Difference between revisions of "Book Of Joshua"

<p> This book gives the history of [[Israel]] in crossing the Jordan, their conquests over the nations, and the division of the land among the twelve tribes. It is typical of the believer's entering, in the power of the Spirit, into the purpose of God, as quickened together with Christ; of his conflict with the spiritual powers of wickedness in the heavenlies; and of his enjoyment of the promises of God. Joshua was commissioned by God Himself. [[Courage]] and obedience, under God, would ensure success. He is exhorted to be strong and God would not fail him. Israel had a title to all that was promised to Abraham, but they would possess that whereon the soles of their feet trod, and thus it would become theirs. So the [[Christian]] must make his calling and election sure, entering into the possession of his heavenly privileges. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 2 . The spies learned that the fear of Israel had fallen upon the people of the land, and the faith of [[Rahab]] saved her and her family. A [[Gentile]] gets a place in the promised possession by faith. See RAHAB. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 3 , &nbsp;Joshua 4 . For the passage into the land see JORDAN. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 5 . The first thing on entering the land was that the males must be circumcised: this was done at Gilgal, and the reproach of Egypt was rolled away. What answers to this with the Christian is found in &nbsp;Colossians 2:11 — &nbsp; Colossians 3:3-5; the renunciation of the life of flesh through Christ having been cut off on the cross; of those it can be said, "Ye are dead . . . . mortify therefore your members which are upon the earth." The [[Passover]] was also kept, a type of the peaceful remembrance by the believer of that death which has enabled him to enjoy the promise; and they ate of the old corn of the land (type of a heavenly Christ), and the manna ceased: cf. &nbsp;2 Corinthians 5:16 . This was all fitting them to take their place as the Lord's host. Then [[Jehovah]] was manifested to Joshua as [[Captain]] of the host, with a drawn sword in His hand. Joshua fell to the earth and worshipped. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 6 , &nbsp;Joshua 7 . [[Jericho]] (type of the world antagonistic to the Lord's rights ranged under Satan) was the first city taken, and the manner of its destruction showed plainly that power for conquest was really in Jehovah. God said the whole was accursed and must be destroyed, and a curse should rest upon the man who should rebuild the city. All was not however destroyed, for [[Achan]] had taken of the accursed things. Unconscious of this sin and confiding in their own strength, they attacked [[Ai]] in vain. The sin of Achan was accounted as a sin of the people: 'Israel hath sinned,' God said; and there could be no power or blessing until the evil was put away (as in the action enjoined upon the church at Corinth). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 8 . The evil being judged, Ai was destroyed, and in this case the cattle and spoil were taken. An altar was built unto Jehovah, and the law was written upon stones, the whole of it being read before all the congregation: cf. &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:2-8 . This shows the conditions on which they were to possess the land, namely, obedience to the word. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 9 , &nbsp;Joshua 10 . When the kings in the south heard of the destruction of Jericho and Ai, they conspired together to oppose Israel. But the [[Gibeonites]] wrought deceitfully, saying they had come from very far. Type of the <i> devices </i> of Satan, against which the Christian is warned. [[Prayer]] was overlooked, and there was confidence in human wisdom. Five kings attacked [[Gibeon]] for making the league with Israel, but were totally defeated by Joshua, and the kings were hanged. To lengthen the day for conquest the sun and moon stood still, for it was Jehovah who fought for Israel. Thus the confederacy of the south was overthrown, and the country of the south was conquered, and Joshua returned to <i> [[Gilgal]] </i> . Type of the Christian abiding in the place of renunciation of self, and mortifying the deeds of the flesh in the power of resurrection. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 11 , &nbsp;Joshua 12 . From Gilgal Joshua went again in strength against the confederacy of the north, being encouraged by Jehovah, and conquered everywhere, cutting off the Anakims from the mountains, and "so Joshua took the whole land according to all that the Lord said unto Moses." The Gibeonites and their allies from three other cities (&nbsp;Joshua 9:17 ) were the only ones that made a league with Israel. The names then are given of the two kings conquered by Moses on the east of [[Jordan]] and thirty-one kings on the west smitten by Joshua. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 13 . [[Chapter]] 12 closes the first part of the book, which says that the whole land had been taken; but &nbsp;Joshua 13 opens with the statement that there remained "yet very much land to be possessed." In one sense they had taken all from north to south, so that they could divide the land among the tribes; but all their enemies were not destroyed, and they did not really possess all the land promised unto Abraham. This is typical of the Christian having all things, and yet failing to enter into his full heavenly position. The tribe of [[Levi]] had a peculiar standing: "the Lord God of Israel was their inheritance;" and "the sacrifices of the Lord God of Israel made by fire" were their inheritance. These are a type of [[Christians]] as priests, who do not belong to earth, but to heaven. There were minor conquests in taking possession, and mention is made of [[Balaam]] the soothsayer being slain: God's judgement had reached the wicked man. