wilson, <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 41f.; Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , ii. 573ff.). Antonia was certainly used as a place of detention, as is plain from &nbsp;Acts 22:30. This leads us to remark on the position of- </p> <p> ( <i> d </i> ) <i> The [[Council]] House </i> .-The meeting-place of the [[Sanhedrin]] in apostolic times is of some importance in view of the experience of St. Peter, St. John, and St. Paul. From data provided by Josephus we judge that it lay between the Xystus and the W. porch of the Temple, <i> i.e. </i> near the point where the bridge crossed the Tyropaeon. From Josephus ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> VI. vi. 3) we also infer that it was in the ‘Lower City,’ for it perished together with Akra and the place called Ophlas. It is reasonable to seek in proximity to the Council House the prison of &nbsp;Acts 4:3; &nbsp;Acts 5:18; that of &nbsp;Acts 12:4 was probably in connexion with the Palace of Herod, where presumably Agrippa I. lived and maintained his own guard (see <i> Ant. </i> XIX. vii. 3). The traditional spot was shown in the 12th cent. E. of where this palace stood, in the heart of the ‘Upper City,’ while the present Zion Gate upon the S. was taken to be the iron gate of &nbsp;Acts 12:10 (Conder, <i> The City of Jerusalem </i> , p. 16). </p> <p> ( <i> e </i> ) <i> Sites associated with the proto-martyrs </i> .-(1) St. Stephen.-The association of St. Stephen with the Caenaculum dates from the 8th cent., and with the modern <i> Bâb Sitti Maryam </i> (St. Stephen’s Gate) from the 15th century. These traditions may be ignored, and attention fixed on the site N. of the city, where Eudocia’s Church was built as early as the 5th century. Its site was recovered in 1881. It must be recalled that when St. Stephen perished (between a.d. 33 and 37) the Third wall was not in existence, and the total irregularity of the proceedings at his stoning leads us to think that he was killed at the readiest point outside the city. If on the N. side, as the tradition bound up with Eudocia’s Church seems to imply, it would probably be outside the gate of the Second Wall. </p> <p> (2) James the Great, the brother of John, is supposed to have been beheaded in a prison now marked by the W. aisle of the Church of St. James in the Armenian Quarter-a tradition of no value. It is worthy of note, however, that, as in the case of St. Peter, the spot is not remote from the Palace of Herod. </p> <p> (3) James the Just, ‘the brother of Jesus, who was called the Christ’ ( <i> Ant. </i> XX. ix. 1), according to [[Hegesippus]] (preserved in Eusebius, <i> HE </i> [Note: E Historia Ecclesiastica (Eusebius, etc.).]ii. xxiii. 4ff.) also suffered a violent death (circa, abouta.d. 62) after a mode which is very improbable (see <i> Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols) </i> , article‘James,’ § 3), the stoning excepted, to which Josephus testifies. The Grotto of St. James near the S.E. corner of the Temple area, on the E. side of Kidron, is supposed to be his tomb (15th cent. tradition), or preferably his hiding-place (6th cent. tradition). While the tomb is as old as the days of the Apostle, or even older, the inscription above its entrance bears reference to the <i> B </i> <i> e </i> <i> nê Ḥezir </i> (S. R. Driver, <i> Notes on Heb. Text of Books of Samuel </i> 2, 1913, p. xxi). </p> <p> ( <i> f </i> ) <i> The tree (with the bridge) where Judas hanged himself </i> , and <i> [[Akeldama]] </i> , the field of blood (&nbsp;Acts 1:19), are shown, but there are rival sites for the latter, and the former has often changed (Conder, <i> The City of Jerusalem </i> , p. 18f.). </p> <p> ( <i> g </i> ) <i> Sites associated with the [[Virgin]] </i> .-Besides the tradition of the <i> Dormitio Sanctae Mariae </i> , the scene of the Virgin’s death, in proximity to the Caenaculum, the Tomb of the Virgin is marked by a church, originating in the 5th cent., in the valley of the Kidron, outside St. Stephen’s Gate (Sanday, <i> Sacred Sites </i> , p. 85). </p> <p> ( <i> h </i> ) <i> The scene of the [[Ascension]] </i> .-Discarding &nbsp;Luke 24:50, Christian tradition early laid hold upon the summit of the Mount of [[Olives]] (cf. &nbsp;Acts 1:12) as the scene of the Ascension. The motive for this will he understood from what has been written by [[Eusebius]] ( <i> Demons. Evang </i> . vi. 18 [Migne, <i> Patr. Graeca </i> , xxii. col. 457f.]; cf. Wilson, <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 172): </p> <p> ‘All believers in Christ flock together from all quarters of the earth, not as of old to behold the beauty of Jerusalem, or that they may worship in the former Temple which stood in Jerusalem, but that they may abide there, and both hear the story of Jerusalem, and also worship in the Mount of Olives over against Jerusalem, whither the glory or the Lord removed itself, leaving the earlier city. There, also, according to the published record, the feet of our Lord and Saviour, who was Himself the Word, and, through it, took upon Himself human form, stood upon thy [[Mourn]] of Olives near the cave which is now pointed out there.’ </p> <p> [[Constantine]] erected a basilica on the summit, where the [[Chapel]] of the Ascension now stands. His mother, the Empress Helena, built a church at the same point, and another, called the Eleona, to mark the cave where Christ taught His disciples (Watson, <i> Jerusalem </i> , p. 124). The latter has recently been discovered and excavated ( <i> Revue Biblique </i> , 1911, pp. 219-265). </p> <p> <b> 3. History </b> </p> <p> i. Jerusalem under Roman Procurators; Agrippa i and Agrippa ii. (a.d. 30-70).-The writings of Josephus afford evidence that it is possible to narrate the history of events in Jerusalem during the Apostolic Age without reference to the Christians. From our point of view we must sit loose to the fortunes of the Jews as such, in whom Josephus was interested; but for a due appreciation of the history of the Christian Church in Jerusalem a sketch of contemporary events must first be given, special note being made of points of contact with the narrative of Acts. </p> <p> <i> Pontius Pilate </i> continued in office for some years after the Death of Christ. At the beginning of his term (a.d. 26) he had shown marked disregard for the feelings of the Jews by introducing ensigns bearing images of Caesar into Jerusalem. Later, he gave further offence by appropriating the [[Corban]] in order to carry out his scheme for the improvement of the water-supply of the city and of the Temple. Even though the work proceeded, Pilate’s cruelty in this instance was not forgotten and helped to swell the account against him, which resulted in his recall for trial (a.d. 36). <i> [[Vitellius]] </i> , governor of Syria, paid a visit to Jerusalem at the Passover of the same year, and adopted a more conciliatory policy, remitting the market-toll and restoring the high-priestly vestments to the custody of the Jews. The procurators of Caligula’s reign (a.d. 37-41) may be left out of account. </p> <p> The government now passed into the hands of King <i> Agrippa i. </i> , who ruled in Jerusalem during the last years that the apostles as a body continued there (a.d. 41-44). Agrippa had already rendered service to the nation of the Jews by preventing [[Caligula]] from setting up his statue in the Temple. He was promoted by [[Claudius]] to be King of [[Judaea]] , as his grandfather Herod had been. He journeyed to Jerusalem, and as a thank-offering dedicated and deposited in the Temple a chain of gold, the gift of Caligula, in remembrance of the term he had passed in prison before good fortune attended him. </p> <p> While keeping the favour of the Emperor, he also took measures further to ingratiate himself with the Jews. According to Josephus, so good a Jew was he that he omitted nothing that the Law required, and he loved to live continually at Jerusalem ( <i> Ant. </i> XIX. vii. 3). His Jewish, or rather his Pharisaical, policy seems to have been at the root of his scheme for building the Third Wall, and also explains his persecution of the Christians (&nbsp;Acts 12:3). His coins circulating in Jerusalem bore no image, as an accommodation to Jewish scruples. Outside the Holy City, however, he was as much under the influence of the Graeco-Roman culture of the age as his grandfather had been. After his death, in the manner described in &nbsp;Acts 12:23 (cf. <i> Ant. </i> XIX. viii. 2; see articleJosephus), Palestine reverted to the rule of procurators, so far as civil administration was concerned. In religious matters control was entrusted to Agrippa’s brother, Herod the King of Chalcis, whom the younger Agrippa succeeded. Hence the intervention of the latter at the trial of St. Paul (Ac 25:13ff-26). With one or two exceptions the procurators who followed were distasteful to the Jews, whose discontent worked to a head in a.d. 66, when the open breach with Rome occurred. </p> <p> Under <i> Cuspius Fadus </i> (a.d. 44-46) the custody of the high-priestly vestments was resumed by the Roman authorities, and once more they were guarded in Antonia, but this was countermanded upon a direct application of the Jews to Claudius. During the rule of Fadus and his successor <i> [[Tiberius]] Alexander </i> (a.d. 46-48) the people of Jerusalem, like their brethren throughout Judaea , were oppressed by the great famine (&nbsp;Acts 11:28 ff.), which Queen Helena of Adiabene, now resident in Jerusalem (see above), did much to relieve ( <i> Ant. </i> XX. ii. 5, v. 2; cf. articleFamine). In the time of <i> [[Ventidius]] Cumanus </i> (a.d. 48-52) the impious act of a Roman soldier at the Passover season led to serious collision with the Roman power and to great loss of life ( <i> Ant. </i> XX. v. 3, <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> II. xii. 1). This was the first of a series of troubles that led to Cumanus being recalled. <i> [[Antonius]] Felix </i> (a.d. 52-60) was sent in his stead, and under him matters proceeded from bad to worse. Owing to the violent methods of the <i> Sicarii </i> , life in Jerusalem became unsafe, and even the high priest Jonathan fell a victim to their daggers. Not only against Rome was there revolt, but also on the part of the priests against the high priests ( <i> Ant. </i> XX. viii. 8). The events recorded in Acts 23, 24 fall within the last two years of Felix’s rule. <i> Porcius Festus </i> (60-62) succeeded Felix, and died in office. In the confusion following his death, which was fomented by [[Ananus]] the high priest, Agrippa II. intervened, and Ananus was displaced, but not before James, the brother of Christ, had suffered martyrdom at his hands ( <i> Ant. </i> XX, ix. 1). The date (a.d. 62) is regarded as doubtful by Schürer ( <i> History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] </i> i. ii. 187). <i> [[Albinus]] </i> (a.d. 62-64) devoted his energies to making himself rich, and under him anarchy prevailed, which became even worse under <i> Gessius Florus </i> (a.d. 64-66). His appropriation of the Temple treasures precipitated the great revolt from Rome, which ended with the Destruction of Jerusalem (Sept., a.d. 70). </p> <p> <i> Agrippa ii </i> . enters into the history of Jerusalem during the procuratorship of Festus, whose services he enlisted against the priests in their building of a wall within the Temple area counter to his heightened Palace (see above). Along with his sister [[Bernice]] he sought in other ways, outwardly at least, to conciliate the Jews. While Bernice performed a vow according to prescribed ritual ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> II. xv. 1), Agrippa showed some zeal, but little discretion, in matters affecting the Temple. His efforts at mediation upon the outbreak of hostilities were in vain; he was forced to take sides with Rome, and appears in attendance upon Titus after he assumed the command. </p> <p> The harrowing details of the last four years preceding the Fall of Jerusalem, the factions, privations, bloodshed, and ruin, lie apart from the history of the Apostolic Church, and are here omitted. At an early stage of the war the Christians escaped to [[Pella]] beyond Jordan ( Historia Ecclesiastica (Eusebius, etc.)iii. v. 3), where they remained till peace was concluded and a return made possible. This is usually dated fully half a century later, after the founding of the Roman city aelia Capitolina in the reign of Hadrian (a.d. 136), but nothing is known for certain beyond the fact of the return (Epiphanius, <i> de Mens. et Pond. </i> xv. [Migne, <i> Patr. Graeca </i> , xliii. col. 261f.]). Some would date the return as early as a.d. 73 (see Wilson, <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 54f.). </p> <p> ii. The Christians in Jerusalem.