Difference between revisions of "Book"

<p> a writing composed on some point of knowledge by a person intelligent therein, for the instruction or amusement of the reader. The word is formed from the Gothic <em> boka, </em> or Saxon <em> boc, </em> which comes from the Northern <em> buech, </em> of <em> buechaus, </em> a beech or service tree, on the bark of which our ancestors used to write. Book is distinguished from pamphlet, or single paper, by its greater length; and from tome or volume, by its containing the whole writing on the subject. Isidore makes this distinction between <em> liber </em> and <em> codex; </em> that the former denotes a single book, the latter a collection of several; though, according to Scipio Maffei, <em> codex </em> signifies a book in the square form; <em> liber, </em> a book in the roll form. The primary distinction between <em> liber </em> and <em> codex </em> seems to have been derived, as Dr. Heylin has observed, from the different materials used for writing among the ancients: from the innerside of the bark of a tree, used for this purpose, and called in Latin <em> liber, </em> the name of </p> <p> <em> liber </em> applied to a book was deduced; and from that tablet, formed from the main body of a tree, called <em> caudex, </em> was derived the appellation of <em> codex. </em> </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> Several sorts of materials were formerly used in making books: stone and wood were the first materials employed to engrave such things upon as men were desirous of having transmitted to posterity. [[Porphyry]] makes mention of some pillars preserved in Crete, on which the ceremonies observed by the [[Corybantes]] in their sacrifices were recorded. The works of [[Hesiod]] were originally written on tables of lead, and deposited in the temple of the [[Muses]] in Boeotia. The laws of [[Jehovah]] were written on tables of stone, and those of [[Solon]] on wooden planks. Tables of wood and ivory were common among the ancients: those of wood, were very frequently covered with wax, that persons might write on them with more ease, or blot out what they had written. And the instrument used to write with was a piece of iron, called a <em> style; </em> and hence the word "style" came to be taken for the composition of the writing. The leaves of the palm-tree were afterward used instead of wooden planks, and the finest and thinnest part of the bark of such trees as the lime, ash, maple, and elm; and especially the <em> tilio, </em> or <em> phillyrea, </em> and [[Egyptian]] <em> papyrus. </em> Hence came the word <em> liber, </em> (a book,) which signifies the inner bark of the trees. And as these barks were rolled up in order to be removed with greater ease, each roll was called <em> volumen, </em> a volume; a name afterward given to the like rolls of paper or parchment. From the Egyptian papyrus the word <em> paper </em> is derived. After this, leather was introduced, especially the skins of goats and sheep. For the king of Pergamus, in collecting his library, was led to the invention of parchment made of those skins. The ancients likewise wrote upon linen. Pliny says, the Parthians, even in his time, wrote upon their clothes; and Livy speaks of certain books made of linen, <em> lintei libri, </em> upon which the names of magistrates, and the history of the [[Roman]] commonwealth, were written, and preserved in the temple of the goddess Moneta. </p> <p> <strong> 3. </strong> The materials generally used by the ancients for their books, were liable to be easily destroyed by the damp, when hidden in the earth; and in times of war, devastation, and rapacity, it was necessary to bury in the earth whatever they wished to preserve from the attacks of fraud and violence. With this view, Jeremiah ordered the writings, which he delivered to Baruch, to be put in an earthen vessel, Jeremiah 32. In the same manner the ancient [[Egyptians]] made use of earthen urns, or pots of a proper shape, for containing whatever they wanted to inter in the earth, and which, without such care, would have been soon destroyed. We need not wonder then, that the [[Prophet]] Jeremiah should think it necessary to inclose those writings in an earthen pot, which were to be buried in Judea, in some place where they might be found without much difficulty on the return of the Jews from captivity. Accordingly two different writings, or small rolls of writing, called books in the original Hebrew, were designed to be inclosed in such an earthen vessel; but commentators have been much embarrassed in giving any probable account of the necessity of two writings, one sealed, the other open; or, as the passage has been commonly understood, the one <em> sealed up, </em> the other left <em> open </em> for any one to read; more especially, as both were to be alike buried in the earth and concealed from every eye, and both were to be examined at the return from the captivity. But the word translated <em> open, </em> in reference to the evidence, or book which was open, ( &nbsp; 1 Samuel 3:7; &nbsp;1 Samuel 3:21; &nbsp;Daniel 2:19; &nbsp;Daniel 2:30; &nbsp;Daniel 10:1 ,) signifies the revealing of future events to the minds of men by a divine agency; and it is particularly used in the book of Esther, &nbsp;Esther 8:13 , to express a book's making known the decree of an earthly king. Consequently the <em> open book </em> of Jeremiah seems to signify, not its being then lying open or unrolled before them, while the other was sealed up; but the book that had revealed the will of God, to bring back [[Israel]] into their own country, and to cause buying and selling of houses and lands again to take place among them. This was a <em> book of prophecy, </em> opening and revealing the future return of Israel, and the other little book, which was ordered to be buried along with it, was the purchase deed. </p> <p> <strong> 4. </strong> By adverting to the different modes of writing in eastern countries, we obtain a satisfactory interpretation of a passage in the book of &nbsp; Job 19:23-24 , and a distinct view of the beautiful gradation which is lost in our translation: "O that my words were now written! O that they were printed (written) in a book! that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever!" In the east there is a mode of writing, which is designed to fix words in the memory, but the writing is not intended for duration. Accordingly we are informed by Dr. Shaw, that children learn to write in Barbary by means of a smooth thin board, slightly covered with whiting, which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure. Job expresses his wish not only that his words