Difference between revisions of "Felix"

<p> (&nbsp;Acts 23:24 ff.) </p> <p> A freedman, and a brother of Pallas, [[Felix]] was the favourite of the [[Emperor]] Claudius. Tacitus ( <i> Hist </i> . &nbsp;Acts 23:9) calls him ‘Antonius Felix.’ Of his public life prior to his appointment to his procuratorship in Palestine, nothing is known; of his private life, only that he had married a granddaughter of Antony and Cleopatra, whom Tacitus ( <i> loc. cit </i> .) calls Drusilla, confusing her, no doubt, with the [[Jewish]] princess with whom Felix allied himself later. Suetonius knows of yet another marriage-also to a princess ( <i> Claud </i> . 28). </p> <p> [[Josephus]] and Tacitus are at variance as to the time and circumstance of the sending of Felix to Palestine. According to Josephus ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> &nbsp; ii. 12; <i> Ant </i> . xx. 6f.), Fells was appointed to succeed the procurator Cumanus, when the latter was condemned and banished for his misrule. According to Tacitus ( <i> Ann </i> , xii. 54), [[Cumanus]] and Felix were contemporaneously procurators, the one of Galilee, the other of Samaria. It seems reasonable to follow Schürer ( <i> History of the Jewish People (Eng. tr. of GJV).] </i> &nbsp; I. ii. [1890] 174) in giving preference in this matter to ‘the very detailed narrative of Josephus.’ This fixes the arrival of Felix in [[Palestine]] in a.d. 52, or early in the following year. </p> <p> The historians are entirely at one in their estimate of Felix and of the manner in which he exercised his functions. His countryman Tacitus ( <i> Hist </i> . v. 9) describes him as using ‘the powers of a king with the disposition of a slave,’ and says ( <i> Ann </i> , xii. 54) ‘he deemed that he might perpetrate any ill deeds with impunity.’ Under his government the state of Palestine grew rapidly worse. If there had been occasional disorders under Cumanus, ‘under Felix rebellion became permanent.’ The boundless cruelty with which he repressed the more open opposition of the ‘Zealots’ to the [[Roman]] rule stimulated the formation of the secret associations of the ‘Assassins’ ( <i> [[Sicarii]] </i> ), whose hand was against all-Jew not less than Roman-who did not further their designs. Not less significant of the misery of the people was their readiness to answer the call of religious fanatics like ‘the Egyptian’ mentioned in &nbsp;Acts 21:38, whom Josephus ( <i> Bellum Judaicum (Josephus) </i> &nbsp; II. xiii. 5) credits with a following of thirty thousand. In any such movement Felix suspected ‘the beginning of a revolt,’ and adopted measures which only served to increase the popular disaffection. For the intrigue by which he possessed himself of the youngest daughter of [[Herod]] [[Agrippa]] I.-the newly wedded wife of King [[Azizus]] of Emesa-see article&nbsp; Drusilla. </p> <p> The cynical disregard of Felix for justice, and his inordinate greed are alike brought to view in his treatment of the [[Apostle]] Paul. Although possessed of information [[Concerning]] the Way,’ which would have justified him in releasing the prisoner when he was first brought before him, he decided to adjourn the case in definitely (&nbsp;Acts 24:22), partly to curry favour with the Jews, and partly to serve his own rapacious ends. The interview with the Apostle recorded in &nbsp;Acts 24:24 was probably intended by the procurator and his wife to be somewhat of a diversion-it ended for Felix in terror. He had frequent communing with St. Paul during the time he detained him as his prisoner at Caesarea; but seemingly on these later occasions Felix kept control of the conversation and directed it, though unavailingly, towards his mercenary aim. </p> <p> Two years after St. Paul was brought to Caesarea, Felix was recalled to Rome in connexion with a strife which had broken out at [[Caesarea]] between the [[Jews]] and the [[Syrians]] in that town-the Jews asserting for themselves certain exclusive rights, which the others denied. The matter was referred to the Emperor. The investigation proved so damaging to Felix that ‘he had certainly been brought to punishment, unless [[Nero]] had yielded to the importunate solicitations of his brother Pallas’ (Jos. <i> Ant </i> . xx. viii. 9). </p> <p> Of the subsequent life of Felix, nothing is known. </p> <p> Literature.