Difference between revisions of "Israel"

<p> God promised [[Abraham]] that he would make from him a nation, that he would give that nation the land of [[Canaan]] as a homeland, and that through it blessing would come to people worldwide (&nbsp;Genesis 12:1-3; &nbsp;Genesis 13:14-17; &nbsp;Genesis 15:18-21; &nbsp;Genesis 22:17-18). The nation became known as Israel, after Abraham’s grandson (originally named Jacob) whose twelve sons were the fathers of the twelve tribes of [[Israel]] (&nbsp;Genesis 32:28; &nbsp;Genesis 35:22-26; &nbsp;Genesis 49:1; &nbsp;Genesis 49:28; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 1:34; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 2:1-2; see [[Jacob]] ). </p> <p> '''Beginnings of Israel’s national life''' </p>

<p> <i> The Name and People </i> . Jacob, grandson of Abraham, was named Israel after he had wrestled with God (&nbsp;Genesis 32:28 ). This name is a combination of the Hebrew words for "wrestle" and "God" (because <i> sareta </i> [you have wrestled] with God [ <i> ‘el </i> ] and men you will be called <i> yisrael </i> ). When Jacob had returned to Canaan, God commanded him to settle in Bethel; there God appeared to Jacob again and repeated that his name was no longer Jacob but Israel. This confirmation of the naming was followed by God confirming his covenant with Jacob (&nbsp;Genesis 35:9-12 ), emphasizing specific elements of the covenant he had made with Abraham (&nbsp;Genesis 17:1-8 ). The name, expressing the concept of wrestling, clinging firmly to God, and overcoming, and God's confirming of his covenant with Jacob, indicates that Israel is to be understood as Jacob's covenant name. The name spoke of his being bound with a bond of life and love to God. His descendants were at times referred to as Hebrews (&nbsp;Genesis 39:14,17; &nbsp;40:15; &nbsp;41:12 ), and when they were slaves in Egypt (&nbsp;Exodus 1:15; &nbsp;2:13 ), and occasionally in other contexts (e.g., &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:12; &nbsp;1 Samuel 4:6; &nbsp;Isaiah 36:11; &nbsp;Jeremiah 34:9,14 ). Eventually they were known as [[Jews]] (first mentioned in &nbsp;Jeremiah 32:12 ). The use of these references, "Hebrew" and "Jew, " indicated that among the nations, Abraham and Jacob's descendants were thus known nationally and/or ethnically. The name "Israel, " however, referred to Jacob's descendants' spiritual, covenantal, and religious heritage. The name "Israel" spoke of the ethnic or national Hebrews' and Jews' unique relationship with God. There was a time when the name was not used to refer to all of Jacob's descendants because after the division of the tribes, the northern ten tribes were known as Israel and the southern tribes as Judah. After the exile it was used again to refer to the entire community. </p> <p> The Old [[Testament]] is often considered to be specifically a record of Israel's national history, of its unique religion, and of its hopes for the future. The [[Scriptures]] are also used as a source for understanding God's redemptive activities on behalf of and goals for Israel. While it is true that these are aspects of the Old Testament record, the more inclusive message is to reveal how God sovereignly chose to prepare and use Israel as his unique mediatorial agent. He unfolded his kingdom plan on behalf of all races, nations, peoples, and ethnic groups. </p> <p> <i> God's Purposes </i> . God's purpose for electing Israel can be divided into five interrelated and correlated themes. </p> <p> First, Israel was to, and did, bring the [[Messiah]] to Israel and to the nations of the world. God had assured Adam and [[Eve]] that the seed of the woman would crush Satan's head and thereby undo the disobedience, sinfulness, and corruption resulting from their deviation from God and their breaking of the covenant. Of Noah's progeny, Shem was identified as the seed-bearing progenitor (&nbsp;Genesis 9:24-27 ). Then Abram/Abraham was called and told by God that through him all nations were to be blessed (&nbsp;Genesis 12:3 ). It was to be through Abraham's seed (&nbsp;Genesis 15:5; &nbsp;17:1-8 ) that God would bring in the Messiah and the sure redemptive victory over Satan, sin, and its effects. This seed line was narrowed to Isaac, Jacob/Israel, Judah, and David. Meanwhile all of Abraham's seed was to serve as light to the peoples of the world (&nbsp;Isaiah 9:2-7; &nbsp;42:6; &nbsp;49:6 ). </p> <p> Second, inseparably related to this first and all-inclusive purpose, was Israel's divinely determined role to give, uphold, and preserve the Scriptures, both the Old and New Testaments. This written Word is the sure, infallible record of how God created the cosmos, and how he purposed to bring redemption and restoration to the cosmos and its inhabitants. Without this written word there would be no record of what God had done, promised, and carried out. Once Israel was formed as a people under Moses' mediatorial leadership, this first part of the word was written by him; and it was added to by other Israelite writers, historians, poets, sages, and prophets. Thus, Israel's divinely determined purpose was to bring the eternal living Word, Jesus Christ (&nbsp;John 1:1-3 ), and the inspired, inerrant, and infallible written word to all the nations of the world—including themselves. </p> <p> Third, Israel, by God's determinate counsel, was given the unique role of being a mediatorial people. God called Abraham from a "corner" of the then known world to place him in the center among the nations. There, with smaller nations as near neighbors, Syria, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, Sidon, and larger ones beyond, the Arabians, Egyptian, Hittite, Assyrian, and Babylonian, Israel was made to be a peculiar treasure, to be a kingdom, a priestly people, and a holy nation (&nbsp;Exodus 19:4-6 ). This multifaceted role was not just simply for Israel's sake. Israel was elected, empowered, qualified, and given the opportunity in centrally located Canaan to mediate between God and the nations. This mediatorial work was to be carried out through living according to the word God had given so that nations would take note of and desire to join in the blessing, wonder, and glory of life with and under his beneficient reign (&nbsp;Isaiah 2:1-5; &nbsp;Micah 4:1-5 ). Israel's initial purpose was not to witness verbally, but to exhibit the rich blessedness of covenantal life. The non-Israelite, drawn to Israel in this way, was expected to learn and submit to God's revealed demands. Such was the case with [[Rahab]] (&nbsp;Joshua 2:9-13 ), Ruth (&nbsp;Ruth 1:16-18 ), and [[Uriah]] (&nbsp;2 Samuel 11:6,11 ). They were neither Hebrew nor Jew but became true citizens of Israel, God's covenant people. </p> <p> Fourth, God called, elected, and declared that Israel as a people were to be a kingdom (&nbsp;Exodus 19:6 ). Moses emphatically declared they were chosen because of no merit of their own. God chose Israel to be his covenant/kingdom people because he loved them with a gracious love (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:7 ). Israel, however, had its responsibilities placed before it. The people had to acknowledge and exhibit in the totality of their lives that God was their one and only King. No other gods were to be recognized as their sovereign ruler or as their source of life and its inclusive blessings. Israel was to know itself as a theocracy under the reign of God. As such they were called to be royal, loving, obedient, serving people. </p> <p> Israel had the duty, according to God's purposes, to demonstrate to itself, its children, its non-Israelite neighbors living within Canaan's borders, and surrounding nations, how, as a redeemed, covenantal serving people, they should live as a theocratic kingdom. This could only be done by faithfully carrying out the three creation covenant mandates: the spiritual, the social, and the cultural. </p> <p> The spiritual mandate called for loving fellowship with God and an adoring worship that would glorify the sovereign covenant Lord. [[Fellowship]] and worship were to be carried out in families (e.g., Passover, &nbsp;Exodus 12 ) but particularly in the courts of the tabernacle and temple. The people, old and young, were to be called together, and as an assembly were to pay homage to their Lord. [[Means]] for the assembly's worship were prescribed. The tabernacle and later the temple, giving symbolic and typological expression to the the covenant promise, "I am your God, I am with you, " was to be the central place of worship (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:1-14 ). Moses later told the people they could assemble for worship around local altars at which priests officiated (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:15-19 ). [[Yahweh]] provided the priesthood and the prescribed sacrifices to enable the assembly to worship as a devout kingdom people. Some sacrifices were to be offered daily (&nbsp;Leviticus 6:1-8 ), others at appropriate times (feasts or for specific situations); the [[Sabbath]] was to be the day of no work but to be the time of worship for the entire assembly. God repeatedly reminded his people that they were not to assemble around and worship other gods because he was a jealous Lord (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:15-24; &nbsp;13:1-18 ). Nor were the people to worship as they saw fit (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:8 ); they were to keep the basic principles for obeying and carrying out the spiritual mandate as these were stated in the first four commandments. </p> <p> God called Israel as a covenant community to live and exhibit kingdom life to the world. Israel was to obey and carry out the creation covenant social mandate. [[Commandments]] 5-7 provided basic guidelines. Within the community, family life was to be fundamental; parents were to teach, train, and discipline their children (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:4-9; &nbsp;Psalm 78:1-8 ). [[Children]] were to respond to parents with honor and dignity. Marriage with noncovenant people was strictly forbidden (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 7:1-6 ). However, those who were not biological descendants of Abraham could be taken as mates if they became members of the Israelite community. Procreation was to be considered a divine ordinance for thus seed would come forth to continue covenantal service within the theocracy. [[Abuse]] of sexual potential was strictly forbidden as was adultery. </p> <p> Israel as a holy nation was to exhibit the kingdom of God to the world by heeding and carrying out the creation covenant cultural mandate. Prerequisites were their activities as a worshiping assembly and their communal life expressed by their mutual love and joy in marriage, family, clan, and entire covenant community. God's purpose for Israel as a holy nation was that they be totally separated from heathen practices spiritually, socially, and culturally and be consecrated to their sovereign Lord who had commanded "Be holy because I, the Lord your God, am holy" (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:2 ). Israel, the holy nation, was to be organized politically. Yahweh was their sovereign King. [[Elders]] and judges had to carry out administrative and judicial duties; priests had to assist particularly in regard