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 14 — &nbsp; Joshua 17 . In dividing the land [[Caleb]] had a privileged portion. Of [[Joseph]] it was said, "Thou art a great people, and hast great power:" in [[Ephraim]] and [[Manasseh]] Joseph had two portions. The details are given as to the boundaries of the tribes. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 18 , &nbsp;Joshua 19 . The tabernacle was set up at Shiloh, which was fairly central, 32 3' N, and the allotment of the possessions of the tribes was made in [[Shiloh]] before the Lord, at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. Type of the Christian getting his position from heaven. To Joshua was given an inheritance, Timnath-serah in mount Ephraim. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 20 . Six cities of refuge were appointed to which the man-slayer could flee. See [[Refuge]] </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 21 . Forty-eight cities were appointed for dwelling places for the Levites. Then it is repeated that "Jehovah gave unto Israel all the land which he sware to give unto their fathers; and they possessed it, and dwelt therein." They had rest, and not any good thing that Jehovah had promised failed them. Yet, as we have seen, there were parts that they had not made their own, and in which there dwelt those who were ready to seduce them on the one hand, and to oppress them on the other. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 22 . The warriors of the two and a half tribes, who had crossed the Jordan to aid in the conquest of the land on the west, were dismissed to their possessions on the east of Jordan, with the blessing of Joshua. These tribes staying on the east led to difficulty. By the border of the Jordan they built a great altar 'to see to;' which they afterwards described as a witness that they had part in Jehovah. They were beginning to feel the consequences of having fallen short of God's calling, and of taking lower ground. The tribes on the west feared that the altar had been built in separation from the worship of Jehovah, and sent princes with [[Phinehas]] the priest to protest against it, but on hearing the explanation given, they were satisfied that the tribes on the east were faithful in heart. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 23 , &nbsp;Joshua 24 . In conclusion Joshua rehearses the dealings of the Lord with their ancestors, and the great things He had done for them. There were blessings for them if they were obedient; but curses if they forsook the Lord. The people, not knowing their own weakness, declared that they would serve the Lord. They thus still remained under law, their obedience being the condition of their living in peace, and being blessed by Jehovah. Thus a covenant was made with the people that day, a statute, and an ordinance in Shechem. A great stone was set up as a witness of the covenant. Joshua, the faithful servant of the Lord, died, being 110 years old. To this is added the testimony that "Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord, that he had done for Israel." </p>

<p> The subject of the book of Joshua is the conquest and division of the land of Canaan. Moses, who had led the people for the previous forty years, died before the people entered [[Canaan]] (his death having been recorded in the final chapter of the previous book, Deuteronomy). He was succeeded by the man from whom the book of Joshua takes its name. </p> <p> '''Authorship, style and purpose''' </p> <p> There is no statement in the book of Joshua telling us who wrote it, though some of the material may have been based on what Joshua himself wrote (e.g. &nbsp;Joshua 24:25-26). The writer probably also used other historical books of that era (&nbsp;Joshua 10:13), along with national and tribal records (&nbsp;Joshua 18:8-9). </p> <p> Although it outlines the conquest of Canaan, the book of Joshua does not give a detailed record of events. The battle for Canaan lasted a long time (&nbsp;Joshua 11:18), at least five years (&nbsp;Joshua 14:7; &nbsp;Joshua 14:10), yet some of the more extensive battle campaigns are passed over in a few verses. By contrast, events of apparently little military importance are sometimes given in considerable detail. </p> <p> The reason for this unevenness of treatment is that the book was intended to be not a chronological record of facts, but a prophetical interpretation of an important era of Israel’s history. The writer’s main concern was to show how God was revealing himself and his purposes through the experiences of his people Israel. (For the prophetical significance of the group of books to which Joshua belongs, the [[Former]] Prophets, see [[Prophecy]] .) </p> <p> '''Summary of contents''' </p> <p> [[Chapters]] 1 to 5 deal with Israel’s entry into Canaan. From the outset the emphasis is on the fact that God is giving the land to Israel. Nevertheless, the people, and particularly Joshua, must be