-H. M. Luckock, <i> Footprints of the [[Apostles]] as traced by St. Luke </i> , 1905, pt. ii. p. 243; A. Maclaren, <i> [[Expositions]] </i> : ‘Acts, ch. xiii.-end,’1907, pp. 281, 287: G. H. Morrison, <i> The [[Footsteps]] of the [[Flock]] </i> , 1904, p. 362; M. Jones, St. <i> Paul the [[Orator]] </i> , 1910, p. 202; J. S. Howson, <i> The Companions of St. Paul </i> , 1874, p. 145: H. Goodwin, <i> [[Parish]] Sermons </i> , 2nd ser. 3, 1861, p. 179; W, H. M. H. Aitken, <i> The [[Glory]] of the [[Gospel]] </i> , n.d., pp. 193, 208, 223; C. H. Turner, ‘Eusebius’ [[Chronology]] of Felix and Festus’ in <i> Journal of Theological Studies </i> &nbsp; , iii. [1901-02] 120; S. Buss, <i> Roman Law and History in the NT </i> , 1901, p. 373. </p> <p> G. P. Gould. </p>

<p> [[Antonius]] (Tacitus, Hist. 5:9) [[Claudius]] (Suidas), Roman procurator of Judaea, appointed by the emperor Claudius, whose freedman he was, to succeed [[Ventidius]] Cumanus, who was banished A.D. 53. Tacitus (Ann., 12:54) makes F. procurator of [[Samaria]] while Cumanus had Galilee. Josephus (Ant. 20:6, section 2, 7, section 1) makes him succeed Cumanus. Tacitus writes of Felix, "he exercised the authority of a king with the disposition of a slave in all cruelty and lust." He and Cumanus were tried before [[Quadratus]] for winking at robbery and violence and enriching themselves with bribes, according to Tacitus, and Felix was acquitted and reinstated. Having the powerful support of his brother Pallas, Claudius' freedman and favorite, he thought he could do what he liked with impunity. Pallas' influence continuing, Felix remained procurator under Nero. </p> <p> Felix crushed the Jewish zealots under the name of "robbers," and crucified hundreds. He put down false Messiahs and the followers of an [[Egyptian]] magician (Josephus, Ant. 20:8, section 5, 6; &nbsp;Acts 21:88) and riots, but he once employed the zealot assassins (Sicarii) to murder the high priest Jonathan. "By unseasonable remedies he only aggravated" the evils of [[Judaea]] (Tacitus, Annals 12:54). These were the "very worthy deeds done by Felix's providence," which gave the nation "great quietness" according to the lying flatterer Tertullus' set oration against Paul (&nbsp;Acts 24:2, etc.). Claudius Lysias, the chief captain, sent Paul for judgment to Felix at Caesarea. </p> <p> There Paul had two hearings before Felix. After the first hearing, Felix deferred the Jews until [[Lysias]] the chief captain should come. At the second Paul, before Felix and Drusilla, Felix's Jewish wife, who was curious to "hear him concerning the faith of Christ," so reasoned of "righteousness and temperance (both of which Felix outraged as a governor and a man, having seduced from her husband) and judgment to come" that Felix "trembled" before his prisoner, but deferred repentance, saying, "when I have a convenient season I will call for thee." (See &nbsp;DRUSILLA.) [[Greed]] of gain supplanted conscience, so that instead of repenting of his shameful life he would not even do common justice to Paul, but left him a prisoner because he got no bribe to set him free. </p> <p> Felix could hardly have hoped for money from so poor looking a prisoner as Paul (which is implied in Lysias' surprise, presuming Paul had like himself bought Roman citizenship, &nbsp;Acts 22:27-28), had he not heard Paul stating in the former interview, "after many years I came to bring alms to my nation and offerings." This accounts for Felix "letting Paul have liberty and forbidding none of his acquaintance to minister or come unto him." He doubtless hoped they would supply the money wherewith to buy his deliverance, an undesigned coincidence and so a mark of the truth of the history. After two years [[Porcius]] [[Festus]] succeeded, and Felix was accused by the Jews of Caesarea, at Rome, but escaped through Pallas' influence with the emperor Nero, A.D. 60. </p>