to health laws. </p> <p> Israel, to meet the challenge of being a holy, politically organized, governed, and law-abiding nation, was called to live separately among the nations. God gave them Canaan as their land, not first of all for their own advancement and enjoyment but to enable Israel to serve as the mediatorial nation in the midst of the nations. Each tribe and clan was given an inheritance from which they were to remove all [[Canaanite]] inhabitants so that they could live without unholy pressures and truly be free to live up to God's purposes for them. Israel was promised prosperity but these material blessings were to be received as means to serve. Thus, as good stewards, they could develop and beautify their natural surroundings and with skill produce materials that would enhance the beauty of their environment. The tabernacle and temple were examples of highly developed cultural craftsmanship. </p> <p> Fifth, to work out his purposes for the world under sin, God chose Israel to be his covenantal servants who were to live by faith and demonstrate it to the nations. Noah and Abraham exercised faith as did many others (&nbsp;Hebrews 11 ). This faith included knowing the Lord, trusting in him, and living a life of courage and hope. This faith was inseparable from obedience to all of God's revealed will. Through obedience Israel would exhibit to its offspring and neighbors what service to God entailed. Indeed, the life of faith, obedience, and service would fulfill the purposes God had in mind and revealed to them. In this way, Israel would serve mediatorially as a messianic people and in time bring forth the Messiah himself, receive and give to the world God's inscripturated word, and show that the kingdom of God included all of life's activities and relationships. </p> <p> <i> Israel's Privileges </i> . In the economy of God's kingdom, privileges involve responsibilities. Israel, called and enabled to carry out God's purposes, was given privileges commensurate and in correlation with the responsibilities given them. These privileges were many. </p> <p> First, it was Israel's privilege to represent and mirror the Sovereign of the cosmos to the nations. Israel's privilege was to serve! Self-serving and self-aggrandizement were entirely contrary to the responsibilities and privileges given to the descendants of Jacob. The people, as an assembly, as a community, and as a nation, were never to consider themselves <i> only </i> as objects of God's election, love, and providential goodness; they were to consider themselves basically as subjects called for the purpose of serving. In service according to God's purposes, Israel would be honored by the privileges made available to them. </p> <p> Second, it was Israel's privilege to be in a unique covenantal relationship with God. God, referring to himself as the [[Husband]] (&nbsp;Jeremiah 31:33 ) and Israel as his precious possession whom he had brought to himself, implied Israel was his bride (&nbsp;Exodus 19:4-6 ). This covenantal/spiritual marriage relationship was a bond of life and love God would not break. He would not divorce her though he would send her away for a time (&nbsp;Isaiah 50:1 ). Israel had assured security in the love, goodness, and faithfulness of God. </p> <p> Third, Israel had unique access to God. God dwelt in the midst of his people. First by Moses and then via the priests, the people could come into the presence of God. He communed with them, receiving their sacrifices, praises, and prayers. He spoke to them directly, through his written Word read to the people, and by the prophets. In this intimate relationship, Israel could know the character of their God. He was sovereign and all-powerful; he declared and showed himself to be compassionate, gracious, patient, full of love, faithful, forgiving, righteous, and just (&nbsp;Exodus 34:6-7; &nbsp;Numbers 14:17-18; &nbsp;Psalm 103:8-13; &nbsp;Jonah 4:2-3 ). </p> <p> Fourth, it was Israel's privilege to have a land and cultural blessings that God had prepared for them by Canaanite endeavors. It was a land with flourishing cities, houses filled with good things, wells providing water, productive vineyards, and fruitful orchards (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:10-12 ). This promised land was their inheritance to be possessed for service and not to be occupied for self-satisfaction and feelings of superiority. The land was never to be seen as a prize or as a possession without regard for the reasons that it was given: to be central among the nations so that the messianic light of God's kingdom would shine out to all nations. In this land, then, Israel had the privilege of carrying out its spiritual, social, and cultural mandates. It was to be a place of rest, prosperity, security, and peace; Israel thus had the privilege of portraying to all nations what the redeemed and restored cosmos would be like. By its serene, serving life Israel could portray hope for a blessed future for peoples of all nations who joined them in faith, obedience, and service to God, thus bringing glory to the cosmic King. </p> <p> Fifth, within their promised land and to the nations beyond, Israel had the privilege of proclaiming, as no other could, that God reigned. This message was one of assurance for present and future times. The Sovereign God was in control and directed all the affairs of the cosmos, of the nations, and of individuals. Moses sang, "The Lord will reign forever and ever" (&nbsp;Exodus 15:18 ). The psalmists sang it (&nbsp;Psalm 93:1-2; &nbsp;97:1; &nbsp;99:1-5 ). The prophets proclaimed it to Israel (&nbsp;Isaiah 52:8 ) and to the nations (&nbsp;Obadiah 1:1,21 ). </p> <p> Sixth, Israel was given promises concerning its continuation as a people. This privilege had the potential of breeding a false security that irrespective of circumstances, Israel as a nation could expect to endure throughout all ages. Inseparably involved, however, with this tremendous privilege was the demand that the people live by faith, obediently and in the service of God and his purposes concerning his enduring kingdom. </p> <p> <i> Israel's [[Response]] </i> . Biblical revelation records how Israel responded to its call to believe, obey, and serve God's purposes for Jacob's descendant's and to the privileges given so that God's purposes could be fulfilled. The account is a revelation of faithfulness, obedience, and service on the part of varying numbers of the people in various ways, and unfaithfulness, disobedience, and lack of service, often on the part of most of the people. God, however, remained faithful and steadfast in working out his kingdom, covenantal, and mediatorial plan. He did so by blessing, by withholding blessings, and by executing, in a mitigated way, the curse of the covenant. Israel was never completely destroyed as a community although it suffered severely when the warnings Moses had enunciated (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 28-29 ) went unheeded. God humiliated Israel by bringing famines, hardships, military defeats, foreign oppressions, and eventually exile. </p> <p> The tensions between covenantal living and violations of it were starkly present among Jacob's twelve sons. Ten brothers sold Joseph into slavery and lied about his disappearance. Judah had sex with a woman he considered a prostitute (&nbsp;Genesis 38 ) while Joseph refused the sexual temptations in Egypt. In spite of his humiliations he remained faithful and served his covenant Lord. Jacob referred to various other sins of his sons (&nbsp;Genesis 49:4,5,17,27 ). Yet in spite of Judah's failings he was prophesied to be a forbear of the Messiah Israel was to bring into the world (&nbsp;Genesis 49:8-12 ). It was Joseph, richly blessed (&nbsp;Genesis 49:22-26 ), who acknowledged God's faithfulness and sovereign providential guidance (&nbsp;Genesis 50:19-20 ). </p> <p> Israel as a growing community in Egypt suffered as slaves; there is little evidence of conscious obedience and service to Yahweh once Joseph had died, except for the midwives who spared Moses (&nbsp;Exodus 1 ). Ready to be freed as slaves under Moses' leadership and spontaneous in vows to obey and serve Yahweh as a covenant community and nation (&nbsp;Exodus 19:8; &nbsp;24:3,7 ), Israel's sons and daughters soon exhibited their fickleness and hankering for life in Egypt (&nbsp;Exodus 32:2-8 ). Moses' intercession was heard and Israel was made to know that God was a faithful, covenant-keeping God whose jealously preserved his character and his people (&nbsp;Exodus 34:5-14 ). </p> <p> Once Israel had received the tabernacle, the Aaronic priesthood, and the prescriptions for sacrifices and feasts, the people had every opportunity to be a believing, obeying, worshiping, serving community and theocratic nation. But there were murmurings and rebellions (&nbsp;Numbers 11:1; &nbsp;12:1-2; &nbsp;14:1-4; &nbsp;16:1-3; &nbsp;21:4-5 ); two of the twelve spies trusted in and honored God (&nbsp;Numbers 13 ); ten did not. Nor did the nation as a whole. When under Moses and Joshua's leadership the [[Transjordan]] was conquered, God had Moses reveal to the people that he, the covenant Sovereign of earth and heaven, called upon and demanded the people to love, obey, worship, and serve as a devout covenant people. Joshua, divinely ordained, was an effective military leader. Israel as a nation was given the promised land, cultivated, built up, and productive. </p> <p> After Joshua's death, the people repeatedly broke covenant with God. They were humiliated by military defeats and economic hardships. [[Ever]] faithful, God moved his people to acknowledge him by means of these hardships and provided leaders so that the people had freedom and prosperity again. Throughout the turbulent times of the judges, from Othniel to Samuel, God continued to work out his messianic purposes. The judges, [[Boaz]] and Ruth, and Samuel, the judge/prophet, stand out. </p> <p> God's faithfulness in regard to his messianic purposes and goals was dramatically revealed in the time of David and Solomon. David, a descendant of Judah, of the seedline of Abraham and Shem, was anointed and enthroned. David, the poet and prophet, in spite of his sins, was a man after God's heart. He conquered and reigned over the entire territory God had promised to Abraham (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:1-14 ). His reign is described as just and right (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:15 ). The covenant was confirmed and expanded with specifics concerning covenant seed and an eternal dynasty (&nbsp;2 Samuel 7:1-28 ). His son Solomon carried out the plans David made for the temple and worship. Solomon exhibited wisdom (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:1-13 ) and the splendor of the theocratic monarchy was unsurpassed (&nbsp;1 Kings 10:14-29 ). &nbsp;Psalm 72 expresses the glory of the messianic kingdom, as initially realized under David and Solomon and to be fully and finally realized under Jesus Christ. </p> <p> The prophetic office served Yahweh's purposes. Moses had been a prophet par excellence; Samuel fulfilled a key role in anointing David (&nbsp;1 Samuel 16:13 ) and [[Nathan]] pronounced one of the most significant prophecies when he addressed David, assuring him that a descendant would reign, that David's throne and kingdom would