-Apart from the Book of Acts there is little information regarding the Christians during the years that they tarried in Jerusalem. A not unlikely tradition gives twelve years as the period that the Twelve remained at the first centre of the Church. After that arose persecution and consequent dispersion. This may be dated in the short reign of Agrippa I. (a.d. 41-44). Subsequent to this the Church in Jerusalem, which from the first had been Jewish-Christian, became pronouncedly Judaistic, perhaps an essential to its own preservation. Up to the time of the revolt (a.d. 66], while there were indeed conflicts with the Jewish authorities, more or less coincident with interregna in the procuratorship, there was no open breach. The sect was tolerated, as others were, by the Jewish leaders, so long as there was outward conformity to the ritual of the Temple. The progressive movement in [[Christianity]] was external to Jerusalem and even to Palestine; the Church in the metropolis of the faith became increasingly conservative, and in the end ceased to have any standing within the Church Catholic. But this did not take place until the post-Apostolic Age. Attention must be fixed chiefly on the first few decades following the Death of Christ, years in which originated much that became permanent within the Church as well as features that were destined to pass away. </p> <p> ( <i> a </i> ) <i> The disciples and the Lord </i> .-Throughout the Book of Acts emphasis is laid upon the fact that Christ had risen from the dead. So far as can be discovered, the first Christians had no concern for the scene of the [[Crucifixion]] nor yet for the empty tomb. It was not until the 4th cent. a.d. that these spots, so venerated in after ages, came to be marked by a Christian edifice. The thoughts of the early Christians were upon the living and not the dead. They cherished the hope of the speedy return of Christ to earth in all the glory of His Second Coming, and reckoned that they lived in the time of the end, when the fullness of Messiah’s [[Kingdom]] was about to be ushered in. This being the case, they made no provision for posterity in the way of erecting memorials to the Christ who had sojourned among them in the flesh, and, as the extracts from Patristic writers (see small type above) reveal, after ‘sacred sites’ began to be marked, they were those associated with the post-resurrection life of the Lord. </p> <p> ( <i> b </i> ) <i> Relation of the Christians to other dwellers in the city </i> .-The desire to make converts to the faith must have brought the Christians into contact with their fellow-citizens and with those of the [[Dispersion]] who chanced to be present in the city. Their assembling in the Temple, for instance, was not simply to fulfil the Law (&nbsp;Acts 3:1), nor yet for the sake of meeting with each other (5:12), but to work upon the mass of the people through the words and wonders of the apostles. Only by public activity could the numbers have grown with the rapidity and to the extent they did. Of necessity this propaganda was attended by a measure of opposition from those who were the traditional enemies of the Lord. But, so long as Roman rule was exercised, persecution could not make headway. While thus mixing to some extent with other elements in the city, the Christians also lived a life apart for purposes of instruction and fellowship, and for the performance of the simple ritual of the faith (&nbsp;Acts 2:42; &nbsp;Acts 12:12, etc.). There is no evidence that they possessed any special building like a synagogue. A private house, such as that of Mary, the mother of John Mark, would have served their purpose, and according to tradition (see above) this was the recognized centre. Even at the time of the so-called Council (&nbsp;Acts 15:6) no indication is given that the assembly was convened in an official building. </p> <p> ( <i> c </i> ) <i> [[Organization]] </i> .-Those who had companied with Jesus in the days of His public ministry were from the outset regarded as leaders in the Church, and were in possession of special gifts and powers. To the Twelve, who were Hebrews, there were shortly added the Seven, perhaps as an accommodation to the [[Hellenists]] (&nbsp;Acts 6:1). This step probably marks the first cleavage in the ranks of the Christians, as they began to be called, and paved the way for the wider breach which in a few years severed those at the ancient centre of Jewish faith and practice from the numerically stronger division of [[Gentile]] believers in other places. Harnack regards it as possible that the Seven were ‘Hellenistic rivals of the Twelve’ ( <i> The [[Constitution]] and Law of the Church </i> , 30), the chief being St. Stephen, whose adherents were persecuted after his death, the apostles themselves being let alone ( <i> The [[Mission]] and [[Expansion]] of Christianity </i> 2, i. 50f.; cf. &nbsp;Acts 8:1). </p> <p> The appointment of the Seven reveals the fact that in one respect the initial practice of the Christians had been tentative and could not be sustained. The community of goods, which theoretically was an ideal system, ultimately proved unworkable, and was not imitated in other Christian communities. The poverty of the mother Church, which continued after Gentile churches had been planted at many points, has been regarded as the outcome of this experiment, but it is likely that the causes of this poverty in Jerusalem lay deeper than that. G. A. Smith ( <i> Jerusalem </i> , ii. 563) has shown that Jerusalem is naturally a poor city, and he attributes her chronic poverty to the inadequacy of her own resources and the many non-productive members her population contained. These conditions were not altered in apostolic times. In view of the circumstance that at a comparatively late stage the further commission was given to St. Paul and [[Barnabas]] to remember the poor (&nbsp;Galatians 2:10), <i> i.e. </i> at Jerusalem, this may conceivably be grounded not upon special need but upon the analogy of the tribute paid by those of the [[Diaspora]] to headquarters. ‘The church at Jerusalem, together with the primitive apostles, considered themselves the central body of Christendom, and also the representatives of the true Israel’ (Harnack, <i> Mission and Expansion </i> 2, i. 330f.). </p> <p> ( <i> d </i> ) <i> The position of James, the Lord’s brother </i> .-More than any of the Twelve, who at first were so prominent, is James, the Lord’s brother, associated with the Church in Jerusalem. He appears suddenly in Acts as possessed of authority equal to that of the greatest of the apostles, and at the Council he occupies the position of president. When St. Paul visited the city for the last time he reported himself to James and the elders. From extracts of Hegesippus preserved by Eusebius, and from Eusebius himself, we learn that James owed his outstanding position to his personal worth, as also to his relationship to Jesus, and it seems evident that he was the leading representative of Judaistic Christianity, of that section which by its adherence to the Law and the Temple was able to maintain itself in Jerusalem after others, even the chief apostles, had been compelled to leave the city. But James also suffered martyrdom (see above, 2, iv. ( <i> e </i> )). He was followed by his cousin Symeon, whom Hegesippus (Euseb.) styles ‘second bishop.’ </p> <p> There is great diversity of opinion as to when this appointment was made (Wilson, <i> Golgotha </i> , p. 55n.). The date of his death is placed <i> c. </i> [Note: . circa, about.]a.d. 107. As Eusebius learned that until the siege of Hadrian (a.d. 135) there were fifteen bishops, all said to be of Hebrew descent ( <i> HE </i> [Note: E Historia Ecclesiastica (Eusebius, etc.).]iv. v. 2), the tradition is hard to believe. Harnack thinks that relatives of Jesus or presbyters may be included in the number ( <i> Mission and Expansion </i> 2, ii. 97). </p> <p> ( <i> e </i> ) <i> Effect of the Fall of Jerusalem upon the Church there </i> .-The final destruction of the city in a.d. 70 is generally regarded as crucial not only for the Jews but also for the Christians, not because the latter were present at the time, but because there had perforce to be a severance from the former ways now that the Temple had ceased to be. But the importance of this event has been over-rated (A. C. McGiffert, <i> The Apostolic Age </i> , p. 546). As regards the Church Catholic, the centre, or centres, had already been moved, while the local church, which escaped the terrors of the siege, was small, tending indeed to extinction. The Church in aelia Capitolina was Gentile-Christian, with Mark as first bishop. It fashioned for itself a new Zion, on the S.W. Hill; and when in the 3rd cent. Jerusalem became a resort of pilgrims, the ‘sacred sites’ did not include the Temple area, the Jewish Zion, which indeed was regarded by the Christians ‘with an aversion which is really remarkable, and which increased as years passed by’ (Watson, <i> Jerusalem </i> , p. 119). </p> <p> Literature.-( <i> a </i> ) <i> Contemporary authorities and Patristic works </i> are frequently cited in the article, and need not be repeated.-( <i> b </i> ) <i> Dictionary articles are numerous: Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols) </i> <i> , Hastings’ Single-vol. Dictionary of the Bible </i> <i> , Dict. of Christ and the Gospels </i> <i> , Encyclopaedia Biblica </i> <i> , Jewish Encyclopedia </i> , etc.-( <i> c </i> ) Of <i> topographical works </i> those found of most service are: C. W. Wilson, <i> Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre </i> , London, 1906; G. A. Smith, <i> Jerusalem </i> , do. 1907-08; L. B. Paton, <i> Jerusalem in Bible Times </i> , [[Chicago]] and London, 1908; C. R. Conder, <i> The City of Jerusalem </i> , London, 1909; S. Merrill, <i> Ancient Jerusalem </i> , London and New York, 1908; C. M. Watson, <i> The Story of Jerusalem </i> , do. 1912; F. J. Bliss and A. C. Dickie, <i> Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-97 </i> , London, 1898; W. Sanday and P. Waterhouse, <i> Sacred Sites of the Gospels </i> , Oxford, 1903. Other works not already cited: K. Baedeker, <i> Palestine and Syria </i> , Leipzig, 1912, pp. 19-90; F. Bnhl, <i> Geog. des alten Palästina </i> , [[Freiburg]] and Leipzig, 1896, pp. 144-154; H. Vincent, <i> Jérusalem antique </i> , Paris, 1913ff.-( <i> d </i> ) <i> [[Historical]] works </i> : E. Schürer, <i> History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] </i> , Edinburgh, 1885-91; A. C. McGiffert, <i> A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age </i> , do. 1897, pp. 36-93, 549-568; C. von Weizsäcker, <i> The Apostolic Age of the Christian Church </i> 2, Eng. translation, London, 1897-98, bk. i. chs. i.-iv., bk. ii. ch. iii., bk. iv. ch. i., bk. v. ch. ii.; A. Harnack, <i> The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries </i> 2, Eng. translation, do. 1908, i. 44-64, 182-184, ii. 97-99, <i> The Constitution and Law of the Church in the First Two Centuries </i> , Eng. translation, do. 1910, pp. 1-39. </p> <p> W. Cruickshank. </p>