were written, but also written in a book, from which they should not be blotted out, nay, still farther, graven in a rock, the most permanent mode of recording them, and especially if the engraved letters were filled with lead; or the rock was made to receive leaden tablets, the use of which was known among the ancients. So Pliny, "At first men wrote on the leaves of palm, and the bark of certain trees, but afterward public documents were preserved on leaden plates, and those of a private nature on wax, or linen." </p> <p> <strong> 5. </strong> The first books were in the form of blocks and tables, of which we find frequent mention in Scripture, under the appellation <em> sepher, </em> which the [[Septuagint]] render αξινες , that is, <em> square tables: </em> of which form the book of the covenant, book of the law, book or bill of divorce, book of curses, &c, appear to have been. As flexible matters came to be written on, they found it more convenient to make their books in form of rolls, called by the Greeks κοντακια , by the Latins <em> volumina, </em> which appear to have been in use among the ancient Jews as well as the Grecians, Romans, Persians, and even Indians; and of such did the libraries chiefly consist, till some centuries after Christ. The form which obtains among us is the square, composed of separate leaves; which was also known, though little used, among the ancients; having been invented by Attalus, king of Pergamus, the same who also invented parchment: but it has now been so long in possession, that the oldest manuscripts are found in it. Montfaucon assures us, that of all the ancient Greek manuscripts he has seen, there are but two in the roll form; the rest being made up much after the manner of the modern books. The rolls, or volumes, were composed of several sheets, fastened to each other, and rolled upon a stick, or <em> umbilicus; </em> the whole making a kind of column, or cylinder, which was to be managed by the <em> umbilicus, </em> as a handle; it being reputed a kind of crime to take hold of the roll itself. The outside of the volume was called <em> frons; </em> the ends of the <em> umbilicus </em> were called <em> cornua, </em> "horns;" which were usually carved and adorned likewise with silver, ivory, or even gold and precious stones. Whilst the Egyptian papyrus was in common use, its brittle nature made it proper to roll up what they wrote; and as this had been a customary practice, many continued it when they used other materials, which might very safely have been treated in a different manner. To the form of books belongs the <em> economy of the inside, </em> or the order and arrangement of points and letters into lines and pages, with margins and other appurtenances. </p> <p> This has undergone many varieties: at first, the letters were only divided into lines, then into separate words; which, by degrees, were noted with accents, and distributed by points and stops into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. In some countries, as among the orientals, the lines began from the right, and ran to the left; in others, as in northern and western nations, from the left to the right; others, as the Grecians, followed both directions alternately, going in the one and returning in the other, called <em> boustrophedon, </em> because it was after the manner of oxen turning when at plough. In the Chinese books, the lines ran from top to bottom. Again: the page in some is entire, and uniform; in others, divided into columns; in others distinguished into texts and notes, either marginal, or at the bottom: usually it is furnished with signatures and catch words; also with a register to discover whether the book be complete. To these are occasionally added the apparatus of summaries, or side notes; the embellishments of red, gold, or figured initial letters, head pieces, tail pieces, effigies, schemes, maps, and the like. The end of the book now denoted by <em> finis, </em> was anciently marked with a coronis, and the whole frequently washed with an oil drawn from cedar, or citron chips, strewed between the leaves to preserve it from rotting. There also occur certain <em> formulae </em> at the beginning and end of books; as among the Jews, the word חזק , <em> esto fortis, </em> which we find at the end of the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Ezekiel, &c, to exhort the reader to be courageous, and proceed on to the following book. The conclusions were also often guarded with imprecations against such as should falsify them; of which we have an instance in the Apocalypse. The Mohammedans, for the like reason, place the name of God at the beginning of all their books, which cannot fail to procure them protection, on account of the infinite regard which they pay to that name, wherever found. For the like reason it is, that divers of the laws of the ancient emperors begin with the formula, <em> In nomine Dei. </em> [In the name of God.] At the end of each book the Jews also added the number of verses contained in it, and at the end of the [[Pentateuch]] the number of sections; that it might be transmitted to posterity entire. The Masorites and Mohammedan doctors have gone farther; so as to number the several words and letters in each book, chapter, verse, &c, of the Old [[Testament]] and the Alcoran. The scarcity and high price of books in former ages, ought to render us the more grateful for the discovery of the great art of printing, as especially by that means the Holy Bible, "the word of truth and [[Gospel]] of our salvation," is made familiar to all classes. </p> <p> The universal ignorance that prevailed in Europe, from the seventh to the eleventh century, may be ascribed to the scarcity of books during that period, and the difficulty of rendering them more common, concurring with other causes arising from the state of government and manners. The Romans wrote their books either on parchment, or on paper made of the Egyptian papyrus. The latter, being the cheapest, was of course the most commonly used. But after the [[Saracens]] conquered Egypt, in the seventh century, the communication between that country and the people settled in Italy, or in other parts of Europe, was almost entirely broken off, and the papyrus was no longer in use among them. They were obliged on that account to write all their books upon parchment; and as the price of that was high, books became extremely rare and of great value. We may judge of the scarcity of materials for writing them from one circumstance. There still remain several manuscripts of the eighth, ninth, and following centuries, written on parchment, from which some former writing had been