last forever. In this prophecy no reference is made to the nation of Israel itself but rather to the central person, David, and to his seed. Israel would provide the context but the central thrust was on the house of David, his throne, and the kingdom God was to bring to ever fuller manifestation. </p> <p> The high points, as exhibited in the covenant with David, his victories, his just and righteous reign, the wisdom of Solomon and grandeur of his throne and kingdom, were not maintained. God's purposes did not diminish; the privileges given to the royal house of David were initially expanded. But Solomon in his later years and the majority of the Davidic dynasty did not remain faithful covenant and kingdom believers and obedient servants. A major part of the theocratic nation seceded and took the name "Israel." The tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin constituted the ongoing environment in which God continued to work out his purposes. The low point came after Israel was deported into exile in 722 b.c. (&nbsp;2 Kings 17:21-23 ). A small remnant from Judah fled to Egypt (&nbsp;Jeremiah 41:16-18; &nbsp;44:26 ). </p> <p> The prophets continued to speak God's words of both warning and promise. Judah particularly was repeatedly reminded that God's kingdom and covenant would continue; the promise of the messianic mediator was repeated before (Isaiah and Micah) and during (Ezekiel and Daniel) the exile. The descendants of Jacob, the Israelite covenant community, whether in homeland or in exile, would continue so that God's covenant promises concerning the conquering seed, as represented by the Davidic dynasty, and concerning his all-encompassing kingdom would in time be realized. Thus the nation of Israel was not the central focus; God's purposes to be realized through Israel were. Israel, as a people, would bring in the Messiah. </p> <p> After the exile, the descendants of Jacob, often referred to as Jews rather than Israelites, formed a social and religious community. The efforts to be a worshiping, called-out people were diminished by legalistic scribal and priestly activities and by various fanatic attempts that failed to transform the people living in Palestine into a nation again. Thus, while Israel as a nation no longer functioned, it did as a social and religious community. In that setting the ultimate purpose for Israel's call and existence was fully realized in Jesus, even as God had purposed. Forty years, the same period of time Israel wandered in the desert, after Jesus ascended to reign over the kingdom, the Israelite community, temple, and sacrificial system were removed. The promise God made to Adam and Eve, repeated to Abraham, Judah, and David concerning the conquering, reigning Seed of the woman was fully kept. Israel, in spite of its repeated Acts of unbelief, disobedience, and rebellion, fulfilled the purposes for which God had called and prepared it. </p> <p> <i> Contemporary [[Issues]] [[Regarding]] Israel </i> . The relationship of Israel to the Scriptures is definite. Both the Old and New Testaments were written by people who were known to be of Israelite nativity. The entire Bible is God's gift to the world via the people of Israel—whether one wishes to refer to the Bible as Hebrew (Old Testament) and Jewish (New Testament). The fact remains, the entire Bible was given by God through the believing, obeying, and serving covenant community. Moses and the historical, poetic, wisdom, and prophetic writers were covenant servants; equally so were the New Testament evangelists, historical epistolary, and apocalyptic writers. Serious differences of views pertain, however, concerning the nature of the entire Bible. Is it a record of Israel's origins, existence, and development as a nation? In other words, is the Bible a strictly human book or is it a divinely inspired book that has the message of divine creation, humanity's fall, God's redemptive and restorative program, and his enduring kingdom to and initially carried out largely by Israel? The biblical account is clear and definite: Israel was God's instrument by which the Bible was given to the entire world. </p> <p> The biblical record concerning Israel's origin is clear. Scholars, working in the areas of Near Eastern archaeology and historical criticism have offered variant views. That Israel as a body of approximately two million people lived and served as slaves in Egypt is not accepted by many such scholars. That there is some evidence that a group of Semitic people lived and were enslaved in Egypt is generally accepted. But the manner and time of the dramatic exodus event are not accepted as historically or archaeologically verifiable. Likewise, the Sinai experience, the forty-year wandering in the wilderness, and the military conquest of Canaan have been seriously doubted. Alternate views are projected, such as a small group that escaped from slavery in Egypt, joining other groups, gradually infiltrated Canaan and took on many of its ways of life. The development of Israel as a nation has been seen as a gradual formation of a league of tribes of various origins. The evidence presented by archaeologists and historical critics has not bee accepted by many scholars, particularly evangelical, conservative scholars. These scholars, however, have shown that archaeological and scientific historical studies do not contradict the biblical record but illumine it. </p> <p> A third debated issue in relation to Israel, and closely related to the two already mentioned, is the origin and nature of Israel's religion. Reference is made particularly to Israel's beliefs, worship patterns, and practices. The Scriptures testify to Israel's faith as revealed by God and its worship activities directed by him. With the aid of scholars who have studied Israel's social structures and psychological attitudes, students of Israel's surrounding nations and their religions have attempted to demonstrate that much of what Israel practiced religiously was adopted from those of the peoples around them. Israel did not live in isolation from its neighbors; it had various religious practices that were outwardly similar, such as portable shrines, systems of sacrifice, and religious objects such as altars. Israel's religion was unique, however, in origin and practice. God revealed himself directly to Abraham, as he had done to Adam and Noah. He especially revealed himself as a covenant Lord to them and this covenantal relationship with all its ramifications and implications was explicated in detail by God through his appointed mediatorial agents. Israel's faith and religious life and activities had their origin in revelation, not in borrowing or in religious perceptions. It must be added, however, that Israel was not always faithful to their sovereign covenant Lord. There was much vacillation in its loyalty to him and there is much evidence of disobedience as exhibited in Israel's following of their neighbors' detestable idolatrous practices. </p> <p> Much discussion is involved in the issue of Israel and the land. That God promised Abraham and his progeny a land as their possession cannot be doubted. But did God unconditionally promise that it would be an eternal possession? Many evangelical [[Christians]] believe this is the case; they speak of the Palestinian covenant on the basis of their interpretation of &nbsp;Deuteronomy 28 . Other equally sincere evangelical biblical students point to five important qualifying factors. First, Moses emphatically stated that obedience was a basic requirement to inherit the land and to remain blessed possessors (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:25-31; &nbsp;28:15-68 ). Second, the term translated "everlasting" is often translated correctly "for a long time, " "for ages." The term cannot mean eternal, in the sense of never-ending, for at the Lord's return at the end of time, the order of the renewed heavens and earth will be ushered in. Third, God fulfilled his promises regarding the land and its extent at the time of David and Solomon (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:1-4; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:1-13; &nbsp;1 Kings 4:20-21; &nbsp;Psalm 72:8 ). Fourth, the prophetic promise of a return to the land after the exile was fulfilled when a remnant returned (&nbsp;Ezra 2 ). Fifth, the New Testament does not refer to Israel as a nation possessing the land forever; rather, it speaks of Abraham's believing covenant offspring inheriting the world (&nbsp;Romans 4:13 ). </p> <p> Another issue concerns the interpretation of prophecies concerning Israel. This issue is closely related to Israel's relationship to the land, the church, and the millennium (&nbsp;Revelation 20 ). The following factors must be kept in mind. The prophets spoke of a future for Israel. They did not, however, always refer to Israel as a political entity, an organized nation. The concept of the remnant is dominant, particularly of Israel as a believing covenant community. Furthermore, when the prophets spoke to their contemporaries they did so in terms the people at that time understood. Hence, when prophets spoke of the wonderful future of Yahweh's covenant people, they did so in simple urban, pastoral, agricultural, and natural (nature) terms (&nbsp;Isaiah 35 ). [[Strict]] literal interpretation, often controlled by certain presuppositions regarding Israel as a political, national entity, must be used very discretely if not completely avoided. </p> <p> Another specific issue concerns the relationship of Israel and the New Testament church. On the basis of a too literal interpretation of Old Testament prophecies concerning Israel and maintaining the view that New Testament writers referred to a politically organized national entity rather than to the believing covenant community, a strict separation is posited between Israel as a nation and the non-Jewish New Testament covenant community of believers, the church. It is believed that God has two distinct people in mind with a distinctly separate program for each. Many biblical scholars have difficulties with this separation. Some of the points stated in preceding paragraphs should be kept in mind. Moreover, Jesus never spoke of Israel's continuation as a politically separate religiously oriented nation; rather, he spoke of God's all-encompassing kingdom. And while it is true Paul spoke of his ethnic people as "the people of Israel" (&nbsp;Romans 9:3-5 ), he spoke of all true believers in Jesus Christ as Abraham's seed, heirs according to the promise made to Abraham's descendants (&nbsp;Galatians 3:28 ). He also wrote of all believers, [[Gentiles]] as well as ethnic Jewish people who believed in Jesus Christ, as Israel (&nbsp;Galatians 6:16 ). It is therefore believed that Paul, when speaking of his own ethnic people, many of whom did not accept Jesus as the promised Messiah, and of many Gentiles coming to faith, includes all believers, whether they be Jews or Gentiles, to constitute the "all Israel, " that is, the unified body, the covenant community of believers (&nbsp;Romans 11:25-32 ). </p> <p> The last issue to be referred to, although others could be included, is Israel's national existence as a millennial kingdom. This issue has many ramifications that cannot be included in this essay. [[Suffice]] it to state that John did not write that Israel as a distinct religious national entity would be a separate kingdom for a thousand years. Nor did Jesus say he would return to earth to reign over the Jewish kingdom. In addition, various scholars have pointed out in times past and present that the Israelite kingdom, first as a theocracy and then under the reign of David's dynasty as a monarchy, was a type of the eternal kingdom Jesus is perfecting and will return to the Father (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:24-28 ). </p> <p> Gerard [[Van]] Groningen </p> <p> Bibliography . F. F. Bruce, <i> Israel and the Nation </i> ; L. A. DeCaro, <i> Israel Today: [[Fulfillment]] of Prophecy? </i> ; A. Gileadi, ed., <i> Israel's [[Apostasy]] and [[Restoration]] </i> ; W. Hendrikson, <i> Israel in [[Prophecy]] </i> ; A. W. Kac, <i> The [[Rebirth]] of the State of Israel </i> ; M. Karlberg, <i> JETS </i> 31/3 (1988): 257-69; G. E. Ladd, <i> The Last Things </i> ; H. K. LaRondelle, <i> The Israel of God in Prophecy </i> ; J. B. Payne, <i> Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy </i> ; P. Richardson, <i> Israel in the [[Apostolic]] Church </i> ; J. F. Walvoord, <i> Israel in Prophecy </i> ; M. J. Wyngaarden, <i> The Future of the Kingdom </i> . </p>