<p> [[Jerusalem]] (''Je-Ru'Sa-Lĕm'' ). The religious and political capital of Israel; called also "the Holy City," &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:1; "City of the Great King," &nbsp;Psalms 48:2 : "City of David" and "Zion." &nbsp;1 Kings 8:1; &nbsp;2 Kings 14:20. Jewish writers held that it was the same as Salem. &nbsp;Genesis 14:18; &nbsp;Psalms 76:2. The first notice of it as Jerusalem is in &nbsp;Joshua 10:1. It was a boundary mark between Benjamin and Judah. &nbsp;Joshua 15:8; &nbsp;Joshua 18:16; &nbsp;Joshua 18:28, where it is called Ha-jebusi, that is, the Jebusite—In A. V. Jebusi—and in &nbsp;Judges 19:10-11, "Jebus, which is Jerusalem," because it was then a city inhabited by Jebusites. Jerusalem is in latitude 31° 47' north, and in longitude 35° 18' east from Greenwich, or about the latitude of Savannah, Ga. It is 35 miles east from the Mediterranean sea, and 18 miles west of the north end of the Dead sea. It stands on four peaks of the mountain ridge of Western Palestine, at a general elevation of about 2600 feet above the sea, the English survey placing the height of Moriah at 2440 feet, Mount Zion 2550 feet, Mount of Olives 2665 feet. The hill on which the temple stood is 2440 feet high, "dropping abruptly," Bays [[Selah]] Merrill, "at the northeast corner 100 feet, at the southeast corner 250 feet, at the southwest corner 140 feet, and on the west side about 100 feet, while toward the north, beyond what afterward became the temple area, the ridge rose gradually about 100 feet, its highest point being at the spot now known as Jeremiah's Grotto. Excluding the extension of the ridge to Jeremiah's Grotto, the horizontal area thus bounded is the same as the present Haram Area. Zion was 100 feet higher than the temple mount, and the distance across from summit to summit was less than one-third of a mile; but the descent to the bottom of the ravine separating the two was 100 feet on the side of the temple mount, and 200 feet on the side of Zion. Olivet is 90 feet higher than the highest point of Jerusalem, 143 feet higher than Mount Zion, and 243 feet higher than the temple mount. But the distance from the highest point of Jerusalem to the top of Olivet is scarcely more than a mile. Thus Olivet overlooks Jerusalem, and from its summit the best view of the city is obtained." "In several respects," says Dean Stanley, "its situation is singular among the cities of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable; occasioned, not from its being on the summit of one of the numerous hills of Judæa, like most of the towns and villages, but because it is on the edge of one of the highest table-lands of the country. Hebron, indeed, is higher still by some hundred feet, and from the south, accordingly (even from Bethlehem), the approach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. But from any other side the ascent is perpetual; and to the traveller approaching the city from the east or west it must always have presented the appearance, beyond any other capital of the then known world—we may say beyond any important city that has ever existed on the earth—of a mountain city; breathing, as compared with the sultry plains of Jordan, a mountain air; enthroned, as compared with Jericho or Damascus, Gaza, or Tyre, on a mountain fastness." ''Sinai And Palestine,'' 170, 1. The elevation of Jerusalem is a subject of constant reference and exultation by the Jewish writers. Their fervid poetry abounds with allusions to its height, to the ascent thither of the tribes from all parts of the country. It was the habitation of Jehovah, from which "He looked upon all the inhabitants of the world," &nbsp;Psalms 33:14; its kings were "higher than the kings of the earth." &nbsp;Psalms 89:27. Jerusalem, if not actually in the centre of Palestine, was yet virtually so. This central position as expressed in the words of &nbsp;Ezekiel 5:5, "I nave set Jerusalem in the midst of the nations and countries round about her," led in later ages to a definite belief that the city was actually in the centre of the earth. </p> <p> [[Roads]] .—There were 3 main approaches to the city: 1. From the Jordan valley by Jericho and the Mount of Olives. This was the route commonly taken from the north and east of the country—as from [[Galilee]] by our Lord, &nbsp;Luke 17:11; &nbsp;Luke 18:35; &nbsp;Luke 19:1; &nbsp;Luke 19:29; &nbsp;Luke 19:37, etc., from Damascus by Pompey, to [[Mahanaim]] by David. &nbsp;2 Samuel 15:1-37; &nbsp;2 Samuel 16:1-23. It was also the route from places in the central districts of the country, as Samaria. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 28:15. The latter part of the approach, over the Mount of Olives, as generally followed at the present day, is identical with what it was, at least in one memorable instance, in the time of Christ. 2. From the great maritime plain of Philistia and Sharon. This road led by the two Bethhorons up to the high ground at Gibeon, whence it turned south, and came to Jerusalem by Ramah and Gibeah, and over the ridge north of the city. 3. There was also the route from Hebron, Bethlehem, and Solomon's pools on the south. </p> <p> To the four hills, Zion, Ophel, Acra, and Moriah, in the ancient city may be added the hill of Goath, and Bezetha, the new town. The precise topography of the city has long been in dispute, and while recent explorations have added much to our knowledge of the city, many points are yet unsettled. The western hill was called ''Mount Zion,'' and it is also clear that Zion and the city of David were identical. "David took the castle of Zion, which is the city of David." "And David dwelt in the castle, therefore they called it the city of David. And he built the city round about, even from Millo round about, and [[Joab]] repaired the rest of the city." &nbsp;2 Samuel 5:7-9; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 11:5-8. [[Mount Moriah]] was the eastern hill, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 3:1, and the site of the temple. It was situated in the southwest angle of the area, now known as the Haram area, and was, Josephus tells us, an exact square of a stadium, or 600 Greek feet, on each side. At the northwest angle of the temple was the Antonia, a tower or fortress. North of the side of the temple is the building now known to Christians as the [[Mosque]] of Omar, but by [[Moslems]] it is called the [[Dome]] of the Rock. [[Ophel]] was the southern continuation of the eastern bill, which gradually came to a point at the junction of the valleys Tyropœon and Jehoshaphat. ''Bezetha,'' "the New City," noticed by Josephus, was separated from Moriah by an artificial ditch, and overlooked the valley of Kidron on the east; this hill was enclosed within the walls of Herod Agrippa. Lastly, [[Acra]] lay westward of Moriah and northward of Zion, and formed the "Lower City" in the time of Josephus. </p> <p> ''Gates.—'' The following list of gates, named In the Bible and Josephus, are given by Smith: 1. Gate of Ephraim. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:23; &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:16; &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. This is probably the same as the 2. Gate of Benjamin. &nbsp;Jeremiah 20:2; &nbsp;Jeremiah 37:13; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. If so, it was 400 cubits distant from the 3. [[Corner]] gate. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:23; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:9; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:38; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. 4 Gate of Joshua, governor of the city. &nbsp;2 Kings 23:8. 5. Gate between the two walls. &nbsp;2 Kings 25:4; &nbsp;Jeremiah 39:4. 6. Horse gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:28; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:15; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:40. 7. Ravine gate, R. V., valley gate, ''I.E.,'' opening on ravine of Hinnom. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:9; &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:13; &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:15; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:13. 8. Fish gate. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 33:14; &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. 9. Dung gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:13; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:1-32; &nbsp;Nehemiah 13:10. Sheep gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:1; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:32; &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. 11. East gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:29. 12. Miphkad. R. V., "Hammiplikod." &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:31. 13. Fountain gate (Siloam?). &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:37. 14. Water gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:37. 15. Old gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. 16. Prison gate. &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. 17. Gate [[Harsith]] (perhaps the Sun), A. V., East gate. &nbsp;Jeremiah 19:2. 18. First gate. &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. 19. Gate [[Gennath]] (gardens). Joseph. ''B. J.'' v. 4, 34. 20. Essenes' gate. Joseph. ''B. J.'' 4, § 2. To these should be added the following gates of the temple: Gate Sur. &nbsp;2 Kings 11:6. Called also Gate of foundation. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:5. Gate of the guard, or behind the guard. &nbsp;2 Kings 11:6; &nbsp;2 Kings 11:19; called the High gate, R. V., "upper gate." &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:20; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 27:3; &nbsp;2 Kings 15:35. Gate Shallecheth. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 26:16. It is impossible to say which or how many of these names designate ''Different'' gates. The [[Chief]] gates of Jerusalem, now are four: the Damascus gate on the north, the Jaffa gate on the west, David or Zion gate on the south, and St. Stephen's gate on the east. The Mohammedans have other names for these gates. Only during the past six centuries have traditions connected the martyr Stephen with the present St. Stephen's gate; before that they were located to the north about the Damascus gate. The small door in the gate, to admit persons to enter after the gate was locked at night, is in the Jaffa sate, but it was built only 30 years ago. There is no evidence that there was such a door in our Lord's time, and to use it, as illustrating "the needle's eye," &nbsp;Luke 8:25, is without warrant from ancient history. </p> <p> ''Walls.—'' According to Josephus, the first or old wall began on the north at the tower called Hippicus, the ruins now called Kasi-Jalud at the northwest angle of the present city, and, extending to the Xystus, joined the council house, and ended at the west cloister of the temple. The second wall began at the gate Gennath, in the old wall, probably near the Hippicus, and passed round the northern quarter of the city, enclosing the great valley of the Tyropœon, which leads up to the Damascus gate; and then, proceeding southward, joined the fortress Antonia. The points described by Josephus in the course of this wall have not been identified, and have given rise to sharp disputes, as the course of this wall goes far towards deciding the true site of Calvary. &nbsp;John 19:20; &nbsp;Luke 23:33. The third wall was built by King Herod Agrippa; and was intended to enclose the suburbs on the northern sides of the city, which before this had been left exposed. </p> <p> ''Extent.'' —After describing the walls, Josephus adds that the whole circumference of the city was 33 stadia, or nearly four English miles, which is as near as may be the extent indicated by the localities. He then adds that the number of towers in the old wall was 60, the middle wall 40, and the new wall 99. Jerusalem of today as walled in would require about an hour to walk around it. The walls, measuring straight from point to point, are about 12,000 feet in length; the north wall being 3930 feet, the east wall 2754 feet, the south wall 3245 feet, and the west wall 2086 feet. The area in the present city is about 210 acres. The ancient city included the southern slopes of Zion and Ophel, which in modern times have been under cultivation, thus fulfilling the prediction, "Zion shall be ploughed ''Like'' a field." &nbsp;Jeremiah 26:18. </p> <p> ''The Pools'' of Gihon, Siloam, Hezekiah, Bethesda, En-rogel, etc., will be noticed under their proper titles. </p> <p> The king's garden, &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:15, was probably outside the city at the south, as Gethsemane, &nbsp;Matthew 26:36, was eastward at the foot of the Mount of Olives. Of the various so-called streets, as the "east street," R.V., "the broad place on the east," &nbsp;2 Chronicles 29:4; the "street of the city," ''I.E.,'' the city of David, R. V., "broad place at the gate of the city," &nbsp;2 Chronicles 32:6; the "street," R. V., "broad place facing the water gate," &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:1; &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:3, or, according to the parallel account in &nbsp;1 [[Esdras]] 9:38, the "broad place of the temple towards the east;" the "street of