erased, in order to substitute a new composition in its place. Thus, it is probable, several of the works of the ancients perished. A book of Livy or of Tacitus might be erased, to make room for the legendary tale of a saint, or the superstitious prayers of a missal. Nay, worse instances are recorded, of obliterating copies of the Holy [[Scriptures]] to make room for the lucubrations of some of the more modern fathers of the church. [[Manuscripts]] thus defaced, the vellum or parchment of which is occupied with some other writings, are called "palimpsests," <em> codices rescripti </em> or <em> palimpsesti, </em> from παλιμψηστος . "that which has been twice scraped." As this want of materials for writing will serve to account for the loss of many of the works of the ancients, and for the small number of MSS. previous to the eleventh century, many facts prove the scarcity of books at this period. [[Private]] persons seldom possessed any books whatever; and even monasteries of note had only one missal. In 1299, John de Pontissara, bishop of Winchester, borrows of his cathedral convent of St. Swithin, at Winchester, <em> "bibliam bene glossatam," </em> that is, the Bible, with marginal annotations, in two folio volumes; but gives a bond for the return of it, drawn up with great solemnity. For the bequest of this [[Bible]] to the convent, and one hundred marks, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor. If any person gave a book to a religious house, he believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation, and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony. The prior and convent of [[Rochester]] declare, that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a Latin translation of Aristotle's Poetics, or even obliterate the title. Sometimes a book was given to a monastery, on condition that the donor should have the use of it for his life; and sometimes to a private person, with the reservation that he who receives it should pray for the soul of his benefactor. In the year 1225, [[Roger]] de Insula, dean of York, gave several Latin Bibles to the university of Oxford, on condition that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. The library of that university, before the year 1300, consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept in chests, in the choir of St. Mary's church. The price of books became so high, that persons of a moderate fortune could not afford to purchase them. In the year 1174, Walter, prior of St. Swithin's at Winchester, purchased of the monks of Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, Bede's homilies, and St. Austin's psalter, for twelve measures of barley and a pall, on which was embroidered in silver the history of St. Birinus converting a Saxon king. About the year 1400, a copy of John of Meun's "Roman de la Rose" was sold before the palace gate at [[Paris]] for forty crowns, or 33 <em> l </em> . 6 <em> s </em> . 6 <em> d </em> . The countess of Anjou paid, for a copy of the homilies of Haimon, bishop of Halberstadt, two hundred sheep, five quarters of wheat, and the same quantity of rye and millet. Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis XI. of [[France]] borrowed the works of Rhasis, the [[Arabian]] physician, from the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not only deposited by way of pledge a considerable quantity of plate, but he was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed, binding himself under a great forfeiture to restore it. But when, in the eleventh century, the art of making paper was invented, and more especially after the manufacture became general, the number of MSS. increased, and the study of the sciences was wonderfully facilitated. Indeed, the invention of the art of making paper, and the invention of the art of printing, are two very memorable events in the history of literature and of human civilization. It is remarkable, that the former preceded the first dawning of letters and improvement in knowledge, toward the close of the eleventh century; and the latter ushered in the light which spread over Europe at the aera of the reformation. </p> <p> <strong> 6. </strong> If the ancient books were large, they were formed of a number of skins, of a number of pieces of linen and cotton cloth, or of papyrus, or parchment, connected together. The leaves were rarely written over on both sides, &nbsp; Ezekiel 2:9; &nbsp;Zechariah 5:1 . Books, when written upon very flexible materials, were, as stated above, rolled round a stick; and, if they were very long, round two, from the two extremities. The reader unrolled the book to the place which he wanted, αναπτυξας το βιβλιον , and rolled it up again, when he had read it, πτυξας το βιβλιον , &nbsp;Luke 4:17-20; whence the name מגלה , <em> a volume, </em> or thing rolled up, &nbsp; Psalms 40:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 34:4; &nbsp;Ezekiel 2:9; &nbsp;2 Kings 19:14; &nbsp;Ezra 6:2 . The leaves thus rolled round the stick, which has been mentioned, and bound with a string, could be easily sealed, &nbsp;Isaiah 29:11; &nbsp;Daniel 12:4; &nbsp;Revelation 5:1; &nbsp;Revelation 6:7 . Those books, which were inscribed on tablets of wood, lead, brass, or ivory, were connected together by rings at the back, through which a rod was passed to carry them by. The orientals appear to have taken pleasure in giving tropical or enigmatical titles to their books. The titles, prefixed to the fifty-sixth, sixtieth, and eightieth psalms, appear to be of this description. And there can be no doubt that David's elegy upon [[Saul]] and Jonathan, &nbsp;2 Samuel 1:18 , is called קשת or <em> the bow, </em> in conformity with this peculiarity of taste. </p> <p> The book, or flying roll, spoken of in &nbsp;Zechariah 5:1-2 , twenty cubits long, and ten wide, was one of the ancient rolls, composed of many skins, or parchments, glued or sewed together at the end. Though some of these rolls or volumes were very long, yet none, probably, was ever made of such a size as this. This contained the curses and calamities which should befal the Jews. The extreme length and breadth of it shows the excessive number and enormity of their sins, and the extent of their punishment. </p> <p> Isaiah, describing the effects of God's wrath, says, "The heavens shall be folded up like a book," (scroll,) &nbsp;Isaiah 34:4 . He alludes to the way among the ancients of rolling up books, when they purposed to close them. A volume of several feet in length was suddenly rolled up into a very small compass. Thus the heavens should shrink into themselves, and disappear, as it were, from the eyes of God, when his wrath should be