<p> ("soldier of" or "contender with God".) </p> <p> '''1.''' The name given by the angel of [[Jehovah]] to Jacob, after by wrestling he had prevailed and won the blessing (&nbsp;Genesis 32:26-28), "for thou hast contended with God and with men, and hast prevailed" (&nbsp;Hosea 12:4). [[Sarah]] and [[Sur]] mean also "to be a prince". KJV combines both meanings: "as a prince hast thou power with God and with men," etc. </p> <p> '''2.''' The name of the nation, including the whole 12 tribes. </p> <p> '''3.''' The northern kingdom, including the majority of the whole nation, namely, ten tribes; or else all except Judah, Benjamin, Levi, Dan, and Simeon (&nbsp;1 Samuel 11:8; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 12:16). In &nbsp;1 Kings 11:13; &nbsp;1 Kings 11:31-32 Jeroboam was appointed by God to have ten tribes, Solomon's seed one; but two were left for David's line when [[Ahijah]] gave ten out of the 12 pieces of his garment to Jeroboam. The numbers therefore must be understood in a symbolical rather than in a strictly arithmetical sense. Ten expresses completeness and totality in contrast with one, "the tribe of Judah only" (&nbsp;1 Kings 12:20); but "Benjamin" is included also (1 Kings 21; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 11:3; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 11:23). Levi was not counted in the political classification, it mainly joined Judah. Ephraim and Manasseh were counted as two. </p> <p> Judah included also Simeon, which was so far S. and surrounded by Judah's territory (&nbsp;Joshua 19:1-9) that it could not have well formed part of the northern kingdom. Moreover several cities of Dan were included in "Judah," namely, Ziklag, which [[Achish]] gave David, Zorea, and [[Ajalon]] (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 11:10; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 28:18). These counterbalanced the loss to Judah of the northern part of Benjamin, including Bethel, Ramah, and Jericho, which fell to "Israel" (&nbsp;1 Kings 12:29; &nbsp;1 Kings 15:17; &nbsp;1 Kings 15:21; &nbsp;1 Kings 16:34). Thus only nine tribes, and not all these, wholly remained to the northern kingdom. The sea coast was in the hands of Israel from [[Accho]] to Japho, S. of this the Philistines held the coast. It is estimated Judah's extent was somewhat less than Northumberland, Durham, and Westmoreland; Israel's as large as Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Cumberland; and Israel's population in 957 B.C. 3,500,000 (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 13:3). </p> <p> The division was appointed by God as the chastisement of the house of David for the idolatries imported by Solomon's wives. The spreading of the contagion to the whole mass of the people was thus mercifully guarded against. Jeroboam's continued tenure of the throne was made dependent on his loyalty to God. Rehoboam's attempt to reduce the revolting tribes was divinely forbidden. Jeroboam recognized the general obligation of the law while, he violated its details. (See [[Jeroboam]] .) His innovation was in the place of worship (Bethel and Dan instead of Jerusalem), and in the persons by whom it was to be performed (priests taken from the masses instead of from Levi), also in the time of the feast of tabernacles (the eighth instead of the seventh month). In the symbols, the calves, he followed Aaron's pattern at Sinai, which he himself had been familiarized to in Egypt; at the same time recognizing the reality of God's deliverance of Israel out of Egypt in saying like Aaron, "Behold thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of Egypt," (&nbsp;1 Kings 12:28; &nbsp;Exodus 32:4; &nbsp;Exodus 32:8). </p> <p> His own miraculous punishment (1 Kings 13), the death of his son, the overthrow of the three royal dynasties, Jeroboam's, Baasha's, and Ahab's; as foretold by the prophets (Isaiah 8, Isaiah 9, Isaiah 28; Hosea; and Amos), the permanent removal of Israel by Assyria, all attested God's abhorrence of idolatry. The wise design of God in appointing the separation between Israel and Judah appears in its effect on Judah. It became her political interest to adhere to the [[Mosaic]] law. This was the ground of confidence to [[Abijah]] in battle with Jeroboam (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 13:9-11). The [[Levites]] being cast out of office by Jeroboam left their suburbs and came to Judah. Rehoboam's chastisement for forsaking God's law, Judah also making high places, images, and groves (&nbsp;2 Kings 14:22-23; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 12:1, etc.), had a salutary effect on [[Ass]] and Jehoshaphat in succession. </p> <p> Excepting the period of apostasy resulting in the first instance from Jehoshaphat's unfortunate alliance with Ahab's family, a majority of Judah's kings were observers of the law, whereas there was not one king faithful to Jehovah in Israel's line of kings. Shechem, the original place of meeting of the nation under Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 24:1), was the first capital (&nbsp;1 Kings 12:25); then Tirzah, famed for its loveliness (&nbsp;Song of Solomon 6:4; &nbsp;1 Kings 14:17; &nbsp;1 Kings 15:33; &nbsp;1 Kings 16:8; &nbsp;1 Kings 16:17; &nbsp;1 Kings 16:23). Omri chose [[Samaria]] for its beauty, fertility, and commanding position (24); after a three years' siege it fell before the Assyrian king. Jezreel was the residence of some kings. [[Shiloh]] in Ephraim was the original seat of the sanctuary (&nbsp;Judges 21:19; &nbsp;Joshua 18:1) before it was removed to Jerusalem. The removal was a source of jealousy to Ephraim, to obviate which the [[Maschil]] (instruction) of [[Asaph]] (Psalm 78) was written (see &nbsp;Psalms 78:60; &nbsp;Psalms 78:67-69). </p> <p> [[Jealousy]] and pride, which were old failings of Ephraim, the leading tribe of the N. (&nbsp;Judges 8:1; &nbsp;Judges 8:12), were the real moving causes of the revolt from Judah, the heavy taxation was the ostensible cause. Joshua and Caleb represented Ephraim and Judah respectively in the wilderness, and Joshua took the lead in Canaan. It galled Ephraim now to be made subordinate. Hence flowed the readiness with which they hearkened to Absalom and their jealousy of Judah at David's restoration (&nbsp;2 Samuel 19:41-43) and their revolting at the call of [[Sheba]] (&nbsp;2 Samuel 20:1). The idolatry of Solomon alienated the godly; his despotic grandeur at the cost of the people diminished his general popularity (&nbsp;1 Kings 11:14-40). The moment that God withdrew the influence that, restrained the spirit of disunion, the disruption took place. Jeroboam adopted the calf idolatry for state policy, but it eventuated in state ruin. </p> <p> God made Israel's sin her punishment. [[Degradation]] of morality followed apostasy in religion and debasement of the priesthood. God's national code of laws, still in force, and the established idolatry were in perpetual conflict. The springs of national life were thereby poisoned. [[Eight]] houses occupied the throne, revolution ushering in each successively. The kingdom's duration was 254 years, from 975 to 721 B.C. Israel's doom acted in some degree as a salutary warning to Judah, so that for more than a century (133 1/2 years) subsequently its national existence survived. The prophets, extraordinarily raised up, were the only salt in Israel to counteract her desperate corruption: Ahijah, Elijah, Micaiah, Elisha, and Jonah, the earliest of the prophets who were writers of [[Holy]] Scripture. In the time of this last prophet God gave one last long season of prosperity, the long reign of Jeroboam II, if haply His goodness would lead the nation to repentance. </p> <p> This day of grace being neglected, judgment only remained. Revolts of Edom, Moab, and Ammon, the assaults of Syria under [[Benhadad]] dud Hazael, and finally Assyria, executed God's wrath against the apostate people. Pul, Tiglath Pileser, Shalmaneser, Sargon, and [[Esarhaddon]] were the instruments (2 Kings 15-17; &nbsp;Ezra 4:2; &nbsp;Ezra 4:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 20:1). Ahijah first foretold to Jeroboam at the beginning of the kingdom, "Jehovah shall root up Israel and scatter them beyond the river" (&nbsp;1 Kings 14:15; &nbsp;Amos 5:27). ''(This Table [Omitted] Is Not Available In The [[Current]] Version Of The Product.)'' This kingdom was sometimes also designated "Ephraim" from its leading tribe (&nbsp;Isaiah 17:3; &nbsp;Hosea 4:17), as the southern kingdom "Judah" was so designated from the prominent tribe. Under Messiah in the last days Ephraim shall be joined to Judah; "the envy of Ephraim shall depart, and Judah shall not vex Ephraim" (&nbsp;Isaiah 11:13; &nbsp;Ezekiel 37:16-22). &nbsp;Ezekiel 37:4. </p> <p> After the return from Babylon the nation was called "Israel," the people "Jews," by which designation they are called in Esther. The ideal name for the twelve tribes regarded as one whole even after the division (&nbsp;1 Kings 18:30-31). The spiritual Israel, the church of the redeemed (&nbsp;Romans 9:6; &nbsp;Galatians 6:16). What became of the scattered people is hard to discover. Many joined Judah, as Anna of Asher is found in &nbsp;Luke 2:36. The majority were "scattered abroad" with the Jews, as James addresses "the twelve tribes." The Jews in Bokhara told Jos. Wolff "when the God of Israel stirred up the spirit of Pul, king of Assyria, and Tiglath Pileser, they were carried away ... even the Reubenites, Gadites, and half Manasseh, to [[Halah]] (now Balkh) and [[Habor]] (now Samarcand) and [[Hara]] (now Bokhara), and to the river [[Gozan]] (the Ammos, Jehron, or Oxus). </p> <p> They were expelled by the Tahagatay, the people of Genghis Khan; then they settled in Sabr Awar and Nishapoor (except some who went to China), in Khorassan. Centuries afterward most returned to Bokhara, Samarcand, and Balkh. Timoor Koorekan (Tamerlane) gave them many privileges. The Jews of Bokhara said that many of Naphtali wander on the Aral mountains, and that the Kafir Secahpoosh on the Hindu Koosh or Indian [[Caucasus]] are their brethren." The [[Afghans]] style themselves