Difference between revisions of "Copper"

<p> (&nbsp;Ezra 8:27). But for KJV "brass" the translation elsewhere ought to be copper, (nechoshath ,) or where native ore is not meant, probably bronze. Zinc, one ingredient of brass, was then unknown. Used by the ancients for many purposes, for which its ductile nature adapted it. The earliest inhabitants of Europe used flint weapons, now discovered in various places. But Tubal-cain (&nbsp;Genesis 4:22, from whence probably by corrupted tradition was derived the classic idol, Vulcan, the god of the forge) was "an instructor of every artificer in brass (copper) and iron," 500 years after creation according to Hebrew, or 1,000 according to Septuagint, chronology. The ignorance of large portions of mankind, of iron and copper, subsequently or even at that early date, does not disprove Tubal-cain's and his artificers' acquaintance with them. </p> <p> Savage nations, or races which have sunk in course of ages into barbarism, first used flint, then copper or bronze (an alloy of tin and copper), then iron; But there is no well-established instance of a savage race gradually civilizing themselves; the civilization has always been introduced from outside. Thus, bronze or copper was probably introduced among savages from more civilized nations. The American Indians at Cape [[Honduras]] visited by [[Columbus]] had hatchets, etc., of copper, and crucibles for melting it. Seth's race was less distinguished for advancement in arts and luxuries than Cain's race, which was wise in their generation; but the truest civilization is that which develops man's moral and highest nature; in this respect Seth's descendants were far superior, walking in recognition of conscience and of the providence and grace of God. </p> <p> Many intimations show that the [[Israelites]] knew how to dig out and smelt metals (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 4:20; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:9; &nbsp;Ezra 22:18). Their mirrors of polished copper (&nbsp;Exodus 38:8 margin) and "bows of copper" (Hebrew text of &nbsp;Psalms 18:34) and "helmets," etc. (&nbsp;1 Samuel 17:38), show they had some secret of rendering copper harder than ours is. The absence of iron remains does not necessarily prove it was unknown in Egypt, for it and the making of good steel have been known from very ancient times in India. It quickly decomposes, and so would leave no remains of implements. The copper mines worked by the Moschi, whose merchants imported it into Tyre, are mentioned &nbsp;Ezekiel 27:13. </p>

<p> While gold was probably the first metal humans used, the oldest tools and utensils recovered by archaeologists in Bible lands are of copper, usually combined with some alloy. The word “copper” appears in the King James Version only in &nbsp;Ezra 8:27 and in the word “coppersmith” in &nbsp; 2 Timothy 4:14 . On the other hand, the word “brass” appears about 100 times in the King James Version. In most instances the same [[Hebrew]] word is translated as “bronze” in the Revised Standard Version. [[Copper]] had limited use by itself in Bible times. Combining copper with from two to sixteen percent tin produced bronze that was hard enough to be used for weapons, armor, utensils, and sculpture. </p> <p> [[Cyprus]] was the chief source of copper in the [[Mediterranean]] world, but Egypt probably secured some from the [[Sinai]] peninsula. Besides the usual promised bounty of Canaan, Deuteronomy said it would include “a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills you can dig copper” (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:9 RSV; Compare NAS, NIV). The Hebrews mined a limited supply in the Arabah, the region south of the [[Dead]] Sea. Palestinian remains of copper mines have been found only in that area, and archaeologists have discovered at the north end of the [[Gulf]] of Aqabah the remains of copper mines. The original excavator thought these were built by [[Solomon]] for processing both copper and iron, but subsequent research has shown them to be earlier than Solomon. </p> <p> In the Old [[Testament]] the Hebrew word for copper may refer to that basic metal or to bronze. If an object described as copper could be shaped by hammering, it was probably made of pure copper. However, if the metal for an object had to be melted and cast into a form, the word meant bronze. Thus, the fixtures and furnishings of the tabernacle were of bronze (&nbsp;Exodus 26:11-39:39 ). So also were the two huge pillars, the mammoth tank, and other major features for the [[Temple]] designed by [[Hiram]] of [[Tyre]] for Solomon (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:14-47 ). Also before the days of iron, bronze was the best metal for weapons and armor, as shown in the equipment of [[Goliath]] (&nbsp;1 Samuel 17:5-6 ). While not considered a precious metal, bronze was a significant prize of conquest (&nbsp;2 Kings 25:13-15 ). </p> <p> [[William]] J. Fallis </p>

