Difference between revisions of "Council"

<p> sometimes denotes any kind of assembly; sometimes that of the sanhedrim; and, at other times, a convention of pastors met to regulate ecclesiastical affairs. It may be reasonably supposed that as [[Christianity]] spreads, circumstances would arise which would make consultation necessary among those who had embraced the Gospel, or at least among those who were employed in its propagation. A memorable instance of this kind occurred not long after the ascension of our Saviour. In consequence of a dispute which had arisen at [[Antioch]] concerning the necessity of circumcising [[Gentile]] converts, it was determined that "Paul and Barnabas, and certain others of them, should go up to [[Jerusalem]] unto the [[Apostles]] and elders about this question."— "And the Apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter," &nbsp;Acts 15:6 . After a consultation, they decided the point in question; and they sent their decree, which they declared to be made under the direction of the [[Holy]] Ghost, to all the churches, and commanded that it should be the rule of their conduct. This is generally considered as the first council; but it differed from all others in this circumstance, that its members were under the <em> especial </em> guidance of the Spirit of God. The [[Gospel]] was soon after conveyed into many parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; but it does not appear that there was any public meeting of [[Christians]] for the purpose of discussing any contested point, till the middle of the second century. From that time councils became frequent; but as they consisted only of those who belonged to particular districts or countries, they were called provincial or national councils. The first general council was that of Nice, convened by the emperor Constantine, A.D. 325; the second general council was held at Constantinople, in the year 381, by order of Theodosius the Great; the third, at Ephesus, by order of Theodosius, Junior, A.D. 431; and the fourth at Chalcedon, by order of the emperor Marcian, A.D. 451. These, as they were the first four general councils, so they were by far the most eminent. They were caused respectively by the Arian, Apollinarian, Nestorian, and Eutychian controversies, and their decrees are in high esteem both among Papists and orthodox Protestants; but the deliberations of most councils were disgraced by violence, disorder, and intrigue, and their decisions were usually made under the influence of some ruling party. Authors are not agreed about the number of general councils; Papists usually reckon eighteen, but [[Protestant]] writers will not allow that nearly so many had a right to that name. The last general council was that held at Trent, for the purpose of checking the progress of the reformation. It first met by the command of [[Pope]] Paul III, A.D. 1545; it was suspended during the latter part of the pontificate of his successor, [[Julius]] III, and the whole of the pontificates of [[Marcellus]] II, and Paul IV, that is, from 1552 to 1562, in which year it met again by the authority of Pope Plus IV, and it ended, while he was pope, in the year 1563. [[Provincial]] councils were very numerous: Baxter enumerates four hundred and eighty-one, and Dufresnoy many more. </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> Of the eighteen councils denominated "general" by the Papists, four have already been enumerated; and they with the next four constitute the eight eastern councils, which alone, according to the "Body of Civil Law," each of the Popes of Rome, on his elevation to the pontificate, solemnly professes to maintain. The fifth was convened at Constantinople, A.D. 556, by the emperor Justinian; the sixth, also at Constantinople, in 681, in which the emperor [[Constantine]] IV, himself presided; the seventh at Nice, in 787, by the empress Irene; and the eighth, at Constantinople, in 870, by the emperor Basilius. It is matter of historical record, and therefore cannot be denied, that the convening of all these councils appertained solely to the respective emperors; that they alone exercised authority on such occasions; that the bishop of Rome was never thought to possess any, although his power may be said to have been set up between the fifth and sixth general councils; nor did the bishop himself, <em> pro tempore, </em> think himself entitled to an authority of the kind. The other councils which the Romish church dignifies with the title of "general," are the ten western ones, which are here subjoined:—(9.) The first council of Lateran, held under Pope Calixtus, A.D. 1123; (10.) the second of Lateran, under [[Innocent]] II, in 1139; (11.) the third of Lateran, under [[Alexander]] III, in 1179, the decrees of which were intended to extirpate the Albigenses, as well as the Waldenses, who were variously called Leonists, or poor men of Lyons; (12.) the fourth of Lateran, under Innocent III, in 1215, which incited [[Christian]] Europe to engage in a crusade for the recovery of the Holy Land, and whose canons obtruded on the church the monstrous doctrines of transubstantiation and auricular confession, the latter being ranked among the duties prescribed by the law of Christ; (13.) the first of Lyons, under Innocent IV, in 1245; (14.) the second of Lyons, under [[Gregory]] X, in 1274; (15.) that of Vienne, under [[Clement]] V, in 1311; (16.) that of Florence, under [[Eugenius]] IV, in 1439; (17.) the fifth of Lateran, under the infamous Julius II; and (18.) the council of Trent, of which an account is given in the preceding paragraph, and which grounds its fame on its opposition to the progress of the reformation under Luther. Though, according to Bellarmine, these eighteen alone are recognised by the Romish church as oecumenical or universal councils, yet some of them did not deserve even the more restricted appellation of "general." For the council of [[Trent]] itself, in some of its sessions, could scarcely number more than forty or fifty ecclesiastics, and, of those, not one eminent for profound theological or classical knowledge. The lawyers who attended, says Father Paul, "knew little of religion, while the few divines were of less than ordinary sufficiency." Some of the other councils which are not acknowledged by the Papists to be "general" with respect to all their sessions, (as those of [[Basle]] and Constance,) are in part received by them, and in part rejected. Bellarmine and other celebrated writers of his church, are dubious about determining whether or not "the fifth of Lateran" was really a general council, and leave it as a thing discretionary with the faithful either to retain or reject it; if it be rejected, the only refuge which they have, is to receive in its place the council of Constance, held under John XXIII, in 1414, which is disclaimed by the [[Italian]] clergy but admitted by those of France, and which is rendered infamous in the annals of religion and humanity by its cruel and treacherous conduct toward those two early Protestant martyrs, John Huss and [[Jerome]] of Prague; "who went to the stake," says AEneas Sylvius, "as if it had been to a banquet, without uttering a complaint that could betray the least weakness of mind. When they began to burn, they sung a hymn, which even the crackling of the flames could not interrupt. Never did any philosopher suffer death with so much courage, as they endured the fire." But this acknowledgment of [[Constance]] as one of the eighteen is resisted <em> vi et armis, </em> by the crafty Cisalpine ecclesiastics, because one of the earliest acts of that council declared the representatives of the church in general council assembled to be superior to the sovereign pontiff, not only when schism prevailed, but at all other times whatsoever. </p> <p> <strong> 3. </strong> A general council being composed of men, every one of whom is fallible, they must also be liable to error when collected together; and that they actually have erred is sufficiently evident from this fact, that different general councils have made decrees directly opposite to each other, particularly in the Arian and Eutychian controversies, which were upon subjects immediately "pertaining unto God." Indeed, neither the first general councils themselves, nor those who defended their decisions, ever pretended to infallibility; this was a claim of a much more recent date, suited to the dark ages in which it was asserted and maintained, but now considered equally groundless and absurd in the case of general councils as in that of popes. If God had been pleased to exempt them from a possibility of error, he would have announced that important privilege in his written word; but no such promise or assurance is mentioned in the New Testament. If infallibility belonged to the whole church collectively, or to any individual part of it, it must be so prominent and conspicuous that no mistake or doubt could exist upon the subject; and above all, it must have prevented those dissensions, contests, heresies, and schisms, which have abounded among Christians from the days of the Apostles to the present time; and of which that very church, which is the asserter and patron of this doctrine, has had its full share. </p> <p> The [[Scriptures]] being the only source from which we can learn the terms of salvation, it follows that things ordained by general councils as necessary to salvation, have neither strength nor authority, as the church of [[England]] has well said, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of Holy Scripture. It is upon this ground we receive the decisions of the first four general councils, in which we find the truths revealed in the Scriptures, and therefore we believe them. We reverence the councils for the sake of the doctrines which they declared and maintained, but we do not believe the doctrines upon the authority of the councils. </p>