courageous, trusting and obedient to God if their invasion is to be successful (1:1-18). </p> <p> After spying out the land in order to plan the invasion intelligently (2:1-24), the [[Israelites]] crossed the Jordan River and set up camp at Gilgal. To impress upon people the religious significance of the invasion, the narrative emphasizes such matters as the ritual cleansing of the people, the leadership of the priests, the prominence of the ark of the covenant, the miraculous crossing of the Jordan, and the obedience to the covenant commands by those who were till then uncircumcised. The appearance of the angel of the Lord further demonstrated that the entire operation was divinely directed (3:1-5:15; see also [[Joshua The Son Of Nun]] ). </p> <p> The overthrow of Jericho gave more examples of the religious significance of Israel’s conquest: the role of the priests and the ark, the repeated use of the symbolic number ‘seven’ in the proceedings, and the judgment that followed disobedience to God’s commands (6:1-7:26). Only after the leaders dealt with the sin, did Israel make further advances into central Canaan (8:1-29). The people then reaffirmed their obedience to the covenant by which God had given Canaan to them (8:30-35). </p> <p> Having split Canaan by their drive through the central region, the Israelites then conquered the south (9:1-10:43) and the north (11:1-15). The summary that follows emphasizes again that Israel’s occupation of Canaan was in fulfilment of God’s promises (11:16-12:24). (For a map showing towns that the Israelites conquered and regions that the [[Israelite]] tribes subsequently occupied see [[Judges, Book Of]] ) </p> <p> With Canaan now the possession of Israel, Joshua, together with the high priest and the tribal leaders, began the task of dividing the land between the twelve tribes. The area west of Jordan (Canaan itself) was divided between nine and a half tribes; the other two and a half tribes (Reuben, [[Gad]] and half of Manasseh) received their inheritance in the land east of Jordan that Israel had conquered in the time of Moses (13:1-14:5). Of the area west of Jordan, the largest and best portions went also to two and a half tribes – Judah (14:6-15:63) and the remainder of the Joseph tribes, Ephraim and the other half of Manasseh (16:1-17:18). The seven smaller tribes then received their tribal allotments (18:1-19:51). The Levites, who had no tribal area of their own, were given towns in all the other tribes (20:1-21:45). </p> <p> Apart from the story of an early misunderstanding between the eastern and western tribes (22:1-34), nothing more is recorded of the era till the time of Joshua’s final address to the nation many years later (23:1-16). Before he died, Joshua called Israel’s leaders to assemble for another covenant renewal ceremony. Through them he reminded the people that if they wanted to enjoy the blessings of the covenant, they had to be obedient to its requirements (24:1-33). </p>

<p> I. Title And Authorship </p> <p> II. Contents </p> <p> 1. [[Invasion]] and Conquest of Western [[Palestine]] </p> <p> 2. [[Allotment]] of the [[Country]] to the Tribes of Israel </p> <p> III. [[Historical]] Character And [[Chronology]] </p> <p> 1. The Book of Joshua as History </p> <p> 2. Chronology </p> <p> IV. Sources Of The [[Written]] [[Narrative]] </p> <p> V. Relation To The Book Of Judges </p> <p> 1. Parallel Narratives </p> <p> 2. Omissions in the History </p> <p> VI. Place Of Josh In The Hed [[Canon]] </p> <p> VII. Greek And Other [[Ancient]] [[Versions]] </p> <p> 1. The Greek </p> <p> 2. Other Ancient Versions </p> <p> VIII. [[Religious]] Purpose And Teaching </p> <p> [[Literature]] </p> I. Title and Authorship. <p> The name Joshua signifies "Yahweh is deliverance" or "salvation" (see [[Joshua]] ). The Greek form of the name is Jesus ( Ἰησοῦς , <i> ''''' Iēsoús ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Acts 7:45; &nbsp;Hebrews 4:8 ). In later Jewish history the name appears to have become popular, and is even found with a local significance, as the designation of a small town in Southern Palestine (ישׁוּע , <i> ''''' yēshūa‛ ''''' </i> , &nbsp;Nehemiah 11:26 ). The use of the title by the Jews to denote the Book of Joshua did not imply a belief that the book was actually written or dictated by him; or even that the narratives themselves were in substance derived from him, and owed their authenticity and reliability to his sanction and control. In the earliest Jewish literature the association of a name with a book was not intended in any case to indicate authorship. And the Book of Joshua is no exception to the rule that such early writings, especially when their contents are of a historical nature, are usually anonymous. The title is intended to describe, not authorship, but theme; and to represent that the life and deeds of Joshua form the main subject with which the book is concerned. </p> II. Contents. <p> With regard to the contents of Joshua, it will be found to consist of two well-marked divisions, in the first of which (&nbsp;Joshua 1-2 ) are narrated the invasion and gradual conquest under the command of Joshua of the land on the West of the Jordan; while the 2nd part describes in detail the allotment of the country to the several tribes with the boundaries of their territories, and concludes with a brief notice of the death and burial of Joshua himself. </p> <p> <b> 1. Invasion and Conquest of Western Palestine: </b> </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 1 : Renewal of the [[Divine]] promise to Joshua and exhortation to fearlessness and courage (&nbsp;Joshua 1:1-9 ); directions to the people to prepare for the passage of the river, and a reminder to the eastern tribes (Reuben, Gad, and half and Manasseh) of the condition under which they held their possession beyond Jordan; the renewal by these tribes of their pledge of loyalty to Moses' successor (&nbsp;Joshua 1:10-18 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 2 : The sending of the two spies from [[Shittim]] and their escape from Jericho through the stratagem of Rahab. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 3 : The passage of Jordan by the people over against Jericho, the priests bearing the ark, and standing in the dry bed of the river until all the people had crossed over. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 4 : Erection of 12 memorial stones on the other side of Jordan, where the people encamped after the passage of the river (&nbsp;Joshua 4:1-14 ); the priests with the [[Ark]] of the [[Covenant]] ascend in their turn from out of the river-bed, and the waters return into their wonted course (&nbsp;Joshua 4:15-24 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 5:1-15 : [[Alarm]] excited among the kings on the West of Jordan by the news of the successful crossing of the river (&nbsp; Joshua 5:1 ); circumcision of the people at Gilgal (&nbsp;Joshua 5:2-9 ); celebration of the Passover at Gilgal in the plains of Jericho (&nbsp;Joshua 5:10 , &nbsp;Joshua 5:11 ); cessation of the supply of the manna (&nbsp;Joshua 5:12 ); appearance to Joshua of the captain of the Lord's host (&nbsp;Joshua 5:13-15 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 6 : Directions given to Joshua for the siege and taking of Jericho (&nbsp;Joshua 6:1-5 ); capture of the city, which is destroyed by fire, Rahab and her household alone being saved (6:6-25); a curse is pronounced on the man who rebuilds Jericho (&nbsp;Joshua 6:26 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 7 : The crime and punishment of Achan, who stole for himself part of the spoil of the captured city (&nbsp;Joshua 7:1 , &nbsp;Joshua 7:16-26 ); incidentally his sin is the cause of a disastrous defeat before Ai (&nbsp;Joshua 7:2-12 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 8 : The taking of Ai by a stratagem, destruction of the city, and death of its king (8:1-29); erection of an altar on Mt. Ebal, and reading of the Law before the assembled people (&nbsp;Joshua 8:30 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 9 : [[Gathering]] of the peoples of Palestine to oppose Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 9:1-2 ); a covenant of peace made with the Gibeonites, who represent themselves as strangers from a far country (9:3-26); they are, however, reduced to a condition of servitude (&nbsp;Joshua 9:27 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 10 : Combination of 5 kings of the [[Amorites]] to punish the inhabitants of Gibeon for their defection, and defeat and rout of the kings by Joshua at Beth-horon (&nbsp;Joshua 10:1-14 ); return of the Israelites to Gilgal (&nbsp;Joshua 10:15 ); capture and death by hanging of the 5 kings at [[Makkedah]] (&nbsp;Joshua 10:16-27 ); taking and destruction of Makkedah (&nbsp;Joshua 10:28 ), [[Libnah]] (&nbsp;Joshua 10:29 , &nbsp;Joshua 10:30 ), [[Lachish]] (&nbsp;Joshua 10:31 , &nbsp;Joshua 10:32 ), [[Gezer]] (&nbsp;Joshua 10:33 ), [[Eglon]] (&nbsp;Joshua 10:34 , &nbsp;Joshua 10:35 ), Hebron (&nbsp;Joshua 10:36 , &nbsp;Joshua 10:37 ), Debir (&nbsp;Joshua 10:38 , &nbsp;Joshua 10:39 ), and summarily all the land, defined as from Kadesh-barnea unto Gaza, and as far North as Gibeon (&nbsp;Joshua 10:40-42 ); return to Gilgal (&nbsp;Joshua 10:43 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 11 : [[Defeat]] of Jabin, king of Hazor, and allied kings at the waters of [[Merom]] (&nbsp;Joshua 11:1-9 ); destruction of [[Hazor]] (&nbsp;Joshua 11:10-15 ); reiterated summary of Joshua's conquests (&nbsp;Joshua 11:16-23 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 12 : Final summary of the Israelite conquests in Canaan, of [[Sihon]] and [[Og]] on the East of the Jordan under the leadership of Moses (&nbsp;Joshua 12:1-6 ); of 31 kings and their cities on the West of the river under Joshua (12:7-24). </p> <p> <b> 2. Allotment of the Country to the Tribes of Israel: </b> </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 13 : [[Command]] to Joshua to allot the land on the West of the Jordan, even that which was still unsubdued, to the nine and a half tribes (&nbsp;Joshua 13:1-7 ); recapitulation of the inheritance given by Moses on the East of the river (&nbsp;Joshua 13:8-13 , &nbsp;Joshua 13:32 ); the border of [[Reuben]] (&nbsp;Joshua 13:15-23 ), of Gad (&nbsp;Joshua 13:24-28 ), of the half-tribe of Manasseh (&nbsp;Joshua 13:29 ); the tribe of Levi alone received no the landed inheritance (&nbsp;Joshua 13:14 , &nbsp;Joshua 13:33 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 14:1-15 : [[Renewed]] statement of the principle on which the division of the land had been made (&nbsp; Joshua 14:1-5 ); Hebron given to Caleb for his inheritance (&nbsp;Joshua 14:6-15 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 15 . The inheritance of Judah, and the boundaries of his territory (15:1-20), including that of Caleb (&nbsp;Joshua 15:13-19 ); enumeration of the cities of Judah (15:21-63). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 16:1-10 : Inheritance of the sons of Joseph (&nbsp; Joshua 16:1-4 ); the border of Ephraim (&nbsp;Joshua 16:5-10 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 17 : Inheritance of Manasseh and the border of the half-tribe on the West of the Jordan (&nbsp;Joshua 17:1 ); complaint of the sons of Joseph of the insufficiency of their inheritance, and grant to them by Joshua of an extension of territory (&nbsp;Joshua 17:14-18 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 18 : The land yet unsubdued divided by lot into 7 portions for the remaining 7 tribes (&nbsp;Joshua 18:1-10 ); inheritance of the sons of [[Benjamin]] and the border of their territory (&nbsp;Joshua 18:11-20 ); enumeration of their cities (&nbsp;Joshua 18:21-28 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 19 : Inheritance of [[Simeon]] and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:1-9 ); of [[Zebulun]] and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:10-16 ); of [[Issachar]] and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:17-23 ); of [[Asher]] and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:24-31 ); of [[Naphtali]] and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:32-39 ); and of Dan and his border (&nbsp;Joshua 19:40-48 ); inheritance of Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 19:49 , &nbsp;Joshua 19:50 ); concluding statement (&nbsp;Joshua 19:51 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 20:1-9 : Cities of Refuge appointed, three on each side of the Jordan. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 21 : &nbsp;48 cities with their suburbs given to the [[Levites]] out of the territories of the several tribes (21:1-41); the people had rest in the land, their enemies being subdued, according to the Divine promise (&nbsp; Joshua 21:43-45 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 22 : Dismissal of the eastern tribes to their inheritance, their duty to their brethren having been fulfilled (&nbsp;Joshua 22:1-9 ); the erection by them of a great altar by the side of the Jordan aroused the suspicion of the western tribes, who feared that they intended to separate themselves from the common cause (&nbsp;Joshua 22:10-20 ); their reply that the altar is to serve the purpose of a witness between themselves and their brethren (&nbsp;Joshua 22:21-34 ). </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 23 : Joshua's address of encouragement and warning to the people. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 24 : Second address of Joshua, recalling to the people their history, and the Divine interventions on their behalf (24:1-23); the people's pledge of loyalty to the Lord, and formal covenant in [[Shechem]] (&nbsp;Joshua 24:24 , &nbsp;Joshua 24:25 ); the book of the law of God is committed to writing, and a stone is erected as a permanent memorial (&nbsp;Joshua 24:26-28 ); death and burial of Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 24:29-31 ); burial in Shechem of the bones of Joseph, brought from Egypt (&nbsp;Joshua 24:32 ); death and burial of Eleazar, son of Aaron (&nbsp;Joshua 24:33 ). </p> III. Historical Character and Chronology. <p> <b> 1. The Book of Joshua as History: </b> </p> <p> As a historical narrative, therefore, detailing the steps taken to secure the conquest and possession of Canaan, Joshua is incomplete and is marked by many omissions, and in some instances at least includes phrases or expressions which seem to imply the existence of parallel or even divergent accounts of the same event, e.g. in the passage of the Jordan and the erection of memorial stones (&nbsp;Joshua 3; &nbsp;4 ), the summary of the conquests of Joshua (&nbsp;Joshua 10:40-43; &nbsp;Joshua 11:16-23 ), or the references to Moses' victories over the [[Amorite]] kings on the East of the Jordan. </p> <p> This last fact suggests, what is in itself sufficiently probable, that the writer or compiler of the book made use of previously existing records or narratives, not necessarily in every instance written, but probably also oral and traditional, upon which he relied and out of which by means of excerpts with modifications and omissions, the resultant history was composed. The incomplete and defective character of the book therefore, considered merely as a history of the conquest of Western Palestine and its allotment among the new settlers, would seem to indicate that the "sources" available for the writer's use were fragmentary also in their nature, and did not present a complete view either of the life of Joshua or of the experiences of Israel while under his direction. </p> <p> <b> 2. Chronology: </b> </p> <p> Within the limits of the book itself, moreover, notifications of chronological sequence, or of the length of time occupied in the various campaigns, are almost entirely wanting. Almost the only references to date or period are the statements that Joshua himself was 110 years old at the time of his death (&nbsp;Joshua 24:29 ), and that his wars lasted "a long time" (&nbsp;Joshua 11:18; compare &nbsp;Joshua 23:1 ). Caleb also, the son of Jephunneh, companion of Joshua in the mission of the spies from Kadesh-barnea, describes himself as 85 years old, when he receives Hebron as his inheritance (&nbsp;Joshua 14:10; compare &nbsp;Joshua 15:13 ff); the inference would be, assuming 40 years for the wanderings in the desert, that 5 years had then elapsed since the passage