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== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_55180" /> ==
== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_55189" /> ==
<p> <b> BLINDNESS. </b> —Blindness is a very common disease in the East. It is mainly due to ophthalmia caused partly by the sun-glare and partly by lack of cleanliness. The word ‘blindness’ or ‘blind’ is used in the Bible, however, very frequently of a spiritual condition; and the references in the [[Gospels]] are specially interesting as the physical and the spiritual states are sometimes intertwined, the former being used as emblematic of the latter. </p> <p> In &nbsp;Matthew 11:5 the first evidence of His Messiahship, adduced by Jesus to the disciples of John the Baptist, is that the blind receive their sight. The first miracle of this nature in the life of Jesus is recorded by St. Matthew (&nbsp;Matthew 9:27 ff.) as occurring at Capernaum. </p> <p> Two blind men followed Him, crying, ‘Thou Son of David, have mercy on us.’ Jesus seems unwilling at first to grant their request, as we are told that it was not till they had entered the house with Him that He turned a favourable ear to their entreaty. [[Satisfied]] of their faith, and of the spirit in which they approached Him, He pronounced the word of healing. </p> <p> In St. Mark (&nbsp;Mark 8:22 ff.) another miracle of restoring sight to the blind is recorded which has features of its own. </p> <p> Jesus leads the blind man out of the village (Bethsaida), and, having spit upon his eyes, touches them. [[Sight]] is only gradually restored, as at first he sees men like trees walking. This is one of the many instances of the realism of St. Mark. Probably it is a reminiscence of the well-known difficulty experienced by the blind-born, to whom sight has been given through a surgical operation, of adjusting the knowledge acquired by the new faculty with that derived through the other avenues of sense-perception. </p> <p> The story of the blind man or men at [[Jericho]] is recorded in all three Synoptics (&nbsp;Matthew 20:29 ff., &nbsp;Mark 10:46 ff., &nbsp;Luke 18:35 ff.). It has also features in common with the incident narrated in &nbsp;Matthew 9:27. </p> <p> St. Mark and St. Luke speak of only one blind man, St. Matthew has two. All three give the words of healing differently. There have been many attempts made to harmonize the various accounts,* [Note: For a summary of these see Plummer, Internat. Crit. Com., ‘St. Luke,’ in loco.] but the necessity for making such attempts arises out of a mechanical theory of inspiration which is difficult to maintain. Is it not enough for all practical purposes to hold the substantial accuracy of the Evangelic narrative without troubling ourselves about those minute divergences which occur in different versions of the same event narrated by the most trustworthy witnesses? </p> <p> The miracles recorded in &nbsp;Matthew 12:22 and John 9 stand by themselves as having a very close relation to the teaching of Jesus which follows. St. Matthew tells us that there was brought to Jesus one possessed with a devil, blind and dumb; and He healed him, insomuch that the blind and dumb both saw and spake. This gave rise to the charge of the Pharisees, that the miraculous power of Jesus was not a God-given, but a devil-given power. ‘This fellow doth not cast out devils, but by [[Beelzebub]] the prince of the devils.’ To the clear moral vision of Jesus the attitude implied in this objection showed a radical depravity of nature, an inability to discriminate between fundamental ethical distinctions. ‘A house divided against itself cannot stand.’ If Satan, inspires to deeds of beneficence, then he ceases to be Satan. He who does good is inspired of God, and the measure of the good he does is the measure of his conquest over Satan. It is in this connexion that Jesus utters the remarkable reference to blasphemy against the [[Holy]] Ghost as the unforgivable sin. See art. Blasphemy. </p> <p> The other instance where the miraculous cure of blindness is made a text for the most characteristic teaching of Jesus is that recorded in John 9. Here it is a man blind from his birth that Jesus cures. And when the [[Pharisees]] seek to persuade him of their peculiar theological tenet that the power of Jesus is derived from Satan, the man has strength of mind enough to fall back on that primary moral instinct to which Jesus always appeals. ‘Whereas I was blind, now I see. This man has done good to me, and for me, therefore, he is good. It is not the function of the prince of darkness to give sight to the blind.’ He cannot, therefore, accept their theory of the source whence Jesus derives His power. </p> <p> This leads us to a predominant feature of the teaching of Jesus—His presentation of the gospel as <i> vision </i> . Jesus claims to be the Light of the world. Light to those who see is its own evidence, and Jesus, therefore, in making this claim can desire no recognition other than that spontaneously made by the soul when purged from the sinful passions that obscure or deflect its vision. To secure effective vision there must be not only light, but also a healthy visual organ. [[Blindness]] may arise from the absence of light, from mere functional derangement of the organ of vision, or from some fatal organic defect in the organ. It is to those whose blindness comes from either of the first two causes that Jesus appeals. He comes as Light, strengthening the visual faculty, dispelling the darkness that envelops the soul, and revealing to it the spiritual realm. ‘I am come into this world that they which see not might see’ (&nbsp;John 9:39). This presentation of Jesus as Light appealing to the organ of spiritual vision and vindicating empirically His unique [[Divinity]] dominates the whole of the Fourth Gospel. But the principle is as clearly enunciated in the Synoptics. It is the pure in heart who see God (&nbsp;Matthew 5:8), because the pure heart is the organ of the God-consciousness. In the great confession of St. Peter the real point of our Lord’s commendation lies not in the clear enunciation of the Messiahship and the [[Divine]] Sonship of Jesus, but in the manner in which the profoundest of all spiritual truths has been reached. ‘Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven’ (&nbsp;Matthew 16:17). </p> <p> Jesus, the Light of the world, can appeal only to those who have the faculty of sight. Where the faculty of sight is impaired, or destroyed, however clearly the light may shine, there is no vision. This obseuration of the spiritual orb is what is called ‘judicial blindness.’ The phrase implies that there never can be such radical defect of vision without personal guilt in the person so affected. It is a penalty of sin, the judgment that comes through neglecting the light (cf. &nbsp;John 9:41). Inasmuch as Jesus is the true Light that lighteth every man that cometh into the world, there is in human nature, as such, the capacity of spiritual vision; but this capacity, either by disuse or perversity, may be so radically corrupted as to be impervious to the light. And when this is so, the sinner rushes to his doom heedless of the plainest warnings. This is a truth always recognized in the Gospels. St. John in his [[Prologue]] says that the Light shineth in darkness, but the darkness comprehended it not (cf. &nbsp;Matthew 6:22 f.). It is the meaning of the blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, a sin unforgivable, inasmuch as it does not recognize itself as sin, and thus renders impossible that repentance which is the condition of forgiveness (but see art. Blasphemy.). </p> <p> A. Miller. </p>
<p> Only once does this term refer to the absence of physical sight (&nbsp;Acts 13:11), yet even there moral blindness is symbolized (cf. also the case of St. Paul, &nbsp;Acts 9:8 ff; &nbsp;Acts 20:11, a temporary condition due to suggestion, or to sudden severe nervous tension which soon gave place to normal sight). All the other references to blindness (&nbsp;Romans 2:19, &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4, &nbsp;2 Peter 1:9, &nbsp;1 John 2:11, &nbsp;Revelation 3:17) are metaphysical and indicate a moral condition. Apart from the general fitness of such a figure to signify a moral condition, a special reason for its use by St. Paul is found in his experience before and after his conversion.- <b> 1. </b> [[Blindness]] is alleged as a simple fact without explanation (&nbsp;2 Peter 1:9, &nbsp;Revelation 3:17).- <b> 2. </b> It is referred to the character and influence of the world, from which some of those who have joined themselves to the [[Christian]] community have not yet emerged-they still remain in the darkness in which they were before (&nbsp;1 John 2:11).