<p> <em> Nechôsheth </em> (נְחשֶׁת, Strong'S #5178), “copper; bronze; bronze chains.” Cognates of this word appear in Phoenician, Aramaic, Arabic, and Ethiopic. It is attested about 136 times in biblical Hebrew and in all periods. </p> <p> <em> Nechôsheth </em> basically means “copper.” This word refers to the metal ore: “A land wherein thou shalt eat bread without scarceness, thou shalt not lack any thing in it; a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig [copper]” (Deut. 8:9). The word can also represent the refined ore: “And Zillah, she also bare Tubal-cain, an instructor of every artificer in copper [KJV, “brass”; NASB, “bronze”] and iron” (Gen. 4:22). </p> <p> Inasmuch as it was a semiprecious metal, <em> nechôsheth </em> is sometimes listed as a spoil of war (2 Sam. 8:8). In such passages, it is difficult to know whether the reference is to copper or to copper mixed with tin (i.e., bronze). Certainly, “bronze” is intended in 1 Sam. 17:5, where <em> nechôsheth </em> refers to the material from which armor is made. [[Bronze]] is the material from which utensils (Lev. 6:21), altars (Exod. 38:30), and other objects were fashioned. This material could be polished (1 Kings 7:45) or shined (Ezra 8:27). This metal was less valuable than gold and more valuable than wood (Isa. 60:17). </p> <p> Still another meaning of <em> nechôsheth </em> appears in Judg. 16:21: “But the Philistines took [Samson], and put out his eyes, and brought him down to Gaza, and bound him with fetters of [bronze]; and he did grind in the prison house.” Usually, when the word has this meaning it appears in the dual form (in the singular form only in Lam. 3:7). </p> <p> Deut. 28:23 uses <em> nechôsheth </em> to symbolize the cessation of life-giving rain and sunshine: “And thy heaven that is over thy head shall be [bronze], and the earth that is under thee shall be iron.” </p>