of the Jordan "on the tenth day of the first month" (&nbsp; Joshua 4:19 ). No indication, however, is given of the chronological relation of this event to the rest of the history; and 5 years would be too short a period for the conquest of Palestine, if it is to be understood that the whole was carried out in consecutive campaigns under the immediate command of Joshua himself. On the other hand, "very much land" remained still unsubdued at his death (&nbsp;Joshua 13:1 ). Christian tradition seems to have assumed that Joshua was about the same age as Caleb, although no definite statement to that effect is made in the book itself; and that, therefore, a quarter of a century, more or less, elapsed between the settlement of the latter at Hebron and Joshua's death (&nbsp;Joshua 14:10; &nbsp;Joshua 24:29 ). The entire period from the crossing of the Jordan would then be reckoned at from 28 to 30 years. </p> IV. Sources of the Written Narrative. <p> The attempt to define the "sources" of Joshua as it now exists, and to disentangle them one from another, presents considerably more difficulty than is to be encountered for the most part in the Pentateuch. The distinguishing criteria upon which scholars rely and which have led serious students of the book to conclude that there may be traced here also the use of the same "documents" or "documentary sources" as are to be found in the Pentateuch, are essentially the same. Existing and traditional accounts, however, have been used apparently with greater freedom, and the writer has allowed himself a fuller liberty of adaptation and combination, while the personal element has been permitted wider scope in molding the resultant form which the composition should take. For the most part, therefore, the broad line of distinction between the various "sources" which have been utilized may easily be discerned on the ground of their characteristic traits, in style, vocabulary or general conception; in regard to detail, however, the precise point at which one "source" has been abandoned for another, or the writer himself has supplied deficiencies and bridged over gaps, there is frequent uncertainty, and the evidence available is insufficient to justify an absolute conclusion. The fusion of material has been more complete than in the 5 books of the law, perhaps because the latter were hedged about with a more reverential regard for the letter, and at an earlier period attained the standing of canonicity. </p> <p> A detailed analysis of the sources as they have been distinguished and related to one another by scholars is here unnecessary. A complete discussion of the subject will be found in Dr. Driver's <i> [[Lot]] 6 </i> , 105 ff, in other Introductions, or in the Commentaries on Joshua. Not seldom in the ultimate detail the distinctions are precarious, and there are differences of opinion among scholars themselves as to the precise limit or limits of the use made of any given source, or at what point the dividing line should be drawn. It is only in a broad and general sense that in Joshua especially the literary theory of the use of "documents," as generally understood and as interpreted in the case of the Pentateuch, can be shown to be well founded. In itself, however, such a theory is eminently reasonable, and is both in harmony with the general usage and methods of ancient composition, and affords ground for additional confidence in the good faith and reliability of the narrative as a whole. </p> V. Relation to the Book of Judges. <p> <b> 1. Parallel Narratives: </b> </p> <p> A comparison moreover of the history recorded in Joshua with the brief parallel account in Judges furnishes ground for believing that a detailed or chronological narrative was not contemplated by the writer or writers themselves. The introductory verses of Judges (1:1 through 2:5) are in part a summary of incidents recorded in Joshua, and in part supply new details or present a different view of the whole. The original notices that are added relate almost entirely to the invasion and conquest of Southern Palestine by the united or allied tribes of Judah and Simeon and the destruction of [[Bethel]] by the "house of Joseph." The action of the remaining tribes is narrated in a few words, the brief record closing in each case with reference to the condition of servitude to which the original inhabitants of the land were reduced. And the general scheme of the invasion as there represented is apparently that of a series of disconnected raids or campaigns undertaken by the several tribes independently, each having for its object the subjection of the territory assigned to the individual tribe. A general and comprehensive plan of conquest under the supreme leadership of Joshua appears to be entirely wanting. In detail, however, the only real inconsistency between the two narratives would appear to be that in Jdg (&nbsp;Judges 1:21 ) the failure to expel the [[Jebusites]] from Jerusalem is laid to the account of the Benjamites, while in &nbsp;Joshua 15:63 it is charged against the children of Judah. The difficulties in the way of the formation of a clear conception of the incidents attending the capture of Jerusalem are perhaps insuperable upon any hypothesis; and the variation of the tribal name in the two texts may be no more than a copyist's error. </p> <p> <b> 2. Omissions in the History: </b> </p> <p> A perhaps more striking omission in both narratives is the absence of any reference to the conquest