- <b> 3. </b> The god of this world, or Satan, who is supposed to have power over the course of affairs in the present ace, is assigned as the cause of this condition (cf. &nbsp;Ephesians 6:12, <i> [[Ascension]] of Isaiah </i> , ed. Charles, 1900, pp. 11, 24, where Beliar = the ruler of this world).- <b> 4. </b> To God is attributed in part the activity which results in moral blindness (&nbsp;Acts 28:26, &nbsp;Romans 11:8; &nbsp;Romans 11:10). This conception belongs to the circle of [[Jewish]] religious ideas-the prophetic doctrine of the absoluteness of God, the Pharisaic teaching of [[Divine]] predestination. Both of these lay in the background of St. Paul’s thought (cf. &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9-10, &nbsp;Psalms 69:23, &nbsp;Romans 9:20 ff.), yet other elements also entered into and modified it. From the point of view of the Divine absoluteness, the [[Apostle]] did not doubt that God had the unquestioned right to be the sole cause of blindness in one or of [[Eight]] in another-a prerogative which, however, He refrained from exercising. Hence a somewhat different explanation wag to be sought for the blindness of Israel. That God had rejected the [[Jews]] as a whole was for the Apostle abundantly evident. Yet this did not contradict God’s election and promise. Israel’s guilt had, indeed, for the time being, annulled these; still, this was only one side of the reality. God’s rejection of [[Israel]] was neither without purpose nor was it irrevocable. God’s purpose was universal, embracing [[Gentiles]] as well as Jews, and if it appeared to pass from the Jews to the Gentiles, this was not the whole truth, nor was it final. For, firstly, some Jews had always remained faithful to the election, and secondly, the blindness of the remainder was only temporary-until the ‘fullness of the Gentiles,’ when all Israel, beholding the salvation of the Gentiles, should once more turn to God. The blindness is marked by two features. It is conceived of as pertaining not to individuals, but to the community; and it is one stage in the unfolding of a vast theodicy. The latter fact does not, however, relieve the community of either responsibility or guilt. Whether all the community living in the interim, that is, previous to the removal of the social blindness, will share in the recognition and acceptance of the election, is not considered by the Apostle. In the other passages of the Authorized Versionthe Greek words which are translated ‘blinded’ (&nbsp;Romans 11:7, &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:14) and ‘blindness’ (&nbsp;Romans 11:25, &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18) are replaced in the Revised Versionby their proper equivalents ‘hardened’ and ‘hardness,’ which express also insensibility to the truth of the gospel. </p> <p> Literature.-Article‘Blindness’ in <i> Dict. of Christ and the [[Gospels]] </i> ; Sanday-Headlam, <i> Romans 5 </i> ( <i> International Critical [[Commentary]] </i> , 1902); J. Armitage Robinson, <i> Ephesians </i> , 1903, p. 264ff.; B. F. Westcott, <i> Ephesians </i> , 1906, p. 66; <i> Journal of Theological Studies </i> iii. [1901-02] 81. </p> <p> C. A. Beckwith. </p>
          
          
== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_26195" /> ==
== Holman Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_39100" /> ==
<p> is a term often used in [[Scripture]] to denote ignorance or a want of discernment in divine things, as well as the being destitute of natural sight (&nbsp;Isaiah 6:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 42:18-19; &nbsp;Matthew 15:14). " Blindness of heart" is the want of understanding arising from the influence of vicious passions, while " hardness of heart" is stubborness of will and absence of moral feeling ( '''''Πώρωσις''''' , &nbsp;Mark 3:5; &nbsp;Romans 11:25; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18). </p>