<p> (נְחשֶׁת, necho'sheth [whence also properly as an adjective, נָחוּשׁ, nachush', brazen, fem. נְחוּשָׁה, nechushah']; Greek χαλκός ) occurs in the common translation of the Bible only in &nbsp;Ezra 8:27 ("two vessels of copper, precious as gold," i.e. probably of a purer kind or more finely wrought than ordinary), being elsewhere incorrectly rendered "brass," and occasionally even "steel" (&nbsp;2 Samuel 22:35; &nbsp;Jeremiah 15:12), i.e. hardened so as to take a temper like iron). "The expression ‘ bow of steel' (&nbsp;Job 20:24; &nbsp;Psalms 18:34) should therefore be rendered ‘ bow of copper,' since the term for steel is פִּלְדָּה, or בִּרְזֶל מַצָּפוֹן (northern iron). The ancients could hardly have applied copper to these purposes without possessing some judicious system of alloys, or perhaps some forgotten secret for rendering the metal harder and more elastic than we can make it. It has been maintained that the cutting-tools of the Egyptians, with which they worked the granite and porphyry of their monuments, were made of bronze, in which copper was a chief ingredient. The arguments on this point are found in Wilkinson (Anc. Eg. 3. 249, etc.), but they are not conclusive. There seems to be no reason why the art of making iron and excellent steel, which has for ages been practiced in India, may not have been equally known to the Egyptians. The quickness with which iron decomposes will fully account for the non-discovery of any remains of steel or iron implements. For analyses of the bronze tools and articles found in Egypt and Assyria, see Napier (Ancient Workers in Metal, p. 88). This metal is usually found as pyrites (sulphuret of copper and ironr), malachite (carb. of copper), or in the state of oxide, and occasionally in a native state, principally in the New World. It was almost exclusively used by the ancients for common purposes, for which its elastic and ductile nature rendered it practically available (see Smith's Dict. of Class. Antiq. s.v. Acs). It is a question whether in the earliest times iron was known. In India, however, its manufacture has been practiced from a very ancient date by a process exceedingly simple, and possibly a similar one was employed by the ancient [[Egyptians]] (Napier, ut sup. p. 137). </p> <p> There is no certain mention of iron in the Scriptures; and, from the allusion to it as known to [[Tubal-Cain]] (&nbsp;Genesis 4:22), some have ventured to doubt whether in that place בִּרְזֶל means iron (Wilkinson, Anc. Eg. 3, 242). The vessels of ‘ fine copper,' mentioned in &nbsp;Ezra 8:27 (comp. &nbsp;1 [[Esdras]] 8:57, ‘ vases of Corinthian brass'), were perhaps similar to those of ‘ bright brass' in &nbsp;1 Kings 7:45; &nbsp;Daniel 10:6. They may have been of orichalcum, like the [[Persian]] or Indian vases found among the treasures of Darius (Aristot. De Mirab. Auscult.). There were two kinds of this metal, one natural (Serv. ad AEn. 12:87), which Pliny (''H. Nat'' . 34. 2, 2) says had long been extinct in his time, but which Chardin alludes to as found in [[Sumatra]] under the name calmbac; the other artificial (identified by some with' electrium, ἤλεκτρον, whence the mistaken spelling ''‘ Auzichalcum'' ), which Bochart (''Hieroz'' . 6, ch. 16, p. 871 sq.) considers to be the Hebrew חִשְׁמָל, ''Chashmal''' , a word compounded (he says) of נְחָשׁ (copper), and Chald. מְלָלָא (? gold, &nbsp;Ezekiel 1:4; &nbsp;Ezekiel 1:27; &nbsp;Ezekiel 8:2). On this substance, see Pausan. 5- 12; Plin. 33:4, § 23. [[Gesenius]] considers the χαλκολίβανον, of &nbsp;Revelation 1:15, to be χαλκὸς λιπαρός῟ חִשְׁמָל; he differs from Boehart,' and argues that it means merely smooth or polished; brass." (See [[Amber]]). "Many of the ancient copper alloys had to stand working by the hammer; and their working was such, either for toughness or hardness, that we cannot at the present-day make anything like it" (Napier, ut sup., p. 54). The Mexicans and Peruvians, when first visited by the Spaniards, were in possession of tempered implements of copper, and had the means of smelting, refining, and forging this metal. They were also able to harden it by alloying. "The metal used for this latter purpose was tin; and the various Peruvian articles subjected to analysis are found to contain from three to six per cent. of that metal" (Silliman's Journal, 2:51). (See [[Metal]]). </p> <p> Tubal-Cain is recorded as the first artificer in brass and iron (&nbsp;Genesis 4:22). In the time of Solomon, Hiram of Tyre was celebrated as a worker in brass (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:14; comp. &nbsp;2 Chronicles 2:14). To judge from [[Hesiod]] (Op. et Dies, 134) and Lucret. (v. 1285), the art of working in copper was even prior to that in iron, probably from its being found in larger masses, and from its requiring less labor in the process of manufacture. Palestine abounded in copper (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:9), the mines being apparently worked by the Israelites (&nbsp;Isaiah 51:1); and David left behind him an immense quantity of it to be employed in building the Temple (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 22:3-14). Of copper were made all sorts of vessels in the tabernacle and temple (&nbsp;Leviticus 6:28; &nbsp;Numbers 16:39; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 4:16; &nbsp;Ezra 8:27), weapons, and more especially helmets, armor, shields, spears (&nbsp;1 Samuel 17:5-6; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:38; &nbsp;2 Samuel 21:16), and bows (&nbsp;2 Samuel 22:35), also chains (&nbsp;Judges 16:21), and even mirrors (&nbsp;Exodus 38:8; &nbsp;Job 37:18). The larger vessels were moulded in foundries, such as lavers, the great one being called "the copper sea" (&nbsp;2 Kings 25:13; &nbsp;1 Chronicles 18:8); also the pillars for architectural ornaments (1 Kings 7). It would, however, appear (&nbsp;1 Kings 7:14). that the art of copperfounding was, even in the time of Solomon, but little known among the Jews, and was peculiar to foreigners, particularly the Phoenicians, who seem to have imported the material and even wrought articles from a distant quarter (&nbsp;Ezekiel 27:13), probably' from the Moschi, etc., who worked the copper mines in the neighborhood of Mount Caucasus. Michaelis (Mos. Recht, 4:217, 314) observes that Moses seems to have given to copper vessels the preference over earthen (&nbsp;Leviticus 6:28), and on that ground endeavors to remove the common prejudice against their use for culinary purposes. From copper, also, money was coined (&nbsp;Ezekiel 16:36; &nbsp;Matthew 10:9). (See Brass). </p>

<p> '''''kop´ẽr''''' ( נחשׁת , <i> '''''neḥōsheth''''' </i> ): The word is translated "copper" in only one passage (&nbsp;Ezra 8:27 the King James Version). In the American Standard Revised Version of this passage, "brass" has been substituted. Neither describes the actual alloy according to present definitions so well as the word "bronze." Copper was one of the earliest metals to be known and utilized in alloy, but copper, as a single metal, was probably little used. The remains of spears, balances, arms, vases, mirrors, statues, cooking utensils, implements of all kinds, etc., from Bible times are principally of an alloy of copper hardened with tin known today as bronze (see [[Brass]] ). In such passages as &nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:9 , where reference is made to the native metal or ores, "copper" should be substituted for "brass" as in the American Standard Revised Version (compare &nbsp;Job 40:18 ). This is true also of coins as χαλκός , <i> '''''chalkós''''' </i> , in &nbsp;Matthew 10:9 . </p> <p> Our modern English word "copper" is derived from an old name pertaining to the island of Cyprus. Copper was known to the ancients as Cyprian brass, probably because that island was one of the chief sources for this metal. The Sinai peninsula and the mountains of northern Syria also contributed to the ancient world's supply (see <i> Tell el-Amarna [[Letters]] </i> ). No evidences of copper ore in any quantity are found in Palestine proper. See Metal; [[Mine]] . </p> <p> . </p>