kindled. These ways of speaking are figurative, and very energetic. </p> <p> <strong> 7. </strong> Book is sometimes used for letters, memoirs, an edict, or contract. In short, the word <em> book, </em> in Hebrew, <em> sepher, </em> is much more extensive than the Latin <em> liber. </em> The letters which [[Rabshakeh]] delivered from [[Sennacherib]] to Hezekiah, are called a book. The English translation, indeed, reads <em> letter; </em> but the Septuagint has βιβλιον , and the [[Hebrew]] text, הספרים . The contract, confirmed by Jeremiah for the purchase of a field, is called by the same name, &nbsp;Jeremiah 32:10; and also the edict of [[Ahasuerus]] in favour of the Jews, &nbsp;Esther 9:20 , though our translators have called it <em> letters. </em> The writing which a man gave to his wife when he divorced her, was denominated, in Hebrew, "a book of divorce," Deuteronomy 24. </p> <p> BOOKS, <em> Writers of. </em> The ancients seldom wrote their treatises with their own hand, but dictated them to their freedmen and slaves. These were either ταχυγραφοι , <em> amanuenses, notarii, " </em> hasty writers," or καλλιγραφοι , <em> librarii, </em> fair writers," or βιβλιογραφοι , <em> librarii, </em> "copyists." The office of these last was to transcribe fairly that which the former had written hastily and from dictation; they were those who were obliged to write books and other documents which were intended to be durable. The correctness of the copies was under the care of the <em> emendator, corrector, </em> ο δοκιμαζων τα γεγραμμενα . A great part of the books of the New Testament was dictated after this custom. St. Paul noted it as a particular circumstance in the [[Epistle]] to the Galatians, that he had written it with his own hand, &nbsp;Galatians 6:11 . But he affixed the salutation with his own hand, &nbsp;2 Thessalonians 3:17; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 16:21; &nbsp;Colossians 4:18 . The amanuensis who wrote the Epistle to the Romans, has mentioned himself near the conclusion, &nbsp;Romans 16:22 . </p> <p> BOOKS, <em> modes of publication. </em> Works could only be multiplied by means of transcripts. Whenever in this way they passed over to others, they were beyond the control of the author, and published. The edition, or publication, by means, of the booksellers, was, only at a later period, advantageous to the Christians. The <em> recitatio </em> [reading aloud] preceded the publication, which took place often merely among some few friends, and often with great preparations before many persons, who were invited for that purpose. From hence the author became known as the writer and the world became previously informed of all which they might expect from the work. If the composition pleased them, he was requested to permit its transcription; and thus the work left the hands of the author, and belonged to the <em> publicum: </em> [public.] Frequently an individual sent his literary labours to some illustrious man, as a present, <em> strena, </em> [a new-year's gift,] <em> munusculum; </em> [a small present;] or he prefixed his name to it, for the sake of giving him a proof of friendship or regard, by means of this express and particular direction of his work. When it was only thus presented or sent to him, and he accepted it, he was considered as the person bound to introduce it to the world, or as the <em> patronus libri, </em> [patron of the book,] </p> <p> who had pledged himself, as the <em> patronus personae, </em> [patron of the person,] </p> <p> to this duty. It now became his office to provide for its publication by means of transcripts, to facilitate its approach <em> ad limina potentiorum </em> to the gates of men of great influence, and to be its <em> defensor. </em> Thus the works of the first founders of the [[Christian]] church made their appearance before their community. Their [[Epistles]] were read in those congregations to which they were directed; and whoever wished to possess them either took a transcript of them, or caused one to be procured for him. The historical works were made known by the authors in the congregations of the Christians, <em> per recitationem: </em> [by reading aloud:] the object and general interest in them procured for them readers and transcribers. St. Luke dedicated his writings to an illustrious man of the name of Theophilus. </p> <p> BOOK OF LIFE, or BOOK OF THE LIVING, or BOOK OF THE LORD, &nbsp;Psalms 69:28 . Some have thought it very probable that these descriptive phrases, which are frequent in Scripture, are taken from the custom, observed generally in the courts of princes, of keeping a list of persons who are in their service, of the provinces which they govern, of the officers of their armies, of the number of their troops, and sometimes even of the names of their soldiers. Thus, when it is said that any one is written in the book of life, it means that he particularly belongs to God, and is enrolled among the number of his friends and servants: and to be "blotted out of the book of life," is to be erased from the list of God's friends and servants, as those who are guilty of treachery are struck off the roll of officers belonging to a prince. The most satisfactory explanation of these phrases is, however, that which refers them to the genealogical lists of the Jews, or to the registers kept of the living, from which the names of all the dead were blotted out. </p> <p> BOOK OF JUDGMENT. Daniel, speaking of God's judgment, says, "The judgment was set, and the books were opened," &nbsp;Daniel 7:10 . This is an allusion to what was practised when a prince called his servants to account. The accounts are produced and examined. It is possible he might allude, also to a custom of the Persians, among whom it was a constant practice every day to write down the services rendered to the king, and the rewards given to those who had performed them. Of this we see an instance in the history of Ahasuerus and Mordecai, Esther 4:12, 34. When, therefore, the king sits in judgment, the books are opened: he obliges all his servants to reckon with him; he punishes those who have failed in their duty; he compels those to pay who are indebted to him; and he rewards those who have done him services. A similar proceeding will take place at the day of God's final judgment. </p> <p> SEALED BOOK, mentioned &nbsp;Isaiah 29:11 , and the book sealed with seven seals, in the &nbsp;Revelation 5:1-3 , are the prophecies of Isaiah and of John, which were written in a book, or roll, after the manner of the ancients, and were sealed, which figure truly signifies that they were mysterious: they had respect to times remote, and to future events; so that a complete knowledge of their meaning could not be obtained till after what was foretold should happen, and the seals, as it were, taken off. In old times, letters, and other writings that were to be sealed, were first wrapped round with thread or flax, and then wax and the seal were applied to them. To read them, it was necessary to cut the thread or flax, and to break the seals. </p>