the house of God," &nbsp;Ezra 10:9, R. V., "broad place;" the "street," R. V., "broad place of the gate of Ephraim," &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:16; and the "open place of the first gate toward the east" could not have been "streets," in our sense of the word, but rather open spaces found in eastern towns near the inside of the gates. Streets, properly so called, there were, however, &nbsp;Jeremiah 5:1; &nbsp;Jeremiah 11:13, etc.; but the name of only one, "the bakers' street," &nbsp;Jeremiah 37:21, is preserved to us. </p> <p> ''History.'' —Only a brief notice of its history can be given. We catch our earliest glimpse of Jerusalem in &nbsp;Joshua 10:1, and in &nbsp;Judges 1:1-36. which describes how the "children of Judah smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire;" and almost the latest mention of it in the New Testament is contained in the solemn warnings in which Christ foretold how Jerusalem should be "compassed with armies," &nbsp;Luke 21:20, and the "abomination of desolation" be seen standing in the Holy Place, &nbsp;Matthew 24:15. In the 15 centuries which elapsed between those two periods, the city was besieged no fewer than 17 times; twice it was razed to the ground; and on two other occasions its walls were levelled. In this respect it stands without a parallel in any city, ancient or modern. David captured the city, b.c. 1046, and made it his capital, fortified and enlarged it. &nbsp;2 Samuel 5:7; &nbsp;2 Samuel 6:2-16; &nbsp;1 Kings 11:36. Solomon adorned the city with beautiful buildings, including the temple, but made no additions to its walls. &nbsp;1 Kings 7:2-7; &nbsp;1 Kings 8:1-66; &nbsp;1 Kings 10:7; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:1-12. The city was taken by the Philistines and Arabians in the reign of Jehoram, b.c. 886, and by the Israelites in the reign of Amaziah, b.c. 826. The books of Kings and of Chronicles give the history of Jerusalem under the monarchy. It was thrice taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in the years b.c. 607, 597, and 586, in the last of which it was utterly destroyed. Its restoration commenced under Cyrus, b.c. 536, and was completed under Artaxerxes I., who issued commissions for this purpose to Ezra, b.c. 457, and Nehemiah, b.c. 445. &nbsp;Nehemiah 4:7-22; &nbsp;Nehemiah 6:1-16. In b.c. 332 it was captured by Alexander the Great, and again under Antiochus Epiphanes, b.c. 170. Under the Maccabees Jerusalem became independent and retained its position until its capture by the Romans under Pompey, b.c. 63. The temple was subsequently plundered by Crassus, b.c. 54, and the city by the Parthians, b.c. 40. Herod took up his residence there, and restored the temple with great magnificence. It was taken and destroyed by the Romans under Titus, when it had held out nearly five months, a.d. 70, fulfilling Christ's prophecy, &nbsp;Matthew 24:1-51. Hadrian restored it as a Roman colony, a.d. 135. The emperor Constantine erected a church on the supposed site of the holy sepulchre, a.d. 336, and Justinian added several churches and hospitals, about a.d. 532. It was taken by the Persians under [[Chosroes]] II. in a.d. 614. In a.d. 637 the patriarch Sophronius surrendered to the khalif Omar, and the Holy City passed into the hands of the Fatimite dynasty. About 1084 it was bestowed upon Ortok, whose severity to the Christians became the proximate cause of the Crusades. It was taken by the Crusaders in 1099, and for 88 years Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Christians. In 1187 it was retaken by [[Saladin]] after a siege of several weeks. In 1277 Jerusalem was nominally annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 1517 it passed under the sway of the Ottoman sultan Selim I., whose successor, Suliman, built the present walls of the city in 1542. Mohammed Ali, the pasha of Egypt, took possession of it in 1832; and in 1840, after the bombardment of Acre, it was again restored to the sultan and has since remained in the hands of the Turks. A steam railway was opened from Jaffa (Joppa) to Jerusalem in October, 1892. </p> <p> ''Population.—'' It is estimated that modern Jerusalem has from 50,000 to 75,000 inhabitants, of whom 12,000 are Mohammedans, 8000 Christians, and 25,000 to 30,000 (Conder says 40,000) Jews, nearly 30,000 depending largely for their living upon benevolent gifts from religious brethren elsewhere. The population of Jerusalem in ancient times probably did not exceed 75,000 at any period of Bible history. </p> <p> ''Recent Explorations.—'' [[Besieged]] 17 times, twice destroyed, ancient Jerusalem is now buried under 80 feet of earth and rubbish. Of the explorations and present condition of the city, Selah Merrill, United States consul at Jerusalem (in Jackson's concise ''Dictionary),'' says: "One would suppose that in a place like Jerusalem, which has always teen a centre of special interest, there would be many remains of antiquity and a large number of historical sites whose genuineness no person would question. The truth is just the contrary of this. Very many things are doubtless buried which will, from time to time, be brought to light, as has been the case during the past 25 years. Thanks to recent excavations, certain points and objects have been recovered which "may be accepted as authentic beyond dispute. Thus we have the actual site of the [[Herodian]] temple, together with portions of the wall which supported its area, also the remains of a bridge of the same period which led from the temple to Mount Zion. We have the point of the native rock over which the altar was built, and from this are able to determine the site of the Holy of Holies. We can point to the spot where the castle of Antonia stood, and thus fix the eastern terminus of the 'second wall.'" Near the Jaffa gate Dr. Merrill "discovered, in 1885, a section of this wall, whose position has been so long in dispute. One hundred and twenty feet of it were exposed, consisting of one, two, and in a single place of three layers of massive stones, and from this the position of the Gennath Gate can be determined within a few yards. The lower portion of the so-called 'Castle of David' belongs to the time of Herod, if not to an earlier period. In the northwest corner of the city the foundations of one of the great towers of ancient Jerusalem have been uncovered, and massive work of the same age is found at the Damascus Gate. Under the mosque El Aksa are the columns of the [[Double]] Gate and the Porch belonging to it, through which our Lord must have often entered the temple. There is no question about the valleys Hinnom, Jehoshaphat, and the Tyropœan, or the pool of Siloam. The rock-cut conduit, leading for 1700 feet under Ophel, connecting the Pool of Siloam with the Virgin's Fountain, in which the Siloam inscription was discovered in 1880, dates from the time of the Hebrew kings. North of the city we have the tomb of Helena, the mother of Izates, built in the last century before Christ; and there are a few other objects, as the Tomb of [[Absalom]] and that of Jehoshaphat, which certainly belong to ancient times, but whose exact date cannot be determined." The old Pool of Bethesda was lately discovered by [[Conrad]] Schick, under the Church of St. Anne. Beyond these, our knowledge of the various places in ancient Jerusalem, noticed in the Bible and Josephus, is indefinite if not chaotic. Jerusalem is not a centre of trade, and it has few manufactures or business by which wealth can be acquired. Moneychangers are numerous because people from many other countries are found there, most of whom bring with them coin that is not current in the city. Shopkeepers are seldom able to make change themselves, and it is understood that the purchaser must come prepared to pay the exact amount of his purchase. [[Upward]] of 40 different languages and dialects are spoken in Jerusalem. Society is of a low order. The people are slow to adapt themselves to new conditions. There is, however, reason to hope for improvement under better religious and educational influences, and under a wise and helpful government. </p> <p> ''In Scripture And Prophecy.'' Jerusalem is named 799 times in the Bible, and many times alluded to in sacred history and prophecy. Its strength and beauty are noticed, &nbsp;Psalms 48:2; &nbsp;Psalms 48:11-13; &nbsp;Psalms 122:2-5; its peace is prayed for, &nbsp;Psalms 51:18; &nbsp;Psalms 122:6-8; its glory noticed, &nbsp;Psalms 87:1-6. The siege and desolation of the city for sins were predicted, &nbsp;Isaiah 29:1-3; &nbsp;Isaiah 27:10; &nbsp;Jeremiah 4:11; &nbsp;Jeremiah 19:8; &nbsp;Jeremiah 21:10; especially its destruction by the Chaldeans, &nbsp;Jeremiah 13:9; &nbsp;Jeremiah 13:18; &nbsp;Jeremiah 34:22; &nbsp;Ezekiel 24:2; &nbsp;Amos 2:5. These predictions were literally fulfilled. See &nbsp;1 Kings 14:25-26; &nbsp;Jeremiah 51:50-51; &nbsp;Lamentations 2:13; &nbsp;Lamentations 5:11-22. Its preservation and restoration at times promised and performed, &nbsp;2 Kings 19:10; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 32:9-20; &nbsp;Isaiah 37:17; &nbsp;Isaiah 37:20; &nbsp;Isaiah 37:33-35; &nbsp;Psalms 69:35, where it is called Zion: compare &nbsp;Isaiah 11:9-10; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:1; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:4; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:38-40; &nbsp;Zechariah 8:3-5. Again its destruction by the Romans was predicted, &nbsp;Zechariah 14:2; &nbsp;Luke 19:41-44; and &nbsp;Luke 21:9-10; &nbsp;Luke 21:20; &nbsp;Luke 21:24; and Josephus' description of the siege and destruction of the city under Titus (''Wars, Bk.'' vi.) shows how terrible was the fulfillment of this prophecy of Christ. It is still the "Sacred City," however, to the Jew, the Christian, and the Moslem, hallowed by the footsteps and sufferings of the Son of God. </p>

<p> '''Jeru'salem.''' ''(The [[Habitation]] Of Peace).'' Jerusalem stands in latitude 31 degrees 46' 35" north and longitude 35 degrees 18' 30" east of Greenwich. It is 32 miles distant from the sea and 18 from the Jordan, 20 from [[Hebron]] and 36 from Samaria. </p> <p> "In several respects," says Dean Stanley, "its situation is singular among the cities of Palestine. Its elevation is remarkable; occasioned not from its being on the summit of one of the numerous hills of Judea, like most of the towns and villages, but because it is on the edge of one of the highest table-lands of the country. Hebron indeed is higher still by some hundred feet, and from the south, accordingly (even from Bethlehem). </p> <p> The approach to Jerusalem is by a slight descent. But from any other side the ascent is perpetual; and to the traveller approaching the city from the east or west, it must always have presented the appearance beyond any other capital of the then known world - we may say beyond any important city that has ever existed on the earth - of a mountain city; breathing, as compared with the sultry plains of Jordan, a mountain air; enthroned, as compared with Jericho or Damascus, [[Gaza]] or Tyre, on a mountain fastness." - S. & P. 170, </p> <p> Jerusalem, if not actually in the centre of Palestine, was yet virtually so. "It was on the ridge, the broadest and most strongly-marked ridge, of the backbone of the complicated hills which extend through the whole country from the plain of [[Esdraelon]] to the desert." </p> <p> '''Roads.''' - There appear to have been but two main approaches to the city: - </p> <p> i. From the Jordan valley by Jericho and the Mount of Olives. This was the route commonly taken from the north and east of the country. </p> <p> ii. From the great maritime plain of Philistia and Sharon. This road led by the two Beth-horons up to the high ground at Gibeon, whence it turned south, and came to Jerusalem by Ramah and Gibeah, and over the ridge north of the city. </p> <p> '''Topography.''' - To convey an idea of the position of Jerusalem, we may say, roughly, that the city occupies the southern termination of the table-land, which is cut off from the country round it on its west, south and east sides by ravines more than usually deep and precipitous. These ravines leave the level of the table-land, the one on the west and the other on the northeast of the city, and fall rapidly until they form a junction below its southeast corner. </p> <p> The eastern one - the ''Valley Of The Kedron'' , commonly called the [[Valley Of Jehoshaphat]] - runs