the [[Bani]] Israel, "the sons of Israel," and by universal tradition among themselves claim descent from Saul, or Malik Twalut, through Afghana, son of Jeremiah, Saul's second son. When Bakht-u-nasr (Nebuchadnezzar) took Israel into captivity, the tribe of Afghana, on account of their clinging to the Jewish religion, were driven into the mountains about Herat, whence they spread into the Cabool valley along the right bank of the [[Indus]] to the borders of Scinde and Beloochistan. </p> <p> Subsequently, they fell into idolatry, and then Mohamedanism. But they have a tradition that the Kyber hills were inhabited until recently by Jews. Similarly, the Santhals on the W. frontier of lower [[Bengal]] derive themselves from the [[Horites]] who were driven out of mount [[Seir]] by the Edomites. Their traditions point to the Punjab, the land of the five rivers, as the home of their race. They say their fathers worshipped God alone before entering the Himalayan region; but when in danger of perishing on those snowy heights they followed the direction whence the sun rose daily, and were guided safe; so they hold a feast every five years to the sun god, and also worship devils. They alone of the Hindu races have negro features, and the lightheartedness and also the improvidence of the race of Ham. God will yet restore Israel; He alone can discriminate them among the Gentiles. </p> <p> "Ye shall be gathered one by one, O ye children of Israel ... In that day the great trumpet shall be blown, and they shall come which were ready to perish ... and the outcasts ... and shall worship the Lord in the holy mount at Jerusalem" (&nbsp;Isaiah 27:13). &nbsp;Jeremiah 3:14-18; "I will take you one of a city and two of a family, and I will bring you to Zion." The rabbis ordain that when one builds a new house he should leave part unfinished "in memory of the desolation" (zeker lachorchan ); and when a marriage takes place the bridegroom ends the ceremony by trampling the glass to pieces out of which he has drunk. Yet still they look for the restoration promised in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 30:1-6; &nbsp;Isaiah 11:10-16. David Levi infers from Isaiah: </p> <p> '''(1)''' God's coming vengeance on Israel's foes; </p> <p> '''(2)''' especially on Edom, i.e. Rome; </p> <p> '''(3)''' Israel's restoration; </p> <p> '''(4)''' that of the ten tribes; </p> <p> '''(5)''' like the deliverance from Egypt (but exceeding it in the greatness of God's interposition: &nbsp;Jeremiah 23:5-8); </p> <p> '''(6)''' not to be prevented by the Jewish sinners who shall be cut off; </p> <p> '''(7)''' not until after a long time; </p> <p> '''(8)''' the shekinah and spirit of prophecy will return (&nbsp;Ezekiel 11:23; &nbsp;Ezekiel 43:2); </p> <p> '''(9)''' the apostatized from the nation will be restored to it; </p> <p> '''(10)''' a king of David's line and name will reign (&nbsp;Ezekiel 34:23-24); </p> <p> '''(11)''' they will never go into captivity again (see for the permanence and full bliss of their restoration &nbsp;Isaiah 35:12; &nbsp;Isaiah 54:7-11); </p> <p> '''(12)''' the nations will generally acknowledge one God and desire to know His law (&nbsp;Isaiah 2:3; &nbsp;Isaiah 60:3; &nbsp;Isaiah 66:23; &nbsp;Zechariah 8:21-23; &nbsp;Zechariah 14:16-19); </p> <p> '''(13)''' peace will prevail (&nbsp;Isaiah 2:4; &nbsp;Zechariah 9:10); </p> <p> '''(14)''' a resurrection of those prominent for piety or wickedness (&nbsp;Daniel 12:2). </p> <p> See Isaiah 11; &nbsp;Isaiah 9:8-10; &nbsp;Isaiah 42:13-16; &nbsp;Isaiah 61:1-8, where "the desolations of many generations" cannot be merely the 70 years' captivity. After abiding many days without king, priest, sacrifice, altar, ephod, and teraphim, Israel shall seek the Lord their God and David their king (&nbsp;Hosea 3:4-5). The blessing to all nations through Israel will fulfill the original promises to Adam (&nbsp;Genesis 3:15) and Abraham (&nbsp;Genesis 22:18; &nbsp;Romans 11:25-26, etc.). Providential preparations for their restoration are already patent: the waning of Turkish power; the Holy Land unoccupied in a great measure and open to their return; their mercantile character, to the exclusion of agriculture, causing their not taking root in any other land, and connecting them with such mercantile peoples as the English and Americans, who may help in their recovering their own land (&nbsp;Isaiah 60:9; &nbsp;Isaiah 66:19-20); their avoidance of intermarriage with Christians. </p> <p> The Israelites when converted will be the best gospel preachers to the world (&nbsp;Zechariah 8:13; &nbsp;Zechariah 8:23; &nbsp;Micah 5:7), for they are dispersed everywhere, familiar with the language and manners of all lands, and holding constant correspondence with one another (compare the type, &nbsp;Acts 2:11); and as during their alienation they have been unimpeachable, because hostile, witnesses of the divine origin of the Messianic prophecies to which [[Christianity]] appeals, so when converted from hostility they would be resistless preachers of those truths which they had rejected (&nbsp;Romans 11:15). </p> <p> Our age is that of the 42 months during which the court without the temple is given unto the Gentiles, and they tread under foot the holy city (&nbsp;Revelation 11:2-3), and God scatters the power of the holy people (&nbsp;Daniel 12:7; &nbsp;Luke 21:24). At its close Israel's times begin. The 1,260 years may date from A.D. 754, when [[Pepin]] granted temporal dominion to the popes; this would bring its close to '''2014''' . The event alone will clear all (&nbsp;Daniel 7:25; &nbsp;Daniel 8:14; &nbsp;Daniel 12:11-12; &nbsp;Revelation 12:6; &nbsp;Revelation 12:14; &nbsp;Leviticus 26:14, etc.). (Graves, Pentateuch, closing lecture). </p>

<p> Israel was the nation to which God’s promises had been given. [[Generally]] the idea of privilege is associated with the use of the word, just as ‘Israel’ was originally the name of special privilege given by God to Jacob, the great ancestor of the race (&nbsp;Genesis 32:28; &nbsp;Genesis 35:10). It differs from both ‘Hebrew’ and ‘Jew,’ the former standing, at least in NT times, for Jews of purely national sympathies who spoke the Hebrew or [[Aramaic]] dialect (&nbsp;Acts 6:1); the latter, a term originally applied to all who belonged to the province of Judah, and, after the Babylonian captivity, to all of the ancient race wherever located. ‘Israel,’ on the other hand, is pre-eminently the people of privilege, the people who had been chosen by God and received His covenant. Thus frequently a Jewish orator addressed the people as ‘men of Israel’ (&nbsp;Acts 2:22; &nbsp;Acts 3:12; &nbsp;Acts 4:8; &nbsp;Acts 4:10; &nbsp;Acts 5:35; &nbsp;Acts 13:16 etc.). </p> <p> In the Acts of the [[Apostles]] we find the word used <i> historically </i> with reference to the ancestors of the Jews of apostolic times and also applied to these Jews themselves. The past history of Israel as God’s chosen people is referred to in the speeches contained in the Book of Acts, <i> e.g. </i> by St. [[Stephen]] (&nbsp;Acts 7:23; &nbsp;Acts 7:37; &nbsp;Acts 7:42), and by St. Paul (&nbsp;Acts 13:17; &nbsp;Acts 28:20). It is usually assumed or suggested in the Acts that the Jews of the time, to whom the gospel was being preached, are the Israel of the day, the people for whom God had a special favour and who might expect special blessings (&nbsp;Acts 5:31; &nbsp;Acts 13:23). </p> <p> But the refusal of the message of the apostles by many of those who by birth were Jews led to a change in the use of the term, which gives us what we may call the <i> metaphorical </i> or <i> spiritual </i> significance of the word. The [[Apostle]] Paul’s contention with the legalistic Jews of his day led him to draw a distinction between the actual historical Israel and the true Israel of God. He speaks on the one hand of ‘Israel after the flesh’ (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:18), or of those who belong to the ‘stock of Israel’ (&nbsp;Philippians 3:5), and on the other hand of a ‘commonwealth of Israel’ (&nbsp;Ephesians 2:12), from which many, even Jews by birth, are aliens, and into which the Ephesians have been admitted (v. 13), and also of the ‘Israel of God’ (&nbsp;Galatians 6:18). By this ‘commonwealth of Israel’ or ‘Israel of God’ the Apostle means a true spiritual Israel, practically equivalent to ‘all the faithful.’ It might be defined as ‘the whole number of the elect who have been, are, or shall be gathered into one under Christ,’ or, in other words, the Holy [[Catholic]] Church. </p> <p> This true Israel does not by any means coincide with the nation or the stock of Abraham. ‘They are not all Israel which are of Israel’ (&nbsp;Romans 9:6), <i> i.e. </i> by racial descent. Branches may be broken off from the olive tree of God’s privileged people and wild olive branches may be grafted into the tree (&nbsp;Romans 11:17-21). Sometimes it is difficult to determine the exact application of the term in different passages in the [[Pauline]] Epistles. Thus the sentence, ‘All Israel shall be saved’ (&nbsp;Romans 11:26), refers not to the true or spiritual Israel in the sense of an elect people, as has been held by various commentators, <i> e.g. </i> Augustine, Theodoret, Luther, Calvin, and others, nor to an elect remnant, as is held by Bengel and Olshansen. The Apostle is speaking of the actual nation of Israel as a whole, and contrasting it with the fullness of the Gentiles. It is his belief that, when the fullness of the Gentiles is come in, Israel as a nation will also turn to God by confessing Christ. The phrase ‘all Israel’ does not necessarily apply to every member of the race, nor does the passage teach anything as to the fate of the individuals who at the Apostle’s day or since then have composed the nation (cf. Meyer, <i> Kommentar </i> , p. 520; Denney in <i> Expositor’s Greek Testament </i> , ‘Rom.,’ p. 683; H. Olshausen, <i> Rom. </i> , p. 373; Calvin, <i> Rom. </i> , p. 330). </p> <p> Just as the ancient historical Israel was the recipient of <i> special privileges </i> and stood in a particular relation to God, so the spiritual Israel of apostolic times is the bearer of special privileges and stands to God in a unique relationship. [[Ancient]] Israel had ‘the oracles of God’ (&nbsp;Romans 3:2). They had the sign of circumcision. To them, St. Paul declares, pertained ‘the adoption, and the glory, and the covenants, and the giving of the Law, and the service of God, and the promises; whose are the fathers, and of whom as concerning the flesh Christ came’ (&nbsp;Romans 9:4-5). The great essential features of these privileges are transferred to the spiritual Israel, the believing Church which has been grafted into the true olive tree. They have the adoption, they are sons of God (&nbsp;Romans 8:15-17). They have the glory both present and future (&nbsp;Romans 8:18). They are partakers of the new covenant which has been ratified by the death of Jesus Christ (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:25). </p> <p> The analogy between the first and the second covenant is fully worked out by the writer of the [[Epistle]] to the Hebrews, who dwells upon the ritual and ceremonial aspect of ancient Israel’s relationship to God, and shows the higher fulfilment of that relationship under the new covenant, where there is direct personal access to God. Here the human priesthood