<p> &nbsp;Fe'lix. &nbsp;(happy). A Roman procurator of Judea, appointed by the emperor Claudius in A.D. 53. He ruled the province in a mean, cruel and profligate manner. His period of office was full of troubles and seditions. St. Paul was brought before Felix in Caesarea. He was remanded to prison, and kept there two years in hopes of extorting money from him. &nbsp;Acts 24:26-27. </p> <p> At the end of that time, Porcius Festus, &nbsp;see [[Porcius Festus]]&nbsp;, was appointed to supersede Felix, who, on his return to Rome, was accused by the Jews in Caesarea, and would have suffered the penalty due to his atrocities had not his brother, Pallas, prevailed with the emperor Nero to spare him. This was probably about A.D. 60. The wife of Felix was Drusilla, daughter of Herod Agrippa I, who was his third wife and whom he persuaded to leave her husband and marry him. </p>

<p> &nbsp;Felix (&nbsp;fç'lix), &nbsp;happy. A Roman procurator of Judea appointed by the emperor Claudius in a.d. 53. His period of office was full of troubles and seditions. Paul was brought before Felix in Cæsarea. Paul was remanded to prison, and kept there two years in hopes of extorting money from him. &nbsp;Acts 24:26-27. At the end of that time Porcius Festus superseded Felix, who, on his return to Rome, was accused by the Jews in Cæsarea, and would have suffered for his crimes had not his brother [[Pallas]] prevailed with the emperor Nero to spare him. This was probably about a.d. 60. The wife of Felix was Drusilla, a daughter of Herod Agrippa I., who was his third wife and whom he persuaded to leave her husband and marry him. </p>

<p> CLAUDIUS. See &nbsp;CLAUDIUS . </p>

<p> (happy, Graecized &nbsp;Φῆλιξ, Acts 23-24 in Tacitus, &nbsp;Hist. v, 9, called ANTONIUS FELIX; in Suidas, CLAUDIUS FELIX; in Josephus and Acts, simply FELIX&nbsp;: so also in Tacitus, &nbsp;Ann. 12:54), the Roman procurator of Judaea, before whom Paul so "reasoned of righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come," that the judge trembled, saying, " Go thy way for this time; when I have a convenient season I will call for thee" (&nbsp;Acts 24:25; see Abicht, &nbsp;De Claudio Felice, Viteb. 1732; Eckhard, &nbsp;Paulli oratio ad Felicem, Isen. 1779). The context states that Felix had expected a bribe from Paul; and, in order to procure this bribe, he appears to have had several interviews with the apostle. The depravity which such an expectation implies is in agreement with the idea which the historical fragments preserved respecting Felix would lead the student to form of the man. The year in which Felix entered on his office cannot be strictly determined. He was appointed by the emperor Claudius, whose freedman he was, on the banishment of Velatidius Cumanus, probably A.D. 53. Tacitus (Ann. 12:54) states that Felix and Cumanus were joint procurators, Cumanus having Galilee, and Felix Samaria. In this account Tacitus is directly at issue with Josephus (Ant. 20:6, 2), and is generally supposed to be in error; but his account is very circumstantial, and by adopting it We should gain greater justification for the expression of Paul (&nbsp;Acts 24:10) that Felix had been judge of the nation "for many years." Those words, however, must not even thus be closely pressed; for Cumanus himself only went to Judea in the eighth year of Claudius (Josephus, Ant. 20:5, 2). From the words of Josephus (Ant. 20:7, 1), it appears that his appointment took place before the twelfth year of the emperor Claudius. [[Eusebius]] fixes the time of his actually undertaking his duties in the eleventh year of that monarch. The question is fully discussed under (See [[Chronology]]), vol. ii, 311, 312. </p> <p> Felix was a remarkable instance of the elevation to distinguished station of persons born and bred in the lowest condition. Originally a slave, he rose to little less than kingly power. For some unknown but probably not very creditable services, he was manumitted by Claudius [[Caesar]] (Sueton. Claudius, 28; Tacit-us, Hist. v, 9), on which