nearly straight from north by south. </p> <p> But the western one - the [[Valley Of Hinnom]] - runs south for a time, and then takes a sudden bend to the east until it meets the [[Valley Of Jehoshaphat]] , after which the two rush off as one to the Dead Sea. </p> <p> How sudden is their descent may be gathered from the fact that the level at the point of junction - about a mile and a quarter from the starting-point of each - is more than 600 feet below that of the upper plateau from which they began their descent. </p> <p> So steep is the fall of the ravines, so trench-like their character, and so close do they keep to the promontory at whose feet they run, as to leave on the beholder almost the impression of the ditch at the foot of a fortress rather than of valleys formed by nature. </p> <p> The promontory thus encircled is itself divided by a longitudinal ravine running up it from south to north, called the ''Valley Of The Tyropoeon'' , rising gradually from the south, like the external ones, till at last it arrives at the level of the upper plateau, dividing the central mass into two unequal portions. </p> <p> Of these two, that on the west is the higher and more massive, on which the city of Jerusalem now stands, and in fact always stood. The hill on the east is considerably lower and smaller, so that to a spectator from the south the city appears to slope sharply toward the east. </p> <p> Here was the Temple, and here stands now the great Mohammedan sanctuary with its mosques and domes. The name of '''Mount Zion''' has been applied to the western hill from the time of Constantine to the present day. The eastern hill, called '''Mount Moriah''' in &nbsp;2 Chronicles 3:1 was, as already remarked, the site of the Temple. It was situated in the southwest angle of the area, now known as the ''Haram Area'' , and was, as we learn from Josephus, an exact square of a stadium, or 600 Greek feet, on each side. </p> <p> (Conder, "Bible Handbook," 1879) states that, by the latest surveys, the ''Haram Area'' is a quadrangle with unequal sides. The west wall measures 1601 feet, the south 922, the east 1530, the north 1042. It is thus nearly a mile in circumference, and contains 35 acres. - Editor). </p> <p> Attached to the northwest angle of the Temple was the [[Antonia]] , a tower or fortress. North of the side of the Temple is the building now known to Christians as the ''Mosque Of Omar'' , but by Moslems called the ''Dome Of The Rock'' . The southern continuation of the eastern hill was named [[Ophel]] , which gradually came to a point at the junction of the ''Valleys Of Tyropoeon'' and [[Jehoshaphat]] ; and the northern [[Bezetha]] , "the new city," first noticed by Josephus, which was separated from Moriah by an artificial ditch, and overlooked the valley of Kedron on the east; this hill was enclosed within the walls of Herod Agrippa. Lastly, [[Acra]] lay westward of Moriah and northward of Zion, and formed the "lower city" in the time of Josephus. </p> <p> '''Walls.''' - These are described by Josephus. The [[First]] or ''Old Wall'' was built by David and Solomon, and enclosed Zion and part of Mount Moriah. (The second wall enclosed a portion of the city called [[Acra]] or [[Millo]] , on the north of the city, from the '' Tower Of Mariamne'' to the [[Tower Of Antonia]] . It was built as the city enlarged in size; begun by Uzziah 140 years after the first wall was finished, continued by Jotham 50 years later, and by Manasseh 100 years later still. It was restored by Nehemiah. Even the latest explorations have failed to decide exactly what was its course. (See Conder's Handbook of the Bible, art. Jerusalem). </p> <p> The third wall was built by King Herod Agrippa, and was intended to enclose the suburbs which had grown out on the northern sides of the city, which before this had been left exposed. After describing these walls, Josephus adds that the whole circumference of the city was 33 stadia, or nearly four English miles, which is as near as may be the extent indicated by the localities. He then adds that the number of towers in the old wall was 60, the middle wall 40, and the new wall 99. </p> <p> '''Water Supply.''' - (Jerusalem had no natural water supply, unless we so consider the "Fountain of the Virgin," which wells up with an intermittent action from under [[Ophel]] . The private citizens had cisterns, which were supplied by the rain from the roofs; and the city had a water supply "perhaps the most complete and extensive ever undertaken by a city," and which would enable it to endure a long siege. </p> <p> There were three aqueducts, a number of pools and fountains, and the Temple area was honeycombed with great reservoirs, whose total capacity is estimated at 10,000,000 gallons. Thirty of these reservoirs are described, varying from 25 to 50 feet in depth; and one, called [[The Great Sea]] , would hold 2,000,000 gallons. These reservoirs and the pools were supplied with water by the rainfall and by the aqueducts. One of these, constructed by Pilate, has been traced for 40 miles, though in a straight line the distance is but 13 miles. It brought water from the spring [[Elam]] , on the south, beyond Bethlehem, into the reservoirs under the Temple enclosure. - Editor). </p> <p> '''Pools and fountains.''' - A part of the system of water supply. Outside the walls, on the west side, were ''The Upper And Lower [[Pools]] Of '' [[Gihon]] , the latter close under Zion, the former more to the northwest on the Jaffa road. At the junction of the ''Valleys Of Hinnom'' and [[Jehoshaphat]] was [[Enrogel]] , the ''"Well Of Job",'' in the midst of the king's gardens. Within the walls, immediately north of Zion, was the "Pool of Hezekiah." A large pool existing beneath the Temple (referred to in &nbsp;Sirach 1:3 was probably supplied by some subterranean aqueduct. </p> <p> The "King's Pool" was probably identical with the "Fountain of the Virgin," at the southern angle of Moriah. It possesses the peculiarity that it rises and falls at irregular periods; it is supposed to be fed form the cistern below the Temple. From this a subterranean channel cut through solid rock leads the water to '''The Pool of Siloah,''' or [[Siloam]] , which has also acquired the character of being an intermittent fountain. The pool of which tradition has assigned the name of [[Bethesda]] is situated on the north side of Moriah; it is now named ''Birket Israil'' . </p> <p> '''Burial-grounds.''' - The main cemetery of the city seems from an early date to have been where it is still - on the steep slopes of the valley of the Kedron. The tombs of the kings were in the city of David, that is, Mount Zion. The royal sepulchres were probably chambers containing separate recesses for the successive kings. </p> <p> '''Gardens.''' - The king's gardens of David and Solomon seem to have been in the bottom formed by the confluence of the Kedron and Himmon. &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:15. ''The Mount Of Olives'' , as its name, and the names of various places upon it seem to imply, was a fruitful spot. At its foot was situated the ''Garden Of Gethsemane'' . At the time of the final siege, the space north of the wall of Agrippa was covered with gardens, groves and plantations of fruit trees, enclosed by hedges and walls; and to level these was one of Titus' first operations. We know that the Gennath (that is, "of gardens") opened on this side of the city. </p> <p> '''Gates.''' - The following is a complete list of the gates named in the Bible and by Josephus, with the reference to their occurrence: - </p> <p> ''Gate Of Ephraim.'' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:23; &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:16; &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. This is probably the same as the... - </p> <p> ''Gate Of Benjamin.'' &nbsp;Jeremiah 20:2; &nbsp;Jeremiah 37:13; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. If so, it was 400 cubits distant from the... - </p> <p> ''Corner Gate.'' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:23; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:9; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:38; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. </p> <p> ''Gate Of Joshua,'' governor of the city. &nbsp;2 Kings 23:8. </p> <p> ''Gate Between The Two Walls.'' &nbsp;2 Kings 25:4; &nbsp;Jeremiah 39:4. </p> <p> ''Horse Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:28; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:15; &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:40. </p> <p> ''Ravine Gate,'' (that is, opening on ravine of Hinnom). &nbsp;2 Chronicles 26:9; &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:13; &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:15; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:13. </p> <p> ''Fish Gate.'' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 33:14; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:13; &nbsp;Zephaniah 1:10. </p> <p> ''Dung Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 2:13; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:13. </p> <p> ''Sheep Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:1; &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:32; &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. </p> <p> ''East Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:29. </p> <p> [[Miphkad Gate]] or [[Inspection Gate]] or [[Muster Gate]] &nbsp;Nehemiah 3:31. </p> <p> ''Fountain Gate,'' (Siloam?) &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:37. </p> <p> ''Water Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:37. </p> <p> ''Old Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. </p> <p> ''Prison Gate.'' &nbsp;Nehemiah 12:39. </p> <p> ''Gate Harsith,'' (perhaps the ''Sun Gate'' ; Authorized Version, [[East Gate]] ). &nbsp;Jeremiah 19:2. </p> <p> ''First Gate.'' &nbsp;Zechariah 14:10. </p> <p> ''Gate Gennath'' (gardens). Jos B.J. V. 4, - 4. </p> <p> ''Essenes' Gate.'' Jos. B.J. 4, - 2. </p> <p> To these should be added the following gates to the Temple: - </p> <p> ''Gate Sur,'' &nbsp;2 Kings 11:6 called also ''Gate Of Foundation.'' &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:5. </p> <p> ''Gate Of The Guard'' , or ''Gate [[Behind]] The Guard,'' &nbsp;2 Kings 11:6; &nbsp;2 Kings 11:19; </p> <p> called the ''High Gate.'' &nbsp;2 Kings 15:35; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 23:20; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 27:3. </p> <p> ''Gate Shallecheth.'' &nbsp;1 Chronicles 26:16. </p> <p> At present, the chief gates are - </p> <p> The ''Zion'S Gate'' and </p> <p> the ''Dung Gate,'' in the south wall; </p> <p> ''St. Stephen'S Gate'' and </p> <p> the ''Golden Gate'' (now walled up), in the east wall; </p> <p> The ''Damascus Gate'' and </p> <p> ''Herod'S Gate,'' in the north wall; and </p> <p> The ''Jaffa Gate,'' in the west wall. </p> <p> '''Population.''' - Taking the area of the city enclosed by the two old walls at 750,000 yards, and that enclosed by the wall of Agrippa at 1,500,000 yards, we have 2,250,000 yards for the whole. Taking the population of the Old City at the probable number of the one person to 50 yards, we have 15,000 and at the extreme limit of 30 yards, we should have 25,000 inhabitants for the Old City, and at 100 yards to each individual in the New City, about 15,000 more; so that the population of Jerusalem, in its days of greatest prosperity, may have amounted to from 30,000 to 45,000 souls, but could hardly ever have reached 50,000; and assuming that in times of festival one-half was added to this amount, which is an extreme estimate, there may have been 60,000 or 70,000 in the city when Titus came up against it. </p> <p> (Josephus says that at the siege of Jerusalem the population was 3,000,000; but Tacitus' statement that it was 600,000 is nearer the truth. This last is certainly within the limits of possibility.) </p> <p> '''Streets, houses, etc.''' - Of the nature of these in the ancient city, we have only the most scattered notices. The "east street," &nbsp;2 Chronicles 29:4, the "street of the city," that is, the city of David, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 32:6, the "street facing the water gate," &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:1, &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:3, or, according to the parallel account in &nbsp;1 Esdras 9:38, the "broad place of the Temple towards the east;" the "street of the house of God," &nbsp;Ezra 10:9, the "street of the gate of Ephraim," &nbsp;Nehemiah 8:16, and the "open place of the first gate toward the east," must have been not "streets," in our sense of the word, so much as the open spaces found in easter towns round the inside of the gates. </p> <p> Streets, properly so called, there were, &nbsp;Jeremiah 5:1; &nbsp;Jeremiah 11:13; etc.; but the name of only one, "the bakers' street," &nbsp;Jeremiah 37:21, is preserved to us. The [[Via Dolorosa]] , or ''Street Of Sorrows'' , is a part of the street thorough which [[Christ]] is supposed to have been led on his way to his crucifixion. </p> <p> To the houses, we have even less clue; but there is no reason to suppose that, in either houses or streets, the ancient Jerusalem differed very materially from the modern. No doubt the ancient city did not exhibit that air of mouldering dilapidation which is now so prominent there. The whole of the slopes south of the ''Haram Area'' (the ancient [[Ophel]] ), and the modern Zion, and the west side of the [[Valley Of Jehoshaphat]] , presents the appearance of gigantic mounds of rubbish. In this point at least, the ancient city stood in favorable contrast with the modern, but in many others, the resemblance must have been strong. </p> <p> '''Annals of the City.''' - If, as is possible, [[Salem]] is the same with Jerusalem, the first mention of Jerusalem is in &nbsp;Genesis 14:18 about B.C. 2080. It is next mentioned in &nbsp;Joshua 10:1 B.C. 1451. The first siege appears to have taken place almost immediately after the death of Joshua - circa 1400 B.C. Judah and [[Simeon]] "fought against it and took it, and smote it with the edge of the sword, and set the city on fire." &nbsp;Judges 1:8. In the fifteen centuries which elapsed between this siege and the siege and destruction of the city by Titus, A.D. 70, the city was besieged no fewer than seventeen times; twice, it was razed to the ground, on two other occasions, its walls were levelled. In this respect, it stands without a parallel in any city, ancient or modern. </p> <p> David captured the city B.C. 1046, and made it his capital, fortified and enlarged it. Solomon adorned the city with beautiful buildings, including the Temple, but made no additions to its walls. The city was taken by the Philistines and Arabians, in the reign of Jehoram, B.C. 886, and by the Israelites, in the reign of Amaziah, B.C. 826. It was thrice taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in the years B.C. 607, 597 and 586, in the last of which, it was utterly destroyed. Its restoration commenced under Cyrus, B.C. 538, and was completed under Artaxerxes I, who issued commissions for this purpose to Ezra, B.C. 457, and Nehemiah, B.C. 445. </p> <p> In B.C. 332, it was captured by Alexander the Great. Under the [[Ptolemies]] and the Seleucidae, the town was prosperous, until Antiochus Epiphanes sacked it, B.C. 170. In consequence of his tyranny, the Jews rose under the Maccabees, and Jerusalem became again independent, and retained its position until its capture by the Romans under Pompey, B.C. 63. The Temple was subsequently plundered by Crassus, B.C. 545, and the city by the Parthians, B.C. 40. </p> <p> Herod took up his residence there as soon as he was appointed sovereign, and restored the Temple with great magnificence. On the death of Herod, it became the residence of the Roman procurators, who occupied the fortress of Antonia. The greatest siege that it sustained, however, was at the hands of the Romans under Titus, when it held out nearly five months, and when the town was completely destroyed, A.D. 70. Hadrian restored it as a Roman colony, A.D. 135, and among other buildings, erected a temple of Jupiter [[Capitolinus]] on the site of the Temple. He gave to it the name of [[Aelia Capitolina]] , thus combining his own family name with that of the Capitoline Jupiter. </p> <p> The emperor Constantine established the Christian character by the erection of a church on the supposed site of the '' Holy Sepulchre,'' A.D. 336. Justinian added several churches and hospitals about A.D. 532. It was taken by the Persians, under Chosroes II, in A.D. 614. The dominion of the Christians in the Holy City was now rapidly drawing to a close. In A.D. 637, the patriarch Sophronius surrendered to the khalif Omar in person. </p> <p> With the fall of the Abassides, the Holy City passed into the hands of the Fatimite dynasty, under whom, the sufferings of the Christians in Jerusalem reached their height. About the year 1084, it was bestowed upon Ortok, chief of a Turkman horde. It was taken by the Crusaders in 1099, and for eighty-eight years, Jerusalem remained in the hand of the Christians. In 1187, it was retaken by Saladin after a siege of several weeks. In 1277, Jerusalem was nominally annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 1517, it passed under the sway of the Ottoman sultan Selim I, whose successor, Suliman, built the present walls of the city in 1542. Mohammed Aly, the pasha of Egypt, took possession of it in 1832; and in 1840, after the bombardment of Acre, it was again restored to the sultan. </p> <p> (''Modern Jerusalem,'' called by the Arabs, '''el-Khuds''' , is built upon the ruins of ancient Jerusalem. The accumulated rubbish of centuries is very great, being 100 feet deep on the hill of Zion. The modern wall, built in 1542, forms an irregular quadrangle about 2 1/2 miles in circuit, with seven gates and 34 towers. It varies in height from 20 to 60 feet. The streets within are narrow, ungraded, crooked, and often filthy. The houses are of hewn stone, with flat roofs and frequent domes. There are few windows toward the street. </p> <p> The most beautiful part of modern Jerusalem is the former Temple area (Mount Moriah), "with its lawns and cypress tress, and its noble dome rising high above the wall." This enclosure, now called ''Haram Esh-Sherif,'' is 35 acres in extent, and is nearly a mile in circuit. On the site of the ancient Temple stands the ''Mosque Of Omar,'' "perhaps the very noblest specimen of building-art in Asia." "It is the most prominent as well as the most beautiful building in the whole city." </p> <p> The mosque is an octagonal building, each side measuring 66 feet. It is surmounted by a dome, whose top is 170 feet from the ground. The ''Church Of The Holy Sepulchre,'' which is claimed, but without sufficient reason, to be upon the site of Calvary, is "a collection of chapels and altars of different ages and a unique museum of religious curiosities from Adam to [[Christ]] ." The present number of inhabitants in Jerusalem is variously estimated. Probably Pierotti's estimate is very near the truth, - 20,330; of whom 5068 are Christians, 7556 Mohammedans (Arabs and Turks), and 7706 Jews. - Editor). </p>

<p> The chief city of the Holy Land, and to the Christian the most illustrious in the world. It is situated in 31 degrees 46'43" N. lat., and 35 degrees 13' E. long. on elevated ground south of the center of the country, about thirty-seven miles from the Mediterranean, and about twenty-four from the Jordan. Its site was early hallowed by God's trial of Abraham's faith, &nbsp;Genesis 22:1-24 &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 3:1 . It was on the border of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah, mostly within the limits of the former, but reckoned as belonging to the latter, because conquered by it, &nbsp;Joshua 15:8 &nbsp; 18:16,28 &nbsp; Judges 1:18 . The most ancient name of the city was Salem, &nbsp;Genesis 14:18 &nbsp; Psalm 76:2; and it afterwards was called Jebus, as belonging to the Jebusites, &nbsp;Judges 19:10,11 . Being a very strong position, it resisted the attempts of the Israelites to become the sole masters of it, until at length its fortress was stormed by David, &nbsp;2 Samuel 5:6,9; after which it received its present name, and was also called "the city of David." It now became the religious and political center of the kingdom, and was greatly enlarged, adorned, and fortified. But its chief glory was, that in its magnificent temple the ONE [[Living]] AND TRUE GOD dwelt, and revealed himself. </p> <p> After the division of the tribes, it continued the capital of the kingdom of Judah, was several times taken and plundered, and at length was destroyed at the Babylonian captivity, &nbsp;2 Kings 14:13 &nbsp; 2 Chronicles 12:9 &nbsp; 21:16 &nbsp; 24:23 &nbsp; 25:23 &nbsp; 36:3,10 &nbsp; 17:1-20:37 . After seventy years, it was rebuilt by the Jews on their return from captivity about 536 B. C., who did much to restore it to its former splendor. About 332 B. C., the city yielded to Alexander of Macedon; and not long after his death, Ptolemy of Egypt took it by an assault on the Sabbath, when it is said the Jews scrupled to fight. In 170 B. C., Jerusalem fell under the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes, who razed its walls, set up an image of Jupiter in the temple, and used every means to force the people into idolatry. Under the Maccabees, however, the Jews, in 163 B. C., recovered their independence. Just a century later, it was conquered by the Romans. Herod the Great expended vast sums in its embellishment. To the city and temple thus renovated the ever-blessed Messiah came, in the fullness of time, and made the place of his feet glorious. By his rejection and crucifixion Jerusalem filled up the cup of her guilt; the Jewish nation perished from off the land of their fathers, and the city and temple were taken by Titus and totally destroyed, A. D. 70-71. Of all the structures of Jerusalem, only three towers and a part of the western wall were left standing. Still, as the Jews began to return thither, and manifested a rebellious spirit, the emperor Adrian planted a Roman colony there in A. D. 135, and banished the Jews, prohibiting their return on pain of death. He changed the name of the city to Aelia Capitolina, consecrated it to heathen deities, in order to defile it as much as possible, and did what he could to obliterate all traces both of Judaism and Christianity. From this period the name Aelia became so common, that the name Jerusalem was preserved only among the Jews and better-informed Christians. In the time of Constantine, however, it resumed its ancient name, which it has retained to the present day. Helena, the mother of Constantine, built two churches in Bethlehem and on mount Olivet, about A. D. 326; and Julian, who, after his father, succeeded to the empire of his uncle Constantine, endeavored to rebuild the temple; but his design, and that of the Jews, whom he patronized, was frustrated, as contemporary historians relate, by an earthquake, and by balls of fire bursting forth among the workmen, A. D. 363. </p> <p> The subsequent history of Jerusalem may be told in a few words. In 613, it was taken by Chosroes king of Persia, who slew, it is said, 90,000 men, and demolished, to the utmost of his power, whatever the Christians had venerated: in 627, [[Heraclius]] defeated Chosroes, and Jerusalem was recovered by the Greeks. Soon after command the long and wretched era of Mohammedanism. About 637, the city was taken from the Christians by the caliph Omar, after a siege of four months, and continued under the caliphs of [[Bagdad]] till 868, when it was taken by Ahmed, a Turkish sovereign of Egypt. During the space of 220 years, it was subject to several masters, Turkish and Saracenic, and in 1099 it was taken by the crusaders under Godfrey Bouillon, who was elected king. He was succeeded by his brother Baldwin, who died in 1118. In 1187, Saladin, sultan of the East, captured the city, assisted by the treachery of Raymond, count of Tripoli, who was found dead in his bed on the morning of the day in which he was to have delivered up the city. It was restored, in 1242, to the Latin princes, by Saleh Ismael, emir of Damascus; they lost it in 1291 to the sultans of Egypt, who held it till 1382. Selim, the Turkish sultan, reduced Egypt and Syria, including Jerusalem, in 1517, and his son Solyman built or reconstructed the present walls in 1534. Since then it has remained under the dominion of Turkey, except when held for a short time, 1832-4, by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. At present, this city is included in the pashalic of Damascus, though it has a resident Turkish governor. </p> <p> Jerusalem is situated on the central tableland