<p> The SANHEDRIN, a term formed from the Greek &nbsp;sunedrion . The Jews' supreme council in Christ's time. Moses' tribunal of seventy seems to have been temporary (&nbsp;Numbers 11:16-17), for there are no traces of it in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 17:8-10, nor under Joshua, judges, and the kings. As the permanent great council it probably took its rise after the return from Babylon, under the Graeco-Macedonian supremacy. &nbsp;2 [[Maccabees]] 1:10; &nbsp;2 Maccabees 4:44; &nbsp;2 Maccabees 11:27, contain the earliest allusion to it. The number was probably derived from Moses' council. Its members were the chief priests or heads of the 24 courses, and those who had been high priests; also the elders and scribes learned in [[Jewish]] law (&nbsp;Matthew 26:57; &nbsp;Matthew 26:59; &nbsp;Mark 15:1; &nbsp;Luke 22:66; &nbsp;Acts 5:21). Seventy-one is the number, according to Jewish tradition, to correspond to the 70 and [[Moses]] (&nbsp;Numbers 11:16). Others say 72, since to the 70, [[Eldad]] and [[Medad]] are to be added (&nbsp;Numbers 11:26). </p> <p> The president was called &nbsp;nasi'; generally the high priest (&nbsp;Matthew 26:62). The vice-president is called "father of the house of judgment" in the [[Talmud]] One scribe registered the votes for acquittal, another those for condemnation, according to the [[Babylonian]] Gemara. They sat in the form of a half circle; the vice-president or the oldest at the president's right hand, the rest sat before these two according to their dignity. The Gazzith or council hall was in the S.E. corner of a court near the temple. Sometimes they met in the high priest's palace (&nbsp;Matthew 26:3). In Christ's time the sessions were moved from Gazzith to a hall further from the temple, but still on mount Moriah. Its final seat was at Tiberias. They tried cases of idolatry and false prophets. On this allegation Jesus, and subsequently Peter, John, Stephen, and Paul were brought before them (&nbsp;John 11:47). </p> <p> Their authority extended even to [[Jews]] in foreign cities (&nbsp;Acts 9:2). The [[Gemara]] states that power of life and death was taken from them just forty years before the destruction of Jerusalem, coinciding with &nbsp;John 18:31-32. The confirmation and execution of a capital sentence rested with the [[Roman]] procurator, from whence they took Jesus before [[Pontius]] [[Pilate]] on a different charge from that of blasphemy, for which the [[Sanhedrin]] condemned Him, namely, that of treason against Caesar, the only one which Pilate would have entertained. The stoning of [[Stephen]] (&nbsp;Acts 7:56, etc.) was an illegal assumption of power, an outbreak of fanatical violence, as also the execution of the apostle James in the procurator's absence (Josephus, Ant. 20:9, section 1). </p> <p> There were two lesser courts or "councils" (&nbsp;Matthew 10:17) in Jerusalem; one in each town of Palestine, 23 members in each in a town of 120, three when the population was below 120 (Talmud). They were connected with the several synagogues and possessed the right of scourging (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:24); but [[Josephus]] represents the local courts, as constituted by Moses, to have consisted of seven, with two [[Levitical]] assessors apiece. &nbsp;Matthew 5:21-22, "the judgment," perhaps alludes to such courts. There was also a privy "council" to assist the Roman procurator when he chose to consult them (&nbsp;Acts 25:12). </p>