account he is said to have taken the praenomen of Claudius. In Tacitus, however (1. c.), he is surnamed Antonius, probably because he was also a freedman of Antonia, the emperor's mother. Felix was the brother of Claudius's powerful freedman Pallas (Josephus, War, ii, 12, 8; Ant. 20:7,.1); and it was to the circumstance of Pallas's influence surviving his master's death (Tacitus, Ann xiv,65) that Felix was retained in his procuratorship by Nero. In speaking of Pallas in conjunction with another freedman, namely, Narcissus, the imperial private secretary, Suetonius (Claudius, 28) says that the emperor was eager in heaping upon them the highest honors that a subject could enjoy, and suffered them to carry on a system of plunder and gain to such an extent that, on complaining of the poverty of his exchequer, some one had the boldness to remark that he would abound in wealth if he were taken into partnership by his-two favorite freedmen. </p> <p> The character which the ancients have left of Felix is of a very dark complexion. Suetonius speaks of the military honors which the emperor loaded him with, and specifies his appointment as governor of the province of Judaea (Claudius, 28), adding an innuendo, which loses nothing by its brevity, namely, that he was the husband of three queens or royal ladies ("trium reginarum maritum"). Tacitus, in his History (v, 9), declares that, during his governorship in Judaea, he indulged in all kinds of cruelty and lust, exercising regal power with the disposition of a slave; and, in his Annals (xii, 54), he represents Felix as considering himself licensed to commit any crime, relying on the influence which he possessed at court. The country was ready for rebellion, and the unsuitable remedies which Felix applied served only to inflame the passions and to incite to crime. The contempt which he and Cumanus (who, according to Tacitus, governed [[Galilee]] while Felix ruled Samaria; but see Josephus, Ant. xx. 7, 1) excited in the minds of the people, encouraged them to give free scope to the passions which arose from the old enmity between the Jews and Samaritans, while the two wily and base procurators were enriched by booty as if it had been spoils of war. This so far was a pleasant game to these men, but in the prosecution of it Roman soldiers lost their lives, and but for the intervention of Quadratus, governor of Syria, a rebellion would have been inevitable. A court-martial was held to inquire into the causes of this disaffection, when Felix, one of the accused, was seen by the injured Jews among the judges, and even seated on the judgment-seat, placed there by the president Quadratus expressly to outface and deter the accusers and witnesses. Josephus (Ant. 20:8, 5) reports that under Felix the affairs of the country grew worse and worse. The land was filled with robbers and impostors who deluded the multitude. Felix used his power to repress these disorders to little purpose, since his own example gave no sanction to justice. Thus, having got one Dineas, leader of a band of assassins, into his hands by a promise of impunity, he sent him to Rome to receive his punishment. </p> <p> Having a grudge against Jonathan, the high-priest, who had expostulated with him on his misrule, he made use of Doras, an intimate friend of Jonathan, in order to get him assassinated by a gang of villains, who joined the crowds that were going up to the [[Temple]] worship-a crime which led subsequently to countless evils, by the encouragement which it gave to the Sicarii, or leagued assassins of the day, to whose excesses Josephus ascribes, under Providence, the overthrow of the Jewish state. Among other crimes, some of these villains misled the people under the promise of performing miracles, and were punished by Felix. An -Egyptian impostor, who escaped himself, was the occasion of the loss of life to four hundred followers, and of the loss of liberty to two hundred more, thus severely dealt with by Felix (Josephus, Ant. 20:8, 6; War, ii, 13, 5; comp. &nbsp;Acts 21:38). A serious misunderstanding having arisen