of Judea, about 2,400 feet above the Mediterranean. It lies on ground which slopes gently down towards the east, the slope being terminated by an abrupt declivity, in some parts precipitous, and overhanging the valley of Jehoshaphat or of the Kidron. This sloping ground is also terminated on the south by the deep and narrow valley of Hinnom, which constituted the ancient southern boundary of the city, and which also ascends on its west side, and comes out upon the high ground on the northwest. See Gihon . But in the city itself, there were also two ravines or smaller valleys, dividing the land covered by buildings into three principal parts or hills. ZION, the highest of these, was in the southwest quarter of the city, skirted on the south and west by the deep valley of Hinnom. On its north and east sides lay the smaller valley "of the cheesemongers," or Tyropoeon also united, near the northeast foot of Zion, with a valley coming down from the north. Zion was also called, The city of David; and by Josephus, "the upper city." Surrounded anciently by walls as well as deep valleys, it was the strongest part of the city, and contained the citadel and the king's palace. The Tyropoeon separated it from Acra on the north and Moriah on the northeast. ACRA was less elevated than Zion, or than the ground to the northwest beyond the walls. It is called by Josephus "the lower city." Moriah , the sacred hill, lay northeast of Zion, with which it was anciently connected at its nearest corner, by a bridge over the Tyropoeon, some remnants of which have been identified by Dr. Robinson. Moriah was at first a small eminence, but its area was greatly enlarged to make room for the temple. It was but a part of the continuous ridge on the east side of the city, overlooking the deep valley of the Kidron; rising on the north, after a slight depression, into the hill Bezetha, the "new city" of Joephus, and sinking away on the south into the hill Ophel. On the east of Jerusalem, and stretching from north to south, lies the Mount of Olives, divided from the city by the valley of the Kidron, and commanding a noble prospect of the city and surrounding county. Over against Moriah, or a little further north, lies the garden of Gethsemane, with its olive trees, at the foot of the Mount of Olives. Just below the city, on the east side of the valley of the Kidron, lies the miserable village of Siloa; farther down, this valley unites with that of Hinnon, at a beautiful spot anciently "the king's gardens;" still below, is the well of Nehemiah, anciently En-rogel; and from this spot the united valley winds among mountains southward and eastward to the Dead sea. In the mouth of the Tyropoeon, between Ophel and Zion, is the pool of Siloam. In the valley west and northwest of Zion are the two pools of Gihon, the lower being now broken and dry. In the rocks around Jerusalem, and chiefly in the sides of the valleys of the Kidron and Hinnom opposite the city, are many excavated tombs and caves. </p> <p> Of the [[Walls]] of ancient Jerusalem, the most ancient that of David and Solomon, encircled the whole of Mount Zion, and was also continued around Moriah and Ophel. The depth of the valleys south and east of Jerusalem, rendered it comparatively easy to fortify and defend it on these sides. This southern wall, in the period of kings and of Christ, traversed the outmost verge of those hills, inclosing the pool of Siloam, Ophel, and portions apparently of the valleys of Hinnom and the Kidron, &nbsp;2 Chronicles 33:14 &nbsp; Nehemiah 2:14 &nbsp; 3:15 . </p> <p> A second wall, built by Jotham, Hezekiah, and Manasseh, made some changes on the southern line, and inclosed a large additional space on the north. It commenced somewhat east of the tower of Hippicus, on the northwest border of Zion, included Acra and part of Bezetha, and united with the old wall on the east. This wall was destroyed, as well as the first, at the captivity, but both were afterwards reerected, it is believed, on nearly the same lines, and were substantially the same at the time of Christ. The precise course of the second wall may perhaps be ascertained by future excavations, but is now more disputed than any other point of the topography of Jerusalem. To ascertain the exact location of "the tower Gennath," where this wall began, and trace its course "in a circuit" to Antonia, would show whether the traditional site of Calvary, now far within the city limits, lay within or without the ancient wall. The arguments from topography are strongly against the tradition; and it would seem that this whole region, if not actually within the wall, must have been at least occupied by the city suburbs at that time. </p> <p> The third wall, commenced by Herod Agrippa only ten years after the crucifixion of Christ, ran from the tower Hippicus nearly half a mile northwest to the tower of Psephinos, and sweeping round by the "tombs of the kings," passed down east of Bezetha, and joined the old eastern wall. The whole circumference of the city at that time was a little over four miles. Now it is only two and three quarters at the most; and the large space on the north, which the wall of Agrippa inclosed, is proved to have been built upon by the numerous cisterns which yet remain, and the marble fragments which the plough often turns up. </p> <p> The preceding plan of Ancient Jerusalem exhibits the walls, gates, towers, and other prominent objects in and around the city, with as much accuracy as can be secured, now that it has borne the ravages of so many centuries, been nearly a score of times captured, and often razed to the ground. [[Fuller]] descriptions of many of the localities referred to may be found under their respective heads. </p> <p> MODERN JERUSALEM, called by the Arabs El-Kuds, the holy, occupies unquestionably the site of the Jerusalem of the Bible. It is still "beautiful for situation," and stands forth on its well-defined hills "as a city that is compact together," &nbsp;Psalm 48:2,12 &nbsp; 122:3,4 &nbsp; 125:1,2 . The distant view of its stately walls and numerous domes and minarets is highly imposing. But its old glory has departed; its thronging myriads are no more; desolation covers the barren mountains around it, and the tribes go up to the house of the Lord no longer. She that once sat as a queen among them, now sitteth solitary, "trodden down of the Gentiles," "reft of her sons, and mid her foes forlorn." "Zion is ploughed as a field," and the soil is mixed with the rubbish of ages, to the depth in some places of forty feet. </p> <p> The modern wall, built in 1542, varies from twenty to sixty feet in height, and is about two and a half miles in circuit. On the eastern and shortest side, its course is nearly straight; and it coincides, in the southern half on this side, with the wall of the sacred area now called El-Haram, the holy. This area, 510 yards long from north to south, and 310 to 350 yards in breadth, is inclosed by high walls, the lower stones of which are in many parts very large, and much more ancient than the superstructure. It is occupied by the great octagonal mosque called Kubbet es-Sukhrah, or Dome of the Rock, and the mosque El-Aksa, with their grounds. It covers the site of the ancient temple and of the great tower Antonia. See Temple . At its southeast corner, where the wall is seventy-seven feet high, the ground at its base is one hundred and fifty feet above the dry bed of the Kidron. From this corner, the wall runs irregularly west by south, crosses mount Zion, leaving the greater part of it uninclosed on the south, and at its western verge turns north to the Jaffa gate, where the lower part of a very old and strong tower still remains. The upper part of this tower is less ancient and massive. It is known as "the tower of David," and is generally thought to have been the Hippicus of Josephus. [[Thence]] the wall sweeps irregularly round to the northeast corner. It is flanked at unequal distances by square towers, and has battlements running all around on its summit, with loopholes in them for arrows or muskets. There are now in use only four gates: the Jaffa or Bethlehem gate on the west, the Damascus gate on the north, St. Stephen's gate on the east, and Zion gate on the south. In the eastern wall of El-Haram is the Golden gate, long since blocked up, and in the city wall two smaller gates, more recently closed, namely, Herod's gate on the north-east, and Dung gate in the Tyropoeon on the south. </p> <p> Within the city walls are seen narrow and often covered streets, ungraded, ill-paved, and in some parts filthy, though less so than in most oriental cities. The houses are of hewn stone, with few windows towards the streets. Their flat roofs are strengthened and ornamented by many small domes. The most beautiful part of the city is the area of the great mosque-from which until recently all Christians have been rigorously excluded for six centuries-with its lawns and cypress trees, and the noble dome rising high above the wall. On mount Zion, much of the space within the wall is occupied by the huge Armenian convent, with the Syrian convent, and the church of St. James. Beyond the wall and far to the south is a Mohammedan mosque, professedly over the tomb of David. This is more jealously guarded against Christians than even the mosque of Omar. Near it is the small cemetery of the American missionaries. At the northwest corner of Zion rises the high square citadel above referred to, ancient and grand. Still farther north is the Latin convent, in the most westerly part of Jerusalem; and between it and the center of the city stands the church of the Holy Sepulchre, over the traditional scenes of the death and the resurrection of our Lord. See [[Calvary]] . In various parts of the city the minarets of eight or ten mosques arise, amid an assemblage of about two thousand dwellings, not a few of which are much dilapidated. </p> <p> The present population of Jerusalem may be about 12,000 souls, of whom about two-fifths are Mohammedans, and the remainder Jews and Christians in nearly equal numbers. There is also a considerable garrison, 800 to 1,000, stationed there; and in April of each year many thousands of pilgrims from foreign lands make a flying visit to the sacred places. The Moslemim reside in the center of the city, and towards the north and east. The Jews' quarter is on the northeast side of Zion. The Greek, Latin, Armenian, Syrian, and [[Coptic]] Christians are located chiefly around their respective convents, and their burial-places are on mount Zion, as well as that of the American [[Protestant]] mission. The Jews bury on Mount Olivet and the Mohammedans in several places, though preferring the eastern brow of Moriah. Jerusalem is but the melancholy shadow of its former self. The nominal Christians residing there are in a state of degraded and ignorant subjection to the Mohammedans, and their petty discords and superstitions are a reproach to the Christian name. The Jews, 3,000 to 5,000 in number, are still more oppressed and abject. Most of them were born in other lands, and have come here to die, in a city no longer their own. [[Discouraged]] by endless exactions, they subsist on the charities of their brethren abroad. It is only as a purchased privilege that they are allowed to approach the foundations of the sacred hill where their fathers worshipped the only true God. Here, in a small area near some huge and ancient stones in the base of the western wall of Moriah, they gather, especially on sacred days, to sit weeping and wailing on the ground, taking up the heart-breaking lamentations of Jeremiah-living witnesses of the truth of God's word fulfilled in them. See WALL. </p> <p> THE NEW JERUSALEM, is a name given to the church of Christ, and signifying is firm foundations in the love, choice, an covenant of God; its strong bulwarks, living fountains, and beautiful palaces; its thronging thousands, its indwelling God, and its consummated glory in heaven, &nbsp;Galatians 4:26 &nbsp; Hebrews 12:22 &nbsp; Revelation 3:12 &nbsp; 21:1-27 . </p>