of Central Palestine. The narrative of the overthrow of Bethel and Ai (&nbsp;Joshua 6:1 through 8:29) is followed immediately by the record of the building of an altar on Mt. Ebal and the recitation of the Law before the people of Israel assembled in front of Mts. Ebal and Gerizim (&nbsp; Joshua 8:30 ff). Joshua then turns aside to defeat at Beth-horon the combination of the Amorite kings, and completes the conquest of the southern country as far south as Kadesh-barnea (&nbsp; Joshua 10:41 ). Immediately thereafter he is engaged in overthrowing a confederacy in the far north (&nbsp;Joshua 11:1-15 ), a work which clearly could not have been undertaken or successfully accomplished, unless the central region had been already subdued; but of its reduction no account is given. It has been supposed that the silence of the narrator is an indication that at the period of the invasion this district was in the occupation of tribes friendly or even related to the Israelite clans; and in support of the conjecture reference has been made to the mention of Israel on the stele of Merenptah, the [[Egyptian]] ruler in whose reign, according to the most probable view, the exodus took place. In this record the nation or a part thereof is regarded as already settled in Palestine at a date earlier by half a century than their appearance under Moses and Joshua on the borders of the Promised Land. The explanation is possible, but perhaps hardly probable. The defects of the historical record are irremediable at this distance of time, and it must be acknowledged that with the available material no complete and consistent narrative of the events of the Israelite conquest of Palestine can be constructed. </p> VI. Place of Joshua in the Hebrew Canon. <p> In the Hebrew Canon Joshua is the first in order of the prophetical books, and the first of the group of 4, namely, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, which form the "Earlier Prophets" ( <i> ''''' nebhı̄'ı̄m ''''' </i> <i> ''''' rı̄'shōnı̄m ''''' </i> ). These books, the contents of which are history, not prophecy in the ordinary sense of the term, were assigned by the Jews to the 2nd division of their sacred Canon, and found a place by the side of the great writings of the "Later Prophets" ( <i> ''''' nebhı̄'ı̄m ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ‛aḥǎrōnı̄m ''''' </i> ). This position was given to them in part perhaps because they were believed to have been written or composed by prophets, but mainly because Jewish history was regarded as in purpose and intent "prophetic," being directed and presided over by [[Yahweh]] Himself, and conveying direct spiritual instruction and example. The Canon of the Law, moreover, was already closed; and however patent and striking might be the resemblance of Joshua in style and method of composition to the books of the Pentateuch, it was impossible to admit it therein, or to give a place within the Torah, a group of writings which were regarded as of [[Mosaic]] authorship, to a narrative of events which occurred after Moses' death. Later criticism reviewed and reversed the verdict as to the true character of the book. In every Canon except the Hebrew, its historical nature was recognized, and the work was classified accordingly. Modern criticism has gone further, and, with increasing consciousness of its close literary relationship to the books of the Law, has united it with them in a Hexateuch, or even under the more comprehensive title of Octateuch combines together the books of Jdg and Ruth with the preceding six on the ground of similarity of origin and style. </p> VII. Greek and Other Ancient Versions. <p> <b> 1. The Greek: </b> </p> <p> In the ancient versions of Joshua there is not much that is of interest. The Greek translation bears witness to a Hebrew original differing little from the Massoretic Text. In their renderings, however, and general treatment of the Hebrew text, the translators seem to have felt themselves at liberty to take up a position of greater independence and freedom than in dealing with the 5 books of the Law. Probably also the rendering of Joshua into Greek is not to be ascribed to the same authors as the translation of the Pentateuch. While faithful to the Hebrew, it is less constantly and exactly literal, and contains many slight variations, the most important of which are found in the last 6 chapters. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 19 : The [[Septuagint]] transposes &nbsp;Joshua 19:47 , &nbsp;Joshua 19:48 , and, omitting the first clause of &nbsp;Joshua 19:47 , refers the whole to the sons of Judah, without mention of Dan; it further adds &nbsp;Joshua 19:47 , &nbsp;Joshua 19:48 on the relation between the Amorites and Ephraim, and the Amorites and the [[Danites]] respectively. With &nbsp; Joshua 19:47 compare &nbsp; Joshua 16:10 and &nbsp; Judges 1:29 , and with &nbsp;Joshua 19:48 compare 19:47 (Hebrew) and &nbsp; Judges 1:34 . </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 20:4-6 inclusive are omitted in B, except a clause from &nbsp; Joshua 20:6; A, however, inserts them in full. Compare Driver, <i> LOT6 </i> , 112, who, on the ground of their Deuteronomic tone, regards it as probable that the verses are an addition to the Priestly Code (P), and therefore did not form part of the original text as used by the Greek translators. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 21:36 , &nbsp;Joshua 21:37 , which give the names of the Levitical cities in Judah, are omitted in the Hebrew printed text although found in many Hebrew manuscripts. Four verses also are added after &nbsp;Joshua 21:42 , the first three of which repeat &nbsp;Joshua 19:50 f, and the last is a reminiscence of &nbsp; Joshua 5:3 . </p> <p> &nbsp;Joshua 24:29 f which narrate the death and burial of Joshua are placed in the Greek text after &nbsp; Joshua 24:31; and a verse is inserted after &nbsp;Joshua 24:30 recording that the stone knives used for the purposes of the circumcision (&nbsp; Joshua 5:2 ff) were buried with Joshua in his tomb (compare &nbsp; Joshua 21:42 ). After &nbsp;Joshua 24:33 also two new verses appear, apparently a miscellany from &nbsp; Judges 2:6 , &nbsp;Judges 2:11-15; &nbsp;Judges 3:7 , &nbsp;Judges 3:12 , &nbsp;Judges 3:14 , with a statement of the death and burial of Phinehas, son and successor of Eleazar, of the idolatrous worship by the children of Israel of [[Astarte]] and Ashtaroth, and the oppression under Eglon, king of Moab. </p> <p> <b> 2. Other Ancient Versions: </b> </p> <p> The other Vss , with the exception of Jerome's translation from the Hebrew, are secondary, derived mediately through the Greek. The Old Latin is contained in a manuscript at Lyons, Cod. Lugdunensis, which is referred to the 6th century. Of the [[Coptic]] version only small portions are extant; they have been published by G. Maspero, <i> Memoires de la mission archeologique frantsaise </i> , tom. VI, fasc. 1, le Caire, 1892, and elsewhere. A S am translation also is known, for parts of which at least an early origin and an independent derivation from the Hebrew have been claimed. The ancient character of the version, however, is contested, and it has been shown that the arguments on which reliance was placed are insufficient to justify the conclusions drawn. The translation appears to be in reality of quite recent date, and to have been made originally from the Arabic, perhaps in part compared with and corrected by the Massoretic Text. The subject was fully and conclusively discussed by Dr. Yehuda of Berlin, at the Oriental [[Congress]] in the summer of 1908, and in a separate pamphlet subsequently published. It was even stated that the author of the version was still living, and his name was given. Dr. Gaster, the original discoverer of the Sam MS, in various articles and letters maintains his contention that the translation is really antique, and therefore of great value, but he has failed to convince scholars. (See M. Gaster in <i> Jras </i> (1908), 795 ff, 1148 ff; E. N. Adler, ib, 1143 ff. The text of the manuscript was published by Dr. Caster in <i> Zdmg </i> (1908), 209 ff, and a specimen chapter with English rendering and notes in <i> Psba </i> , 31 (1909), 115 ff, 149 ff.) </p> VIII. Religious Purpose and Teaching. <p> As a whole, then, Joshua is dominated by the same religious and hortatory purpose as the earlier writings of the Pentateuch; and in this respect as well as in authorship and structure the classification which assigns to it a place by the side of the 5 books of Moses and gives to the whole the title of [[Hexateuch]] is not unjustified. The author or authors had in view not merely the narration of incident, nor the record of events in the past history of their people of which they judged it desirable that a correct account should be preserved, but they endeavored in all to subserve a practical and religious aim. The history is not for its own sake, or for the sake of the literal facts which it enshrines, but for the sake of the moral and spiritual lessons which may be elucidated therein, and enforced from its teaching. The Divine leading in history is the first thought with the writer. And the record of Israel's past presents itself as of interest to him, not because it is a record of events that actually happened, but because he sees in it the ever-present guidance and overruling determination of God, and would draw from it instruction and warning for the men of his own time and for those that come after him. Not the history itself, but the meaning and interpretation of the history are of value. Its importance lies in the illustrations it affords of the controlling working of a Divine Ruler who is faithful to His promises, loving righteousness and hating iniquity, and swaying the destinies of men in truth. Thus the selection of materials, and the form and arrangement of the book are determined by a definite aim: to set forth and enforce moral lessons, and to exhibit Israel's past as the working out of a Divine purpose which has chosen the nation to be the recipient of the Divine favor, and the instrument for the carrying forward of His purposes upon earth. </p> Literature. <p> A C omplete bibliography of the literature up to date will be found in the dictionaries, under the word "Joshua," <i> Db 2 </i> , 1893, <i> Hdb </i> , II, 1899, <i> Eb </i> , II, 1901; compare W. H. Bennett, "The Book of Josh," in <i> Sbot </i> , Leipzig, 1895; W.G. Blaikie, "Joshua," in <i> Expositor's Bible </i> , 1893; A. Dillmann, <i> Nu </i> , <i> Dt </i> <i> u </i> . <i> Josua2 </i> , Leipzig, 1886; H. Holzinger, "Das Buch Josua," in <i> Kurzer Hand-Comm. zum A T </i> , Tubingen, 1901; C. Steuernagel, "Josua," in Nowack's <i> Handcommentar zum Altes [[Testament]] </i> , 1899; S. Oettli, "Deuteronomy, Josua u. Richter," in <i> Kurzgef. Komm </i> , Munchen, 1893; W.J. Deane, <i> Joshua, His Life and Times </i> , in "Men of the Bible Series," London. </p>