between the Jewish and the [[Syrian]] inhabitants of Caesarea, Felix employed his troops, and slew and plundered -till prevailed on to desist. His cruelty in this affair brought on him, after he was superseded by Festus, an accusation at Rome, which, however, he was enabled to render nugatory by the influence which his brother Pallas had, and exercised to the utmost, with the emperor Nero. Josephus, in his Life (&nbsp;§ 3), reports that, "at the time when Felix was procurator of Judaea, there were certain priests of my acquaintance, and very excellent persons they were, whom, on a small and trifling occasion, he had put into bonds and sent to Rome to plead their cause before Caesar." At the end of a two years' term Porcius Festus was appointed to supersede Felix, who, on his return to Rome, was accused by the Jews in Caesarea, as above noticed (Ant. 20:8, 9). This was in A.D. 55 (not in the year 60, as Anger, De temporum in Act. Apost. ratione, p. 100; Wieseler, Chronologie der Apostelgeschichte, p. 66-82). </p> <p> While in his office, being inflamed by a passion for the beautiful Drusilla, a daughter of king Herod Agrippa, who was married to Azizus, king of Emesa, he employed one Simon, a magician, to use his arts in order to persuade her to forsake her husband and marry him, promising that if she would comply with his suit he would make her a happy woman. Drusilla, partly impelled by a desire to avoid the envy of her sister Berenice, was prevailed on to transgress the laws of her forefathers, and consented to a union with Felix. In this marriage a son was born, who was named Agrippa: both mother and son perished in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius;' which took place in the days of Titus Caesar (Josephus, Ant. 20:7, 2). With this adulteress was Felix seated when Paul reasoned before the judge, as already -stated (&nbsp;Acts 24:24). Another [[Drusilla]] is mentioned by Tacitus as being the wife (the first wife) of Felix. This woman was niece of [[Cleopatra]] and Antony. (See [[Drusilla]]). By this marriage Felix was connected with Claudius. Of his third wife nothing is known. (See Salden, &nbsp;De Felice et Drusilla, Amst. 1684). </p> <p> Paul, being apprehended in Jerusalem, was sent by a letter from Claudius Lysias to Felix at Caesarea, where he was at first confined in Herod's judgment-hall till his accusers came. They arrived. [[Tertullus]] appeared as their spokesman, and had the audacity, in order to conciliate the good-will of Felix, to express gratitude on the part of the Jews, "seeing that by thee we enjoy great quietness, and that very worthy deeds are done unto this nation by thy providence" (Acts 23, 24). Paul pleaded his cause in a worthy speech; and Felix, consigning the apostle to the custody of a centurion, ordered that he should have such liberty as the circumstances admitted, with permission that his acquaintance might see him and minister to his wants. This imprisonment the apostle suffered for a short period (not two years, as ordinarily supposed, that expression having reference to Felix's whole term of sole office), being left bound when Felix gave place to Festus (q.v.), as that unjust judge "was willing," not to do what was right, but "to show the Jews a pleasure" (Walch, De Felice procuratore, Jena, 1747; also in his Dissertt. in Act. iii, 29; Smith's Dictionary of Classical Biography, s.v.). </p>

<p> The name of five Popes: &nbsp; </p> <p> ope from 269 to 274, said to have been a victim of the persecution of Aurelius; &nbsp; </p> <p> ope from 356 to 357, the first anti-pope having been elected in place of the deposed [[Liberius]] who had declined to join in the persecution of [[Athanasius]] ( <i> q. v </i> .), was banished on the restoration of Liberius; &nbsp; </p> <p> ope from 483 to 492, during his term of office the first schism between the Eastern and Western Churches took place; &nbsp; </p> <p> ope from 526 to 530, was appointed by [[Theodoric]] in face of the determined opposition of both people and clergy; &nbsp; </p> <p> ope from 1439 to 1449. See [[Amadeus Viii.]] . </p>