of the sons of Aaron and the sacrifices of bulls and goats are superseded by a Divine [[Mediator]] who offered Himself a sacrifice once for all (&nbsp;Hebrews 7:27; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:10). The Mediator of the new covenant has entered not into an earthly temple but into heaven itself, there to make continual intercession for His people (&nbsp;Hebrews 7:25). The writer further emphasizes the superiority of the new covenant relationship of the spiritual Israel as being a fulfilment of the prophecy of &nbsp;Jeremiah 31:31-34, which presupposes that the old covenant had proved ineffective (&nbsp;Hebrews 8:7). The Law is no longer to be written on tables of stone, but in the mind and the heart (&nbsp;Hebrews 8:10). </p> <p> In the Book of Revelation ancient Israel is referred to historically in connexion with Balaam, ‘who taught [[Balak]] to cast a stumblingblock before the children of Israel’ (&nbsp;Revelation 2:14). On the other hand, the symbolic or metaphorical use of the term applied to the spiritual Israel is found in connexion with the sealing of the servants of God which takes place according to the tribes of the children of Israel (&nbsp;Revelation 7:4), and also in the description of the New Jerusalem, where the names of the twelve tribes are engraven on the twelve gates (&nbsp;Revelation 21:12). The author of the Apocalypse, following the usage of St. Paul and the example of St. Peter (&nbsp;Revelation 1:1) and St. James (&nbsp;James 1:1), applies the passage &nbsp;Revelation 7:1-8, regarding the sealing of the tribes taken from a Jewish source, to the true spiritual Israel, who are to be kept secure in the day of the world’s overthrow. It is the same class which is referred to in &nbsp;Revelation 7:9-17 who appear in heaven clothed in white robes and with palms in their hands (cf. J. Moffatt in <i> Expositor’s Greek Testament </i> , ‘Revelation,’ 1910, p. 395f.). </p> <p> For the history and religion of Israel in apostolic times see articles Pharisees, Herod. </p> <p> Literature.-Josephus, <i> Ant., Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> ; H. Ewald, <i> Gesch. des Volkes Israel </i> , Göttingen, 1864-66; E. Schürer, <i> GJV </i> [Note: JV Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes (Schürer).]4, Leipzig, 1901-11; C. von Weizsäcker, <i> Apostolic Age </i> , Eng. translation, 1894-95. The following [[Commentaries]] on the relevant passages may be cited: on <i> Romans </i> : Calvin (1844), Olshausen (1866), Meyer (1872), Denney ( <i> Expositor’s Greek Testament </i> , 1900), Sanday-Headlam ( <i> International Critical [[Commentary]] </i> , 1902); on <i> Hebrews </i> : A. B. [[Davidson]] (1882), Westcott (1889). See also the articles ‘Israel, History of,’ in <i> Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols) </i> , ‘Israel, Israelite’ in <i> Dict. of Christ and the [[Gospels]] </i> , ‘Israel’ in <i> Encyclopaedia Biblica </i> , and ‘Hebrew Religion’ in <i> Encyclopaedia Britannica </i> . </p> <p> W. F. Boyd. </p>

<p> Name given to Jacob after 'a man' had wrestled with him, to whom he clung when he was by him crippled. It signifies 'a prince of God:' and it was said, "as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed." It thus indicated the way of blessing with regard to the nation in which God's government in the earth was to be established. The twelve sons of Jacob became the heads of the twelve tribes, and they and their descendants were called the children of Israel, or simply Israel. At the division of the kingdom, the ten tribes were called 'Israel,' and the two tribes 'Judah,' though this distinction is not at all times rigidly adhered to: thus the princes and kings of Judah are called princes of Israel, and kings of Israel. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 12:5,6; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 21:2; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 28:19 . So those who returned from exile, though they were in the main of the two tribes, are called people of Israel, or Israel. In the prophets also, though the ten tribes are not called Judah, the two tribes are at times called Israel. The ten tribes in the prophets are often spoken of as EPHRAIM, which was the chief of the ten. Though Israel was reckoned as ten tribes, it is most probable that the portion of Simeon, being situated on the extreme south, was united to Judah, as well as the territory of Dan in the S.W., though the people of Simeon may have scattered themselves among the other tribes, and those of Dan have gone north and joined their tribe there. </p> <p> THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL commenced when Jeroboam was made king, to whom it was promised that his house should be established if he followed the Lord. He, on the contrary, to prevent the people going to Jerusalem, immediately set up the golden calves at Dan and at Bethel. The kingdom was given up to idolatry, and a series of judgements followed. Baasha murdered Jeroboam's son and successor; and his own son and successor was slain by Zimri; Zimri was killed by Omri, and after a civil war of four years with Tibni, Omri became king and reigned with his successors forty-five years, ending with [[Jehoram]] the son of Ahab. He and the survivors of the house of Ahab were slain by [[Jehu]] directly or indirectly, and Jehu began the 5th dynasty, B.C. 884. He and his successors reigned, with varying judgements upon them, for a hundred and twelve years. [[Zachariah]] was the last, being the fourth successor of Jehu, as God had said, &nbsp;2 Kings 15:12 : he reigned only six months and was murdered by Shallum. During another fifty years the kingdom was spared: but there was no repentance. About B.C. 740 the two and a half tribes east of the Jordan were carried into captivity, and Israel became tributary to Assyria. [[Hoshea]] murdered Pekah, and after nine years of anarchy succeeded to the throne. He revolted against Assyria, trusting to Egypt; but Samaria was taken, and Israel carried into captivity. Thus ended the kingdom of Israel, B.C. 721. From about B.C. 784 to 725 Hosea was God's prophet in Israel. He solemnly pleaded with them, protesting against their evil ways, and was ever ready to help them to turn to God, though his efforts were, alas, in vain. &nbsp;2 Kings 17:13-18; &nbsp;Hosea 13:16; &nbsp;Hosea 14:1-9 . </p> <p> Israel when carried away were placed in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan (in the neighbourhood of the river Khabour, an affluent of the river Euphrates), and in the cities of the Medes. As far as is known they never returned, though doubtless individuals found their way back in the days of Ezra and Nehemiah, and in the four hundred years that followed before the Lord appeared. Jews from those districts were present on the day of Pentecost; but as a body they are still commonly regarded as 'the Lost Tribes.' God knows where to find them when His set time of blessing arrives. The twelve tribes surely exist, and remnants of them will again come into the land. &nbsp;Ezekiel 48:1-29; &nbsp;Matthew 19:28; &nbsp;Acts 26:7; &nbsp;James 1:1; &nbsp;Revelation 7:5-8 . </p> <p> The ten tribes will be dealt with differently from the two, who were in the land when the Lord was presented to them, and who rejected Him, and demanded His crucifixion. The ten tribes will, by a mighty hand and with fury poured out, be brought into the wilderness, and there God will plead with them, cause them to pass under the rod, and bring them into the bond of the covenant; but the rebels will be purged out. &nbsp;Ezekiel 20:31-38 . The question as to the wounds in the hands of the Lord, which He received in the house of His 'friends' is connected with Judah, who will be judged when in the land, and only <i> one third </i> of them after being refined, will be owned as God's people. &nbsp;Zechariah 13:6-9 . When God thus purges and restores a remnant of all the tribes, and brings them into full blessing in the land, the name of ISRAEL will embrace them all as it did at the first, and God will be their God for evermore. &nbsp;Ezekiel 37:1-28 . </p>

<p> -Or more properly, as it is rendered, Ishrael, the name given to Jacob by the Lord himself, on his wrestling with God in prayer and prevailing. (See &nbsp;Genesis 32:21-28) from Sharah, to subdue or govern; and El, God. The whole people of God are frequently in [[Scripture]] called by this name. (&nbsp;Exodus 3:6-7. So again, &nbsp;Exodus 6:6-7) But what endears this name yet infinitely more is, that the Lord Jesus himself, as the glorious Head of his church and people, including both Jew and Gentile, calls himself by this name; and JEHOVAH doth the same by Christ. (See &nbsp;Isaiah 49:1-6 and &nbsp;Isaiah 44:1-5) And hence the whole church of the Lord Jesus are called Israelites. (&nbsp;Romans 9:4) and the Lord Jesus, when speaking of his sheep under one view, saith, that they shall be brought into "one fold under one shepherd." (&nbsp;John 10:16) </p>

<p> '''Is'rael.''' ''(The Prince That Prevails With God).'' </p> <p> 1. The name given, &nbsp;Genesis 32:28, to Jacob after his wrestling with the angel, &nbsp;Hosea 12:4, at Peniel. [[Gesenius]] interprets [[Israel]] as ''"Soldier Of God".'' </p> <p> 2. It became the national name of the twelve tribes collectively. They are so called in &nbsp;Exodus 3:16 and afterward. </p> <p> 3. It is used in a narrower sense, excluding Judah, in &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:8; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 12:16. Thenceforth, it was assumed and accepted as the name of the northern kingdom. </p> <p> 4. After the Babylonian captivity, the returned exiles resumed the name [[Israel]] as the designation of their nation. The name [[Israel]] is also used to denote lay-men, as distinguished from priests, Levites and other ministers. &nbsp;Ezra 6:16; &nbsp;Ezra 9:1; &nbsp;Ezra 10:25; &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:3; etc. </p>

&nbsp;Genesis 32:28Jacob&nbsp; Joshua 3:17&nbsp;7:25&nbsp;Judges 8:27&nbsp;Jeremiah 3:21&nbsp;Exodus 16:31&nbsp;40:38 <p> This name Israel is sometimes used emphatically for the true Israel (&nbsp;Psalm 73:1 : &nbsp;Isaiah 45:17; &nbsp;49:3; &nbsp;John 1:47; &nbsp;Romans 9:6; &nbsp;11:26 ). </p> <p> After the death of Saul the ten tribes arrogated to themselves this name, as if they were the whole nation (&nbsp;2 Samuel 2:9,10,17,28; &nbsp;3:10,17; &nbsp;19:40-43 ), and the kings of the ten tribes were called "kings of Israel," while the kings of the two tribes were called "kings of Judah." </p> <p> After the Exile the name Israel was assumed as designating the entire nation. </p>

<p> [[Israel]] (''Ĭz'Ra-El'' ), ''The Prince That Prevails With God.'' 1. The name given to Jacob after his wrestling with the angel at Peniel. &nbsp;Genesis 32:28; &nbsp;Hosea 12:4. It became the national name of the twelve tribes collectively. They are so called in &nbsp;Exodus 3:16 and afterward. It is used in a narrower sense, excluding Judah, in &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:8; &nbsp;2 Samuel 20:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 12:16. [[Thenceforth]] it was assumed and accepted as the name of the northern kingdom. After the Babylonian captivity, the returned exiles resumed the name Israel as the designation of their nation. The name Israel is also used to denote laymen, as distinguished from priests, Levites, and other ministers. &nbsp;Ezra 6:16; &nbsp;Ezra 9:1; &nbsp;Ezra 10:25; &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:3, etc. See Jews. </p>