<p> &nbsp;Council. </p> <p> 1. The great council of the Sanhedrin, which sat at Jerusalem. &nbsp;See [[Sanhedrin]]&nbsp;. </p> <p> 2. The lesser courts, &nbsp;Matthew 10:17; &nbsp;Mark 13:9, of which there were two at Jerusalem and one in each town of Palestine. The constitution of these courts is a doubtful point. The existence of local courts, however constituted, is clearly implied in the passages quoted from the New Testament; and perhaps the "judgment," &nbsp;Matthew 5:21, applies to them. </p> <p> 3. A kind of jury or privy council, &nbsp;Acts 25:12, consisting of a certain number of assessors, who assisted Roman governors in the administration of justice and in other public matters. </p>

<p> &nbsp;Council. There are three legal bodies called "councils" in the English N. T.:1. The Sanhedrin, the supreme court of the Jews, the fountain of their government, which sat at Jerusalem. By this body Jesus was tried. &nbsp;Matthew 26:59. 2. The lesser courts. &nbsp;Matthew 10:17; &nbsp;Mark 13:9. One was in each town, but two in the capital. Josephus states that each court consisted of seven judges, with two [[Levites]] as assessors. The "judgment," &nbsp;Matthew 5:21, probably applies to them. 3. The "council" spoken of in &nbsp;Acts 25:12 was a kind of jury "composed of councillors appointed to assist and advise the Roman governors." </p>