<p> Great interest naturally attaches to this city because of its O.T. and N.T. histories, and its future glory. The signification of the name is somewhat uncertain: some give it as 'the foundation of peace;' others 'the possession of peace.' Its history has, alas, been anything but that of peace; but &nbsp;Haggai 2:9 remains to be fulfilled: "in this place will I give peace," doubtless referring to the meaning of 'Jerusalem.' The name is first recorded in &nbsp; Joshua 10:1 when Adoni-zedec was its king, before Israel had anything to do with it, and four hundred years before David obtained full possession of the city. &nbsp; 2 Samuel 5:6-9 . This name may therefore have been given it by the Canaanites, though it was also called JEBUS.&nbsp;Judges 19:10 . It is apparently symbolically called SALEM,'peace,' in &nbsp;Psalm 76:2;* and ARIEL, 'the lion of God,' in &nbsp;Isaiah 29:1,2,7; in &nbsp;Isaiah 52:1 'the holy city,' as it is also in &nbsp; Matthew 4:5; &nbsp;Matthew 27:53 . The temple being built there, and Mount Zion forming a part of the city, made Jerusalem typical of the place of blessing on earth, as it certainly will be in a future day, when Israel is restored. </p> <p> * On the TELLAMARNA TABLETS(see THE TELL AMARNA [[Tablets]] under 'Egypt') Jerusalem occurs several times as <i> u-ru-sa-lim </i> , the probable signification of which is 'city of peace.' </p> <p> Jerusalem was taken from the Jebusites and the city burnt, &nbsp;Judges 1:8; but the Jebusites were not all driven out, for some were found dwelling in a part of Jerusalem called the fort, when David began to reign over the whole of the tribes. This stronghold was taken, and Jerusalem became the royal city; but the great interest that attaches to it arises from its being the city of Jehovah's election on the one hand, and the place of Jehovah's temple, where mercy rejoiced over judgement. See ZIONand MORIAH.In Solomon's reign it was greatly enriched, and the temple built. At the division of the kingdom it was the chief city of Judah. It was plundered several times, and in B.C. 588 the temple and city were destroyed by the king of Babylon. In B.C. 536, after 70 years (from B.C. 606, when the first captivity took place, &nbsp;Jeremiah 25:11,12; &nbsp;Jeremiah 29:10 ), Cyrus made a declaration that God had charged him to build Him <i> a house </i> at Jerusalem, and the captives were allowed to return for the purpose. In B.C. 455 the commission to build <i> the city </i> was given to Nehemiah. It existed, under many vicissitudes, until the time of the Lord, when it was part of the Roman empire. Owing to the rebellion of the Jews it was destroyed by the Romans, A.D. 70. </p> <p> Its ruins had a long rest, but in A.D. 136 the city was rebuilt by Hadrian and called Ælia Capitolina. A temple to the Capitoline Jupiter was erected on the site of the temple. Jews were forbidden, on pain of death, to enter the city, but in the fourth century they were admitted once a year. Constantine after his conversion destroyed the heathen temples in the city. In A.D. 614Jerusalem was taken and pillaged by the Persians. In 628 it was re-taken by Heraclius. [[Afterwards]] it fell into the hands of the Turks. In 1099 it was captured by the Crusaders, but was re-taken by Saladin. In 1219 it was ceded to the Christians, but was subsequently captured by Kharezmian hordes. In 1277 it was nominally annexed to the kingdom of Sicily. In 1517 it passed under the sway of the Ottoman Sultan, and became a part of the Turkish empire. It has already sustained about thirty sieges, and although in the hands of the Jews now its desolations are not yet over! </p> <p> The beautiful situation of Jerusalem is noticed in scripture; it stands about 2593 feet above the sea, and the mountains round about it are spoken of as its security. &nbsp;Psalm 125:2; &nbsp;Lamentations 2:15 . Between the mountains and the city there are valleys on three sides: on the east the valley of the Kidron, or Jehoshaphat; on the west the valley of Gihon; and on the south the valley of Hinnom. The Mount of Olives is on the east, from whence the best view of Jerusalem is to be had. On the S.W. lies the Mount of Offence, so called because it is supposed that Solomon practised idolatry there. On the south is the Hill of Evil Counsel; the origin of which name is said to be that Caiaphas had a villa there, in which a council was held to put the Lord to death. But these and many other names commonly placed on maps, have no other authority than that of tradition. To the north the land is comparatively level, so that the attacks on the city were made on that side. </p> <p> The city, as it now stands surrounded by walls, contains only about one-third of a square mile. Its north wall running S.W. extends from angle to angle, without noticing irregularities, about 3930 feet; the east 2754 feet; the south 3425 feet; and the west 2086 feet; the circumference being about two and a third English miles. Any one accustomed to the area of modern cities is struck with the small size of Jerusalem. Josephus says that its circumference in his day was 33 stadia, which is more than three and three-quarters English miles. It is clear that on the south a portion was included which is now outside the city. Also on the north an additional wall enclosed a large portion, now called BEZETHA; but this latter enclosure was made by Herod Agrippa some ten or twelve years after the time of the Lord. Traces of these additional walls have been discovered and extensive excavations on the south have determined the true position of the wall. </p> <p> Several gates are mentioned in the O.T. which cannot be traced; it is indeed most probable they do not now exist. On the north is the Damascus gate, and one called Herod's gate walled up; on the east an open gate called St. Stephen's, and a closed one called the Golden gate; on the south Zion gate, and a small one called Dung gate; on the west Jaffa gate. A street runs nearly north from Zion gate to Damascus gate; and a street from the Jaffa gate runs eastward to the Mosque enclosure These two streets divide the city into four quarters of unequal size. Since the formation of the State of Israel a large modern city has built up to the North West of the Old City. </p> <p> There is a <i> fifth </i> portion on the extreme S.E. called MORIAH, agreeing, as is supposed, with the Mount Moriah of the O.T., on some portion of which the temple was most probably built. It is now called 'the Mosque enclosure,' because on it are built two mosques. It is a plateau of about 35 acres, all level except where a portion of the rock projects near the centre, over which the Mosque of Omar is built. To obtain this large plain, walls had to be built up at the sides of the sloping rock, forming with arches many chambers, tier above tier. Some chambers are devoted to cisterns, and others are called Solomon's stables. That horses have been kept there at some time appears evident from rings being found attached to the walls, to which the horses were tethered. </p> <p> Josephus speaks of Jerusalem being built upon two hills with a valley between, called the TYROPOEON VALLEY. This lies on the west of the Mosque enclosure and runs nearly north and south. Over this valley the remains of two bridges have been discovered: the one on the south is called the 'Robinson arch,' because that traveller discovered it. He judged that some stones which jutted out from the west wall of the enclosure must have been part of a large arch. This was proved to have been the case by corresponding parts of the arch being discovered on the opposite side of the valley. Another arch was found complete, farther north, by [[Captain]] Wilson, and is called the 'Wilson arch.' Below these arches were others, and aqueducts. </p> <p> Nearly the whole of this valley is filled with rubbish. There may have been another valley running across the above, as some suppose; but if so, that also is choked with debris, indeed the modern city appears to have been built upon the ruins of former ones, as is implied in the prophecy of &nbsp;Jeremiah 9:11; &nbsp;Jeremiah 30:18 . The above-named bridges would unite the Mosque enclosure, or Temple area, with the S.W. portion of the city, which is supposed to have included ZION. </p> <p> The Jews are not allowed in the Temple area, therefore they assemble on a spot near Robinson's arch, called the JEWS' [[Wailing]] PLACE, where they can approach the walls of the area which are built of very large and ancient stones. On Fridays and feast days they assemble in numbers; they kiss the stones and weep, and pray for the restoration of their city and temple, being, alas, still blind to the only true way of blessing through the Lord Jesus whom they crucified. </p> <p> The Christian population gave names to the streets, and point out traditional sites of many events recorded in scripture, but of course without the slightest authority. Of these arbitrary identifications the one that appears the most improbable is that of the [[Church]] OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE, said to cover the spots where the Lord was crucified and where He was buried, which is <i> within </i> the city. See CALVARY. </p> <p> About a hundred yards east of the Damascus gate is the entrance to a quarry, which extends a long way under the city, and from which a quantity of stone must have been extracted. There are heaps of small chips showing that the stones were <i> dressed </i> there; perhaps the 'great and costly' stones for the temple, built by Solomon were made ready there. &nbsp;1 Kings 5:17; &nbsp;1 Kings 6:7 . There are blackened nooks where apparently lamps were placed to give the workmen light; marks of the tools are easily discernible, and some blocks are there which have been only partially separated; everything has the appearance of workmen having but recently left their work, except that there are no tools lying about. </p> <p> As to the future of Jerusalem, scripture teaches that a portion of the Jews will return in unbelief (and indeed many have now returned), occupy Jerusalem, rebuild the temple, and have a political existence. &nbsp;Isaiah 6:13; &nbsp;Isaiah 17:10,11; &nbsp;Isaiah 18; &nbsp;Isaiah 66:1-3 . After being under the protection of the future Roman Empire, and having received Antichrist, they will be brought through great tribulation. The city will be taken and the temple destroyed. &nbsp;Isaiah 10:5,6; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:1,2 . But this will not be the final destiny of Jerusalem. We read "it shall not be plucked up nor thrown down any more for ever." &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:38-40 . "Thus saith the Lord of hosts: There shall yet old men and old women dwell in the streets of Jerusalem, and every man with his staff in his hand for very age. And the streets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playing in the streets thereof.' &nbsp;Zechariah 8:4 . &nbsp;5 . The temple will also be rebuilt, the particulars of which are given in the prophet Ezekiel. See TEMPLE. </p> <p> The sides of the square space allotted to the future city measure 5000 enlarged cubits (of probably 24-1/2 inches), a little less than 2 miles: the city itself to occupy a square of 4500 cubits each way, with a margin all round of 250 cubits, with large suburbs east and west. The 4500 cubits equal about 1.8 mile, and give about three and a quarter square miles, which, by the dimensions given above, will be seen to be very much larger than the present Old City. &nbsp;Ezekiel 48:15-20 . The formation of the hills and valleys were thought to be a difficulty, but the New City is already built outside the walls, and there will be physical changes in the country: living waters will flow from the city, half of them running into the western sea and half of them into the eastern sea: cf. &nbsp;Zechariah 14:8-10 . The new city will have twelve gates, three on each of its sides. "The name of the city from that day shall be THE LORD IS THERE." &nbsp;Ezekiel 48:30-35 . </p>

The course of the southern wall has long been a difficulty; it is certainly not the line of wall before Titus; it has none of the natural advantages of the western and eastern walls, and there are no traces of any great rock fosse, such as is to be found on the north. The eastern end is largely built upon the lower courses of Herod's southern wall for his enlarged temple-platform, and in it are still to be found walled up the triple, single and double g <div> <p> '''Copyright Statement''' These files are public domain and were generously provided by the folks at WordSearch Software. </p> <p> '''Bibliography Information''' Orr, James, M.A., D.D. General Editor. Entry for 'Jerusalem'. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/eng/isb/j/jerusalem.html. 1915. </p> </div>