<p> Is´rael is the sacred and divinely bestowed name of the patriarch Jacob, and is explained to mean, 'A prince with God.' Although, as applied to Jacob personally, it is an honorable or poetical appellation, it is the common prose name of his descendants; while, on the contrary, the title Jacob is given to them only in poetry. </p> <p> The separation of the Hebrew nation into two parts, of which one was to embrace ten of the tribes, and be distinctively named Israel, had its origin in the early power and ambition of the tribe of Ephraim. The rivalry of Ephraim and Judah began almost from the first conquest of the land; nor is it insignificant, that as Caleb belonged to the tribe of Judah, so did Joshua to that of Ephraim. From the very beginning Judah learned to act by itself; but the central position of Ephraim, with its fruitful and ample soil, and the long-continued authority of Joshua, must have taught most of the tribes west of the Jordan to look up to Ephraim as their head; and a still more important superiority was conferred on the same tribe by the fixed dwelling of the ark at Shiloh for so many generations (Joshua 18, etc.). Judah could boast of Hebron, Machpelah, Bethlehem, names of traditional sanctity; yet so could Ephraim point to Shechem, the ancient abode of Jacob; and while Judah, being on the frontier, was more exposed to the attack of the powerful Philistines, Ephraim had to fear only those Canaanites from within who were not subdued or conciliated. The haughty behavior of the Ephraimites towards Gideon, a man of Manasseh , sufficiently indicates the pretensions they made. Still fiercer language towards Jephthah the Gileadite was retorted by less gentleness than Gideon had shown; and a bloody civil war was the result, in which their pride met with a severe punishment. This may in part explain their quiet submission, not only to the priestly rule of [[Eli]] and his sons, who had their center of authority at Shiloh, but to Samuel, whose administration issued from three towns of Benjamin. Of course his prophetical character and personal excellence eminently contributed to this result; and it may seem that Ephraim, as well as all Israel besides, became habituated to the predominance of Benjamin, so that no serious resistance was made to the supremacy of Saul. At his death a new schism took place through their jealousy of Judah; yet in a few years' time, by the splendor of David's victories, and afterwards by Solomon's peaceful power, a permanent national union might seem to have been effected. But the laws of inheritance in Israel, excellent as they were for preventing permanent alienation of landed property, and the degradation of the Hebrew poor into prædial slaves, necessarily impeded the perfect fusion of the tribes, by discouraging intermarriage, and hindering the union of distant estates in the same hands. Hence, when the sway of Solomon began to be felt as a tyranny, the old jealousies of the tribes revived, and Jeroboam, an Ephraimite , being suspected of treason, fled to Shishak, king of Egypt. The death of Solomon was followed by a defection often of the tribes, which established the separation of Israel from Judah (B.C. 975). </p> <p> This was the most important event which had befallen the Hebrew nation since their conquest of Canaan. The chief territory and population were now with Jeroboam, but the religious sanction, the legitimate descent, lay with the rival monarch. From the political danger of allowing the ten tribes to go up to the sanctuary of Jerusalem, the princes of Israel, as it were in self-defense, set up a sanctuary of their own; and the intimacy of Jeroboam with the king of Egypt may have determined his preference for the form of idolatry (the calves) which he established at Dan and Bethel. In whatever else his successors differed, they one and all agreed in upholding this worship, which, once established, appeared essential to their national unity. Nevertheless it is generally understood to have been a worship of Jehovah, though under unlawful and degrading forms. [[Worse]] by far was the worship of Baal, which came in under one monarch only, Ahab, and was destroyed after his son was slain, by Jehu. A secondary result of the revolution was the ejection of the tribe of Levi from their lands and cities in Israel; at least, such as remained were spiritually degraded by the compliances required, and could no longer offer any resistance to the kingly power by aid of their sacred character. When the priestly tribe had thus lost independence, it lost also the power to assist the crown. The succession of Jeroboam's family was hallowed by no religious blessing; and when his son was murdered, no [[Jehoiada]] was found to rally his supporters and ultimately avenge his cause. The example of successful usurpation was so often followed by the captains of the armies, that the kings in Israel present to us an irregular series of dynasties, with several short and tumultuous reigns. This was one cause of disorder and weakness to Israel, and hindered it from swallowing up Judah: another was found in the relations of Israel towards foreign powers, which will presently be dwelt upon. </p> <p> With regard to chronology, the following scheme agrees with Winer in its total range, but has minor changes by a single unit in some of the kings:— </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> B.C. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Rehoboam </p> </td> <td> <p> 972 </p> </td> <td> <p> Jeroboam </p> </td> <td> <p> First </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Abijah </p> </td> <td> <p> 957 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Asa </p> </td> <td> <p> 955 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 954 </p> </td> <td> <p> Nadab </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 952 </p> </td> <td> <p> Baasha </p> </td> <td> <p> Second </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 929 </p> </td> <td> <p> Elah </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 928 </p> </td> <td> <p> Zimri, Omri, </p> </td> <td> <p> Third </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 917 </p> </td> <td> <p> Ahab </p> </td> <td> <p> Fourth </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Jehoshaphat </p> </td> <td> <p> 914 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 897 </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Ahaziah]] </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 896 </p> </td> <td> <p> Jehoram </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Jehoram </p> </td> <td> <p> 889 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Ahaziah </p> </td> <td> <p> 885 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Queen]] [[Athaliah]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 884 </p> </td> <td> <p> Jehu </p> </td> <td> <p> Fifth </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Jehoash]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 878 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 855 </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Jehoahaz]] </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 840 </p> </td> <td> <p> Jehoash </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Amaziah]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 838 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 824 </p> </td> <td> <p> Jeroboam II </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Uzziah]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 809 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 772 </p> </td> <td> <p> Zachariah </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 771 </p> </td> <td> <p> Shallum, [[Menahem]] </p> </td> <td> <p> Sixth </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 760 </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Pekahiah]] </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 758 </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Pekah]] </p> </td> <td> <p> Seventh </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Jotham]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 757 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Ahaz]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 741 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 729 </p> </td> <td> <p> Hosea </p> </td> <td> <p> Eighth </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Hezekiah]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 726 </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 721 </p> </td> <td> <p> Samaria captured </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> Jeroboam originally fixed on Shechem as the center of his monarchy, and fortified it; moved perhaps not only by its natural suitability, but by the remembrances of Jacob which clove to it, and by the auspicious fact that here first Israel had decided for him against Rehoboam. But the natural delightfulness of Tirzah led him, perhaps late in his reign, to erect a palace there . After the murder of Jeroboam's son, Baasha seems to have intended to fix his capital at Ramah, as a convenient place for annoying the king of Judah, whom he looked on as his only dangerous enemy; but when forced to renounce this plan , he acquiesced in Tirzah, which continued to be the chief city of Israel, until Omri, who, since the palace at Tirzah had been burned during the civil war , built Samaria, with the ambition not uncommon in the founder of a new dynasty . Samaria continued to the end of the monarchy to be the center of administration; and its strength appears to have justified Omri's choice. For details, see Samaria; also Tirzah and Shechem. </p> <p> There is reason to believe that Jeroboam carried back with him, into Israel the good will, if not the substantial assistance, of Shishak; and this will account for his escaping the storm from Egypt which swept over Rehoboam in his fifth year. During that first period Israel was far from quiet within. Although the ten tribes collectively had decided in favor of Jeroboam, great numbers of individuals remained attached to the family of David and to the worship at Jerusalem, and in the first three years of Rehoboam migrated into Judah . Perhaps it was not until this process commenced, that Jeroboam was worked up to the desperate measure of erecting rival sanctuaries with visible idols : a measure which met the usual ill-success of profane state-craft, and aggravated the evil which he feared. It set him at war with the whole order of priests and Levites, whose expulsion or subjugation, we may be certain, was not effected without convulsing his whole kingdom, and so occupying him as to free Rehoboam from any real danger, although no peace was made. The king of Judah improved the time by immense efforts in fortifying his territory and, although Shishak soon after carried off the most valuable spoil, no great or definite impression could be made by Jeroboam. Israel having so far taken the place of heathen nations, and being already perhaps even in alliance with Egypt, at an early period—we know not how soon—sought and obtained the friendship of the kings of Damascus. A