<p> Several sorts of materials were anciently used in making books. Plates of lead or copper, the bark of trees, brick, stone, and wood, were originally employed to engrave such things and documents upon as men desired to transmit to posterity, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:2,3 &nbsp; Job 19:23,24 . God's laws were written on stone tablets. [[Inscriptions]] were also made on tiles and bricks, which were afterwards hardened by fire. Many of these are found in the ruins of Babylon. [[Tablets]] of wood, box, and ivory were common among the ancients: when they were of wood only, they were oftentimes coated over with wax, which received the writing inscribed on them with the point of a style, or iron pen, &nbsp;Jeremiah 17:13; and what was written might be effaced by the broad end of a style, &nbsp;Luke 1:63 . Afterwards, the leaves of the palm-tree were used instead of wooden tablets, and also the finest and thinnest bark of trees, such as the lime, the ash, the maple, the elm: hence the word liber, which denotes the inner bark of trees, signifies also a book. As these barks were rolled up, to be more readily carried about, the united rolls were called volumen, a volume; a name given likewise to rolls of paper or of parchment. The ancients wrote like-wise on linen. But the oldest material commonly employed for writing upon, appears to have been the papyrus, a reed very common in [[Egypt]] and other places, and still found in [[Sicily]] and Chaldea. From this comes our word paper. At a later period, parchment from skins was invented in Pergamos, and was there used for rolls or volumes. The pen for writing on these soft materials was a small brush, or a reed split at the end, &nbsp;Jeremiah 36:23 . The ink was prepared with lampblack coal of ivory, various gums, etc., and the writing was sometimes permanently fixed by fire. [[Scribes]] carried their inkhorns hanging to their girdles, &nbsp;Ezekiel 9:2 . The making of paper from linen in its modern form was first known in Europe about A. D. 1300. The art of printing was introduced about one hundred and fifty years later. </p> <p> An ancient book therefore had the appearance of a thick roll of some paper-like substance, written usually in parallel columns on one side only, and read by gradually unrolling it by means of two small rollers, one at the beginning and the other at the end of the volume. A roll was sometimes sealed, being first tied or wrapped about with a cord, on which the wax was dropped, and stamped by a signet, &nbsp;Isaiah 29:11 &nbsp; Revelation 5:1-3 . </p> <p> The writing was practiced very early, may be inferred from allusions to the art in &nbsp;Genesis 5:1 &nbsp; Exodus 17:14 &nbsp; Job 9:25 &nbsp; 19:23 &nbsp; 31:5 . The Egyptians were accustomed to it from the earliest ages. </p> <p> [[Ancient]] writers, instead of writing their books, etc., with their own hand, often employed amanuenses. St. Paul notes it as a particular circumstance, in the epistle to the Galatians, that he had written it with his own hand, &nbsp;Galatians 6:11 . To other letters he only affixed his salutation with his own hand, &nbsp;1 Corinthians 16:21 &nbsp; Colossians 4:18 &nbsp; 2 Thessalonians 3:17 . The amanuensis who wrote the epistle to the Romans, has mentioned himself at the close, &nbsp;Romans 16:22 . See LETTER. </p> <p> Book of the Generation, is used in &nbsp;Genesis 5:1 &nbsp; Matthew 1:1 , in the sense of a genealogical record. See [[Generation]] . </p> <p> Book of the Wars of the Lord, &nbsp;Numbers 21:14 , was probably a sort of military journal, formed of detached odes. </p> <p> The Book of the Chronicles of the kings of [[Judah]] and Israel were apparently public journals, &nbsp;1 Kings 14:19,29 . </p> <p> The Book of Jasher, &nbsp;2 Samuel 1:18 , may perhaps have been a collection of national ballads, one of the forms most used for perpetuating the history of ancient times. </p> <p> The Books of the Chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel were apparently public journals, &nbsp;1 Kings 14:19,29 . </p> <p> Book of Life, or of the Living, &nbsp;Psalm 69:28 . It is probable that these descriptive phrases are taken from the custom observed in the courts of princes, of keeping a list of persons who are in their service, of the provinces which they govern, of the officers of their armies, of the number of their troops, and sometimes even of the names of their soldiers. In the figurative style of oriental poetry, God is represented as inscribing the names, acts, and destinies of men in volumes; and the volume in which are thus entered the names of those who are chosen to salvation, is "the book of life," &nbsp;Philippians 4:3 . </p>

<div> '''1: βίβλος ''' (Strong'S #976 — Noun Neuter — biblos — bib'-los ) </div> <p> (Eng. "Bible") was the inner part, or rather the cellular substance, of the stem of the papyrus (Eng. "paper"). It came to denote the paper made from this bark in Egypt, and then a written "book," roll, or volume. It is used in referring to "books" of Scripture, the "book," or scroll, of Matthew's Gospel, &nbsp;Matthew 1:1; the Pentateuch, as the "book" of Moses, &nbsp;Mark 12:26; Isaiah, as "the book of the words of Isaiah," &nbsp;Luke 3:4; the Psalms, &nbsp;Luke 20:42; &nbsp;Acts 1:20; "the prophets," &nbsp;Acts 7:42; to "the Book of Life," &nbsp;Philippians 4:3; &nbsp;Revelation 3:5; &nbsp;20:15 . Once only it is used of secular writings, &nbsp;Acts 19:19 . </p> <div> '''2: βιβλίον ''' (Strong'S #975 — Noun Neuter — biblion — bib-lee'-on ) </div> <p> a diminutive of No. 1, had in [[Hellenistic]] Greek almost lost its diminutive force and was ousting biblos in ordinary use; it denotes "a scroll or a small book." It is used in &nbsp;Luke 4:17,20 , of the "book" of Isaiah; in &nbsp;John 20:30 , of the Gospel of John; in &nbsp;Galatians 3:10; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:7 , of the whole of the OT; in &nbsp;Hebrews 9:19 , of the "book" of Exodus; in &nbsp;Revelation 1:11; &nbsp;22:7,9,10,18 (twice), 19, of the Apocalypse; in &nbsp; John 21:25; &nbsp;2 Timothy 4:13 , of "books" in general; in &nbsp;Revelation 13:8; &nbsp;17:8; &nbsp;20:12; &nbsp;21:27 , of the "Book" of Life (see Note, below); in &nbsp;Revelation 20:12 , of other "books" to be opened in the Day of Judgment, containing, it would seem, the record of human deeds. In &nbsp;Revelation 5:1-9 the "Book" represents the revelation of God's purposes and counsels concerning the world. So with the "little book" in &nbsp; Revelation 10:8 . In &nbsp;Revelation 6:14 it is used of a scroll, the rolling up of which illustrates the removal of the heaven. </p> &nbsp;Matthew 19:7&nbsp;Mark 10:4Bill.&nbsp;Revelation 22:19 <div> '''3: βιβλαρίδιον ''' (Strong'S #974 — Noun Neuter — biblaridion — bib-lee-ar-id'-ee-on ) </div> <p> another diminutive of No. 1, is always rendered "little book," in &nbsp;Revelation 10:2,9,10 . Some texts have it also in verse &nbsp;Revelation 10:8 , instead of biblion (but see beginning of No. 2). </p>