<p> Is occasionally taken for any kind of assembly; sometimes for that of the Sanhedrin; at others, for a convention of pastors met to regulate ecclesiastical affairs. Thus the assembly of the apostles, etc., at Jerusalem, &nbsp;Acts 15:1-41 , to determine whether the yoke of the law should be imposed on gentile converts, is commonly reputed to be the first council of the Christian church. See [[Sanhedrin]] . </p>

<p> &nbsp;(1): (n.) Act of deliberating; deliberation; consultation. </p> <p> &nbsp;(2): (n.) A body of man elected or appointed to constitute an advisory or a legislative assembly; as, a governor's council; a city council. </p> <p> &nbsp;(3): (n.) An assembly of men summoned or convened for consultation, deliberation, or advice; as, a council of physicians for consultation in a critical case. </p>

<p> See &nbsp;SANHEDRIN. </p>

<p> is the rendering given by our translators chiefly to two Greek words. </p> <p> &nbsp;1. &nbsp;Συμβούλιον (&nbsp;a meeting of counselors) signifies a consultation of persons for executing any enterprise (&nbsp;Matthew 12:14), a sense elsewhere covered by the usual translation "counsel;" also a council, or assembly of persons duly convened. In &nbsp;Acts 25:12, it is spoken of counselors, i.e. persons who sat in public trials with the governor of a province; called also &nbsp;conciliarii (Suetonius, &nbsp;Tib. 33) or &nbsp;assessores (Lamprid. &nbsp;Vit. Alex. Sev. 46), in the regular proconsular "&nbsp;conventus." This last was a stated meeting of the Roman citizens of a province in the chief town, for the purpose of trying causes, from among whom the proconsul selected a number to try the cases in dispute, himself presiding over their action. From the instance in question, something analogous appears to have obtained under the procuratorship of [[Judaea]] (see Smith's &nbsp;Dict. of Class. Ant. s.v. Conventus). (See [[Asiarch]]); (See [[Procurator]]). </p> <p> &nbsp;2. &nbsp;Συνέδριον (&nbsp;a sitting together) signifies a formal assembly or senate, and in the N.T. is spoken only of Jewish "councils," by which word it is invariably rendered in the common version. These were: &nbsp;(1.) The SANHEDRIM (See [[Sanhedrim]]) (q.v.), or supreme council of the nation. </p> <p> &nbsp;(2.) In the plural, the smaller tribunals in the cities of Palestine subordinate to the Sanhedrim (&nbsp;Matthew 10:17; &nbsp;Mark 13:9). (See [[Trial]]). The distinction between these two grades of courts seems clearly alluded to in &nbsp;Matthew 5:22. (See [[Judgment]]). According to the Rabbins, these lower courts consisted of twenty-three judges, and the two in Jerusalem were held in the rooms over the [[Shushan]] and the [[Beautiful]] gates; but Josephus expressly says that the number of judges was seven (&nbsp;Ant. 4, 8, 14, 38; War, 2:20, 5); and there are notices in the Talmud of arbitration courts of three judges (Jahn's Archeol. &nbsp;§ 245). Perhaps the former two of these were but different forms of the same court in different places. (See Judicial Court). They appear to have been originally instituted by Moses (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 16:18; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 19:5), and to have had jurisdiction even over capital offenses; although, under the civil supremacy of the Romans, their powers were doubtless much restricted. (See [[Punishments]]). In the times of Christ and his apostaties the functions of this court were probably confined chiefly to the penalty of excommunication, (See [[Anathema]]), (&nbsp;John 16:2), although there are not wanting intimations of their inflicting corporal chastisement (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 11:24). (See Tribunal). </p> <p> &nbsp;3. In the Old [[Testament]] "council" occurs in &nbsp;Psalms 68:27, as the rendering of &nbsp;רַגְמָה, &nbsp;rigmah' (literally a heap), a throng or company of persons. (See [[Counsel]]). </p> <p> &nbsp;4. In the Apocrypha, "council," in its ordinary sense, is the rendering of &nbsp;βουλή (1 &nbsp;Esther 2:17; &nbsp;1 Maccabees 14:22), &nbsp;σύμβουλοι (1 Esther 8:55), and &nbsp;βουλεύομαι (2 Maccabees 9:58). (See [[Counsellor]]). </p>