sense of the great advantage derivable from such a union seems to have led Ahab afterwards to behave with mildness and conciliation towards Benhadad, at a time when it could have been least expected . From that transaction we learn that Benhadad I had made in [[Damascus]] 'streets for Omri,' and Omri for Benhadad in Samaria. This, no doubt, implied that 'a quarter' was assigned for [[Syrian]] merchants in Samaria, which was probably fortified like the 'camp of the Tyrians' in Memphis, or the English factory at Calcutta; and in it, of course, Syrian worship would be tolerated. Against such intercourse the prophets, as might be expected, entered their protest but it was in many ways too profitable to be renounced. In the reign of Baasha, Asa king of Judah, sensible of the dangerous advantage gained by his rival through the friendship of the Syrians, determined to buy them off at any price [see also under JUDAH]; and by sacrificing 'the treasures of the house of the Lord and the treasures of the king's house' , induced Benhadad I to break his league with Baasha and to ravage all the northern district of Israel. This drew off the Israelitish monarch, and enabled Asa to destroy the fortifications of Ramah, which would have stopped the course of his trade , perhaps that with the sea-coast and with Tyre. Such was the beginning of the war between Israel and Syria, on which the safety of Judah at that time depended. Cordial union was not again restored between the two northern states until the days of [[Rezin]] king of Syria, and Pekah the son of Remaliah, when Damascus must have already felt the rising power of Nineveh. The renewed alliance instantly proved so disastrous to Judah, which was reduced to the most extreme straits (;; ), as may seem to justify at least the policy of Asa's proceeding. Although it was impossible for a prophet to approve of it , we may only so much the more infer that Judah was already brought into most pressing difficulties, and that the general course of the war, in spite of occasional reverses, was decidedly and increasingly favorable to Israel. </p> <p> The wars of Syria and Israel were carried on chiefly under three reigns, those of Benhadad II, Hazael, and Benhadad III, the two first monarchs being generally prosperous, especially Hazael, the last being as decidedly unsuccessful. Although these results may have depended in part on personal qualities, there is high probability that the feebleness displayed by the [[Syrians]] against Jehoash and his son Jeroboam was occasioned by the pressure of the advancing empire of Nineveh. </p> <p> Asa adhered, through the whole of his long reign, to the policy of encouraging hostility between the two northern kingdoms; and the first Benhadad had such a career of success that his son found himself in a condition to hope for an entire conquest of Israel. His formidable invasions wrought an entire change in the mind of Jehoshaphat , who saw that if Israel was swallowed up by Syria, there would be no safety for Judah. We may conjecture that this consideration determined him to unite the two royal families; for no common cause would have induced so religious a king to select for his son's wife Athaliah the daughter of Jezebel. The age of Ahaziah, who was sprung from this marriage, forces us to place it as early as B.C. 912, which is the third year of Jehoshaphat and sixth of Ahab. Late in his reign Jehoshaphat threw himself most cordially into the defense of Ahab, and by so doing probably saved Israel from a foreign yoke. Another mark of the low state into which both kingdoms were falling, is, that after Ahab's death the Moabites refused their usual tribute to Israel, and (as far as can be made out from the ambiguous words of ), the united force of the two kingdoms failed of doing more than irritate them. Soon after, in the reign of Jehoram son of Jehoshaphat, the Edomites followed the example, and established their independence. This event possibly engaged the whole force of Judah, and hindered it from succoring Samaria during the cruel siege which it sustained from Benhadad II, in the reign of Jehoram son of Ahab. The declining years and health of the king of Syria gave a short respite to Israel; but, in B.C. 885, Hazael, by defeating the united Hebrew armies, commenced the career of conquest and harassing invasion by which he 'made Israel like the dust by threshing.' Even under Jehu he subdued the trans-Jordanic tribes . Afterwards, since he took the town of [[Gath]] and prepared to attack Jerusalem—an attack which Jehoash king of Judah averted only by strictly following Asa's precedent—it is manifest that all the passes and chief forts of the country west of the Jordan must have been in his hand. Indeed, as he is said 'to have left to Jehoahaz only fifty horsemen, ten chariots, and ten thousand footmen,' it would seem that Israel was strictly a conquered province, in which [[Hazael]] dictated (as the English to the native rajahs of India) what military force should be kept up. From this thralldom Israel was delivered by some unexplained agency. We are told merely that 'Jehovah gave to Israel a saviour, so that they went out from under the hand of the Syrians; and the children of Israel dwelt in their tents as beforetime,' . It is allowable to conjecture that the (apparently unknown) deliverer was the Assyrian monarchy, which, assaulting Hazael towards the end of the reign of Jehoahaz, entirely drew away the Syrian armies. That it was some urgent, powerful, and continued pressure, considering the great strength which the empire of Damascus had attained, seems clear from the sudden weakness of Syria through the reigns of Jehoash and Jeroboam II, the former of whom thrice defeated Benhadad III and 'recovered the cities of Israel;' the latter not only regained the full territory of the ten tribes, but made himself master (for a time at least) of Damascus and Hamath. How entirely the friendship of Israel and Judah had been caused and cemented by their common fear of Syria, is proved by the fact that no sooner is the power of Damascus broken than new war breaks out between the two kingdoms, which ended in the plunder of Jerusalem by Jehoash, who also broke down its walls and carried off hostages; after which there is no more alliance between Judah and Israel. The empire of Damascus seems to have been entirely dissolved under the son of Hazael, and no mention is made of its kings for eighty years or more. When Pekah, son of Remaliah, reigned in Samaria, Rezin, as king of Damascus, made a last but ineffectual effort for its independence. </p> <p> The same Assyrian power which had doubtless so seriously shaken, and perhaps temporarily overturned, the kingdom of Damascus, was soon to be felt by Israel. Menahem was invaded by [[Pul]] (the first sovereign of [[Nineveh]] whose name we know), and was made tributary. His successor, Tiglath-pileser, in the reign of Pekah, son of Remaliah, carried captive the eastern and northern tribes of Israel (i.e. perhaps all their chief men as hostages?), and soon after slew Rezin, the ally of Pekah, and subdued Damascus. The following emperor, Shalmanezer, besieged and captured Samaria, and terminated the kingdom of Israel, B.C. 721. </p> <p> This branch of the Hebrew monarchy suffered far greater and more rapid reverses than the other. From the accession of Jeroboam to the middle of Baasha's reign it probably increased in power, it then waned with the growth of the [[Damascene]] Empire; it struggled hard against it under Ahab and Jehoram, but sank lower and lower; it was dismembered under Jehu, and made subject under Jehoahaz. From B.C. 940 to B.C. 850is, as nearly as can be ascertained, the period of depression; and from B.C. 914 to B.C. 830 that of friendship or alliance with Judah. But after (about) B.C. 850 Syria began to decline, and Israel soon shot out rapidly; so that [[Joash]] and his son Jeroboam appear, of all Hebrew monarchs, to come next to David and Solomon. How long this burst of prosperity lasted does not distinctly appear; but it would seem that entire dominion over the ten tribes was held until Pekah received the first blow from the Assyrian conqueror. </p> <p> Besides that which was a source of weakness to Israel from the beginning, viz., the schism of the crown with the whole ecclesiastical body, other causes may be discerned which made the ten tribes less powerful, in comparison with the two, than might have been expected. The marriage of Ahab to [[Jezebel]] brought with it no political advantages at all commensurate with the direct moral mischief, to say nothing of the spiritual evil; and the reaction against the worship of [[Baal]] was a most ruinous atonement for the sin. To suppress the monstrous iniquity, Jehu not only put to death Ahab's wife, grandson, and seventy sons, but murdered first the king of Judah himself, and next forty-two youthful and innocent princes of his house; while, strange to tell, the daughter of Jezebel gained by his deed the throne of Judah, and perpetrated a new massacre. The horror of such crimes must have fallen heavily on Jehu, and have caused a widespread disaffection among his own subjects. Add to this, that the Phoenicians must have deeply resented his proceedings; so that we get a very sufficient clue to the prostration of Israel under the foot of Hazael during the reign of Jehu and his son. </p> <p> Another and more abiding cause of political debility in the ten tribes was found in the imperfect consolidation of the inhabitants into a single nation. Since those who lived east of the Jordan retained, to a great extent at least, their pastoral habits, their union with the rest could never have been very firm; and when a king was neither strong independently of them, nor had good hereditary pretensions, they were not likely to contribute much to his power. After their conquest of the [[Hagarenes]] and the depression of the Moabites and Ammonites by David, they had free room to spread eastward; and many of their chief men may have become wealthy in flocks and herds (like [[Machir]] the son of Ammiel, of Lodebar, and [[Barzillai]] the Gileadite, ), over whom the authority of the Israelitish crown would naturally be precarious; while west of the Jordan the agrarian law of Moses made it difficult or impossible for a landed nobility to form itself, which could be formidable to the royal authority. That the [[Arab]] spirit of freedom was rooted in the eastern tribes, may perhaps be inferred from the case of the Rechabites, who would neither live in houses nor plant vines; undoubtedly like some of the Nabatheans, lest, by becoming settled and agricultural, they should be enslaved. Yet the need of imposing this law on his descendants would not have been felt by Jonadab, had not an opposite tendency been rising—that of agricultural settlement. </p> <p> Although the priests and Levites nearly disappeared out of Israel, prophets were perhaps even more numerous and active there than in Judah; and Ahijah, whose prediction first endangered Jeroboam , lived in honor at Shiloh to his dying day . Obadiah alone saved one hundred prophets of Jehovah from the rage of Jezebel . Possibly their extra-social character freed them from the restraint imposed on priests and Levites; and while they felt less bound to the formal rites of the Law, the kings of Israel were also less jealous of them. </p>