<p> <em> Sêpher </em> (סִפְרָה, Strong'S #5612), “book; document; writing.” <em> Sêpher </em> seems to be a loanword from the [[Akkadian]] <em> sêpher </em> : (“written message,” “document”). The word appears 187 times in the Hebrew Old Testament, and the first occurrence is in Gen. 5:1: “This is the book of the generations of Adam. When God created man, he made him in the likeness of God” (RSV). The word is rare in the Pentateuch except for Deuteronomy (11 times). The usage increases in the later historical books (Kings 60 times but Chronicles 24 times; cf. Esther 11 times and Nehemiah 9 times).The most common translation of <em> sêpher </em> is “book.” A manuscript was written (Exod. 32:32; Deut. 17:18) and sealed (Isa. 29:11), to be read by the addressee (2 Kings 22:16). The sense of <em> sêpher </em> is similar to “scroll” ( <em> megillah </em> ): “Therefore go thou, and read in the roll [ <em> sêpher </em> ] which thou hast written from my mouth, the words of the Lord in the ears of the people in the Lord’s house upon the fasting day: and also thou shalt read them in the ears of all Judah that come out of their cities” (Jer. 36:6). <em> Sêpher </em> is also closely related to “book” ( <em> sêpher </em> ) (Ps. 56:8). </p> <p> Many “books” are named in the Old Testament: the “book” of remembrance (Mal. 3:16), “book” of life (Ps. 69:28), “book” of [[Jasher]] (Josh. 10:13), “book” of the generations (Gen. 5:1), “book” of the Lord, “book” of the chronicles of the kings of Israel and of Judah, and the annotations on the “book” of the Kings (2 Chron. 24:27). [[Prophets]] wrote “books” in their lifetime. Nahum’s prophecy begins with this introduction: “The burden of Nineveh. The book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite” (1:1). Jeremiah had several “books” written in addition to his letters to the exiles. He wrote a “book” on the disasters that were to befall Jerusalem, but the “book” was torn up and burned in the fireplace of King [[Jehoiakim]] (Jer. 36). In this context, we learn about the nature of writing a “book.” </p> <p> Jeremiah dictated to Baruch, who wrote with ink on the scroll (36:18). [[Baruch]] took the “book” to the Judeans who had come to the temple to fast. When the “book” had been confiscated and burned, Jeremiah wrote another scroll and had another “book” written with a strong condemnation of Jehoiakim and his family: “Then took Jeremiah another roll, and gave it to Baruch the scribe, the son of Neriah; who wrote therein from the mouth of Jeremiah all the words of the book which Jehoiakim king of Judah had burned in the fire: and there were added besides unto them many like words” (Jer. 36:32). </p> <p> Ezekiel was commanded to eat a “book” (Ezek. 2:8-3:1) as a symbolic act of God’s judgment on and restoration of Judah. </p> <p> <em> Sêpher </em> can also signify “letter.” The prophet Jeremiah wrote a letter to the [[Babylonian]] exiles, instructing them to settle themselves, as they were to be in [[Babylon]] for 70 years: “Now these are the words of the letter ( <em> sêpher </em> ) that Jeremiah the prophet sent from [[Jerusalem]] unto the residue of the elders which were carried away captives, and to the priests, and to the prophets, and to all the people whom [[Nebuchadnezzar]] had carried away captive from Jerusalem to Babylon …” (Jer. 29:1). </p> <p> The contents of the <em> sêpher </em> varied. It might contain a written order, a commission, a request, or a decree, as in: “And [Mordecai] wrote in the king Ahasuerus’ name, and sealed it [ <em> sêpher </em> ] with the king’s ring, and sent letters by posts on horseback, and riders on mules, camels, and young dromedaries” (Esth. 8:10). In divorcing his wife, a man gave her a legal document known as the <em> sêpher </em> of divorce (Deut. 24:1). Here <em> sêpher </em> meant a “certificate” or “legal document.” Some other legal document might also be referred to as a <em> sêpher </em> . As a “legal document,” the <em> sêpher </em> might be published or hidden for the appropriate time: “Thus saith the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel; Take these evidences [ <em> sêpher </em> ], this evidence of the purchase, both which is sealed, and this evidence which is open; and put them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue many days” (Jer. 32:14). </p> <p> The Septuagint gives the following translations: <em> biblion </em> (“scroll; document”) and <em> gramma </em> (“letter; document; writing; book”). The KJV gives these senses: “book; letter; evidence.” </p>

<p> "Eat ... a roll of a book" (&nbsp;Ezekiel 2:8-9), meaning, Appropriate its contents in thy mind so entirely that it shall become part of thyself (&nbsp;Ezekiel 3:2). God's messenger must first inwardly possess as his own and him. self digest the truth of God before he can speak it effectually to others, to their believing appropriation of it (&nbsp;Revelation 10:9). &nbsp;Jeremiah 15:16 is the inspired explanation of the phrase: "Thy words were found, and I did eat them, and Thy word was unto me the joy and rejoicing of my heart." A seal secured books anciently, when designed to be kept secret. A book was then a roll of paper, often written within and on the back (&nbsp;Revelation 5:1), so as not to be wholly readable until the seal was broken. The fragments readable outside would excite curiosity and the desire to read the whole. </p> <p> Precisely the nature of God's roll of inspired Scripture, the successive parts being unfolded as God's grand scheme of redemption develops itself; the parts revealed whetting the desire for more and more, until the whole stands forth in its finally consummated perfection. [[Unbelief]] seals up to many (however learned) even what is revealed. Docile, childlike receptivity is needed (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:11; &nbsp;Matthew 13:10-17; &nbsp;Matthew 11:25). [[Prophecy]] in the Old Testament was comparatively a sealed volume until Jesus, who "alone is worthy," "opened the seals" (&nbsp;Daniel 12:4-9). John reveals what Daniel veils; therefore Daniel is told to "seal the book," John "not to seal the book" (&nbsp;Revelation 22:10). </p> <p> Daniel's book was sealed because referring to the then distant future; John's unsealed because the events foretold were immediately to begin their fulfillment. "The book of the living" (&nbsp;Psalms 69:28); &nbsp;Philippians 4:3, "the book of life." the [[Israelites]] who came up out of Egypt were entered in a muster roll of the living citizens, called "the writing of the house of Israel," "the book of life" (&nbsp;Ezekiel 13:9). Those who died were erased each year. </p> <p> An image of God's book of predestination to eternal life (&nbsp;Psalms 139:16; &nbsp;Psalms 87:6; &nbsp;Exodus 32:32; &nbsp;Daniel 12:1; &nbsp;Luke 10:20; &nbsp;Philippians 4:3; &nbsp;Revelation 13:8; &nbsp;Revelation 17:8; &nbsp;Revelation 21:27). In man's point of view it has in it names of highly privileged professors who have but a name to live, but are dead spiritually, and therefore may be blotted out, as was [[Judas]] (&nbsp;Revelation 3:5; &nbsp;Matthew 13:12; &nbsp;Matthew 25:29); but in God's point of view it contains those only who are never blotted out, but elected finally to life (&nbsp;John 10:28-29; &nbsp;Acts 13:48; &nbsp;Revelation 20:12; &nbsp;Revelation 20:15), "written among the living in (the heavenly) Jerusalem" (&nbsp;Isaiah 4:3). </p>

<p> '''Book.''' &nbsp;1 Chronicles 29:29; &nbsp;Revelation 10:2. Books in the form we have them were unknown to the ancients. The materials employed by them to write upon, and sometimes now called books, were of various kinds. Plates of lead or copper or of wood, coated with wax, were in common use, the inscriptions being made with a stylus. Tablets of this latter kind were in use in [[England]] as late as 1300. Leaves and the bark of trees were also used, such as the Egyptian papyrus, from which our word paper is derived. The skins of animals were also in use, the books being prepared in the form of long rolls, twelve or fourteen inches wide, and fastened at each end to sticks, not unlike the rollers to which maps are attached. A very good idea may be formed of an ancient roll by supposing a common newspaper to have rods or rollers at the right and left sides. The reader takes hold of the rods, and unrolls the sheet until he comes to the desired column. Thus, in &nbsp;Luke 4:17, the phrase "opened the book," should probably read "unrolled the scroll." and in verse 20, for "closed the book," read "rolled up the volume," or "scroll." This shows the force of the figure, &nbsp;Isaiah 34:4, where the heavens are represented as rolled together as suddenly as the opposite ends of an unrolled scroll fly to meet each other when the hand of the reader is withdrawn from it. Thus a book means one complete "roll;" so we read of the "book of the law;" the "book of life," &nbsp;Revelation 21:27; see &nbsp;Psalms 69:28; "books of judgment," &nbsp;Daniel 7:10; "book of Jasher" (or righteous), &nbsp;Joshua 10:13; "book of the Chronicles of," etc., R. V., "the kings of Judah," &nbsp;1 Kings 14:19; &nbsp;1 Kings 14:29; "book of the generation," or the genealogical records, &nbsp;Genesis 5:1; &nbsp;Matthew 1:1. A kind of paper was made from the stalk of an Egyptian vegetable called papyrus, or paper reed, which is still found in various parts of India. The stalk was slit with a needle into plates or layers as broad and thin as possible. Some of them were ten or fifteen inches broad. These strips were laid side by side upon a flat horizontal surface, and then immersed in the water of the Nile, which not only served "as a kind of sizing, but also caused the edges of the strips to adhere together as if glued. The sheets thus formed were dried in the sun, and then covered with a fine wash, which made them smooth and flexible. They were finally beaten with hammers, and polished. Twenty or more of these sheets were sometimes connected in one roll. In ancient times, writings that were to be sealed were first wrapped round with thread or flax, to which the wax and seal were applied. These seals must be broken before the book could be read. In Assyria, the ancient writings were upon tablets, and cylinders made of clay. Large libraries of this character have been round in the ruins of Nineveh, Babylon, and adjacent cities. The pen was either a stylus made of some hard substance, &nbsp;Jeremiah 17:1, or a reed pen similar to that now in use in the East. See &nbsp;Jeremiah 36:23. The ink was carried in a hollow horn fastened to the girdle. &nbsp;Ezekiel 9:2. See Bulrush. </p>

<p> The form of ancient books was a long roll with a roller at each end. These rollers were held one in each hand and the book was unrolled from off the one on to the other as the book was read; and this had to be reversed before the book could be read again. They were made of skins, and the writing was usually on one side only; to be written on both sideswould show a <i> full </i> record, as in &nbsp; Ezekiel 2:9,10; &nbsp;Revelation 5:1 . The form of a roll explains how a book could have several seals, a portion being rolled up and a seal attached; then another portion rolled up and another seal, like the seven-sealed book of Revelation. </p> <p> By the ancient nations records were made on cylinders or slabs of stone, or on clay, which was then baked or sun-dried. Many such tablets have been found in the excavations made at Nineveh, Babylon and other places. When Ezra was at work on the city and temple of Jerusalem his opponents wrote to the king of [[Persia]] asking that 'the book of the records' might be searched for corroboration of their assertion that Jerusalem had been rebellious. &nbsp;Ezra 4:15 . The 'book of the records' was doubtless a collection of stone or clay tablets. In some cases these have been found in such numbers as to form quite a library. </p> <p> The word BOOK is used symbolically for what a book might contain, as prophecy or predictions. Ezekiel and John were told to eat the books presented to them. &nbsp;Ezekiel 2:8,9; &nbsp;Ezekiel 3:1-3; &nbsp;Revelation 10:9 : cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 15:16 . It is also symbolical of the <i> records </i> that are with man usually written in a book. &nbsp;Psalm 56:8; &nbsp;Daniel 7:10; &nbsp;Malachi 3:16; &nbsp;Revelation 20:12 . </p> <p> Various books are mentioned in scripture which are not now extant. </p> <p> 1. <i> The wars of the Lord. </i> &nbsp;Numbers 21:14 . The quotation is poetry, so that the book may have been a collection of odes by [[Moses]] on the wars of Jehovah. </p> <p> 2. <i> Book of Jasher, </i> &nbsp;Joshua 10:13; &nbsp;2 Samuel 1:18 . These quotations also are poetry. </p> <p> 3. <i> Book of Samuel, </i> concerning 'the manner of the kingdom,' &nbsp;1 Samuel 10:25; which was laid up before the Lord. </p> <p> 4. <i> The Acts of Solomon, </i> 1Kings 11:41: probably the public records of the kingdom. </p> <p> 5. <i> Books of Nathan, Gad, Ahijah, and Iddo, </i> concerning the acts of David, and of Solomon, which were doubtless the public records of the nation, with which are associated prophecies of [[Ahijah]] and the visions of Iddo. &nbsp;1 Chronicles 29:29; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:29 . </p> <p> 6. <i> Book of [[Shemaiah]] the prophet. </i> &nbsp;2 Chronicles 12:15 . </p> <p> 7. <i> Book of Jehu. </i> &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:34 . These various references show that when the historical parts of the O.T. were written, further information respecting the kingdom was obtainable from the books referred to, if such had been needed; but which was not required for the inspired volume of God. </p>

<i> Sepher </i> &nbsp; Exodus 17:14&nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:58&nbsp;29:20&nbsp;Job 19:23&nbsp;Jeremiah 36:2,4 <p> Books were originally written on skins, on linen or cotton cloth, and on Egyptian papyrus, whence our word "paper." The leaves of the book were generally written in columns, designated by a Hebrew word properly meaning "doors" and "valves" (&nbsp;Jeremiah 36:23 , RSV, marg. "columns"). </p> <p> Among the Hebrews books were generally rolled up like our maps, or if very long they were rolled from both ends, forming two rolls (&nbsp;Luke 4:17-20 ). Thus they were arranged when the writing was on flexible materials; but if the writing was on tablets of wood or brass or lead, then the several tablets were bound together by rings through which a rod was passed. </p> <p> A sealed book is one whose contents are secret (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:11; &nbsp;Revelation 5:1-3 ). To "eat" a book (&nbsp;Jeremiah 15:16; &nbsp;Ezekiel 2:8-10; &nbsp;3:1-3; &nbsp;Revelation 10:9 ) is to study its contents carefully. </p> <p> The book of judgment (&nbsp;Daniel 7:10 ) refers to the method of human courts of justice as illustrating the proceedings which will take place at the day of God's final judgment. </p> <p> The book of the wars of the Lord (&nbsp;Numbers 21:14 ), the book of Jasher (&nbsp;Joshua 10:13 ), and the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 25:26 ), were probably ancient documents known to the Hebrews, but not forming a part of the canon. </p> <p> The book of life (&nbsp;Psalm 69:28 ) suggests the idea that as the redeemed form a community or citizenship (&nbsp;Philippians 3:20; &nbsp;4:3 ), a catalogue of the citizens' names is preserved (&nbsp;Luke 10:20; &nbsp;Revelation 20:15 ). Their names are registered in heaven (&nbsp;Luke 10:20; &nbsp;Revelation 3:5 ). </p> <p> The book of the covenant (&nbsp;Exodus 24:7 ), containing &nbsp;Exodus 20:22-23:33 ,, is the first book actually mentioned as a part of the written word. It contains a series of laws, civil, social, and religious, given to Moses at [[Sinai]] immediately after the delivery of the decalogue. These were written in this "book." </p>

<p> See Bible. </p> <p> And in addition to what is there said, I would beg to remark, that the Hebrews had several names for distinguishing their several books; such as "the book of the covenant," (&nbsp;Exodus 24:7; &nbsp;2 Kings 23:21) "the book of the law." &nbsp;Deuteronomy 30:10 and &nbsp;Deuteronomy 31:26. Their general term for a book was Sepher. In the New Testament, we read of "the book of life." (&nbsp;Philippians 4:3; &nbsp;Revelation 20:12) It is our happiness to have all that it behoves us to know, concerning the book of life, in the copy of it of the Bible, which becomes indeed, in the proclamation of grace it contains, "the book of life." Here we find the characters of those whose names are written in heaven fully drawn out, and they altogether correspond to those for whom JEHOVAH gave Christ as a covenant. See &nbsp;Isaiah 42:6-7; &nbsp;Luke 4:18. See also &nbsp;Daniel 7:10 and &nbsp;Daniel 12:1; &nbsp;Revelation 5:1-3; &nbsp;Psalms 2:7 </p>

<p> '''(1):''' (n.) A part or subdivision of a treatise or literary work; as, the tenth book of "Paradise Lost." </p> <p> '''(2):''' (n.) A volume or collection of sheets in which accounts are kept; a register of debts and credits, receipts and expenditures, etc. </p> <p> '''(3):''' (n.) Six tricks taken by one side, in the game of whist; in certain other games, two or more corresponding cards, forming a set. </p> <p> '''(4):''' (n.) A composition, written or printed; a treatise. </p> <p> '''(5):''' (n.) A collection of sheets of paper, or similar material, blank, written, or printed, bound together; commonly, many folded and bound sheets containing continuous printing or writing. </p> <p> '''(6):''' (v. t.) To mark out for; to destine or assign for; as, he is booked for the valedictory. </p> <p> '''(7):''' (v. t.) To enter, write, or register in a book or list. </p> <p> '''(8):''' (v. t.) To enter the name of (any one) in a book for the purpose of securing a passage, conveyance, or seat; as, to be booked for Southampton; to book a seat in a theater. </p>

<p> BOOK, n. Like the Latin liber, book signifies primarily bark and beech, the tree being probably named from its bark. </p> <p> A general name of every literary composition which is printed but appropriately, a printed composition bound a volume. The name is given also to any number of written sheets when bound or sewed together, and to a volume of blank paper, intended for any species of writing, as for memorandums, for accounts, or receipts. </p> 1. A particular part of a literary composition a division of a subject in the same volume. 2. A volume or collection of sheets in which accounts are kept a register of debts and credits, receipts and expenditures, &c. <p> In books, in kind remembrance in favor. </p> <p> I was so much in his books, that at his decease he left me his lamp. </p> <p> Without book, by memory without reading without notes as, a sermon was delivered without book. This phrase is used also in the sense of without authority as,a man asserts without book. </p> <p> BOOK, To enter, write or register in a book. </p>

<p> <strong> BOOK </strong> . <strong> 1 </strong> . A roll of papyrus or parchment; see Writing. <strong> 2 </strong> . A sacred or canonical document (&nbsp; Daniel 9:2 ); see [[Canon]] of OT. <strong> 3 </strong> . ‘Book of life,’ etc.; see next art. and Eschatology. </p>

<p> '''Book.''' See '''Writing''' . </p>

<p> Book [WRITING] </p>