&nbsp;John 9:1-3 <p> Because of their severe handicap, blind persons had little opportunity to earn a living. A blind man was even ineligible to become a priest (&nbsp;Leviticus 21:18 ). Frequently, the blind became beggars (&nbsp;Mark 10:46 ). </p> <p> The possibility of a blind person being mistreated was recognized and forbidden by God. The law prohibited the giving of misleading directions (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18 ) or doing anything to cause the blind to stumble (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:14 ). </p> <p> [[Physical]] Cause Many things caused blindness in ancient times. One could be born blind (&nbsp;John 9:1 ) due to some developmental defect or as a result of infection prior to birth. Usually, however, blindness began later. The most common cause was infection. Trachoma, a painful infection of the eye, is a common cause of blindness today and was probably prevalent in ancient times. [[Leprosy]] can also cause blindness. In old age, vision may be severely impaired in some persons (&nbsp;Genesis 27:1 ). Some develop cataracts. Some have a gradual atrophy of portions of the eye. </p> <p> [[Ancient]] people used salves of various types to treat disorders of the eye. Simple surgical procedures such as the lancing of boils near the eye and the extraction of inverted eyelashes were also employed. </p> <p> In reality, almost no effective treatment was available to those who suffered from diseases of the eye and blindness. There were no antibiotics, no effective surgical procedures for most problems, and no eyeglasses. Miraculous healing was often sought (&nbsp;John 5:2-3 ). </p> <p> Jesus frequently healed blind persons (&nbsp;Matthew 9:27-31; &nbsp;Matthew 12:22; &nbsp;Matthew 20:30-34; &nbsp;Mark 10:46-52; &nbsp;John 9:1-7 ). Perhaps there is no greater evidence of His compassion and power than that seen in His willingness and ability to heal those who lived in darkness and hopelessness. </p> <p> [[Spiritual]] blindness The Bible addresses spiritual blindness as the great human problem. Israel was supposed to be God's servant (&nbsp;Isaiah 42:19 ) but was blind to the role God wanted them to fill. Called to be watchmen protecting the nation, they instead blindly preyed on the people (&nbsp;Isaiah 56:10 ). As the [[Pharisees]] gained leadership, they became blind leaders of the blind (&nbsp;Matthew 15:14; &nbsp;Matthew 23:16-26 ). Jesus came to reverse the situation, making it clear who had spiritual sight and who was spiritually blind (&nbsp;John 9:39-41 ). Peter listed the qualities a person must have to have spiritual sight. Without these, a person is blind (&nbsp;2 Peter 1:5-9 ). The problem is that the spiritually blind do not know they are blind (&nbsp;Revelation 3:17 ). They are blinded by the “god of this world” (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4 ). They walk in darkness, eventually being blinded by the moral darkness of hatred (&nbsp;1 John 2:11 ). </p>
       
== Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_17680" /> ==
<p> [[Scripture]] often employs the imagery of blindness to describe the spiritual condition of persons who are either unable or unwilling to perceive divine revelation. The things of God are perceived not by observation and inquiry, but by revelation and illumination (&nbsp;Matthew 11:25-27; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 1:21; &nbsp;2 Peter 1:19-21 ). It is the Lord who "gives sight to the blind" (&nbsp;Psalm 146:8; &nbsp;Isaiah 42:16 ). </p> <p> The figure of blindness is a favorite device of Isaiah, who repeatedly announces to rebellious Israel that God has afflicted them and their apostate prophets, priests, and rules with blindness (43:8; 56:10; 59:10). Zephaniah reveals that this condition is divinely imposed upon the hardhearted (1:17). Appropriately, then, the Messiah's ministry would be marked by opening the eyes of the spiritually blind (&nbsp;Isaiah 42:7,16,18 ). At the outset of his public ministry, Jesus lay claim to the messianic office by revealing that he would fulfill Isaiah's prophetic promise to proclaim "recovery of sight to the blind" (&nbsp;Luke 4:18 ). </p> <p> Some of Jesus' strongest outbursts were directed at the Pharisees, who masqueraded their superficial conformity to Jewish ceremonial laws as sincere and sufficient righteousness in the sight of God. Jesus follows the form of Isaiah in castigating the Pharisees as "blind guides of the blind" (&nbsp;Matthew 15:14; &nbsp;23:16-26; &nbsp;John 9:39-41 ). He announces that he will impose judgment on these self-righteous legalists, "so that the blind will see and those who see will become blind" (&nbsp;John 9:39 ). </p> <p> Paul tells the [[Corinthian]] believers that blindness aptly describes the spiritual state of pagan unbelievers. He points out that this blindness is inflicted by the "god of this age [who] has blinded the minds of unbelievers, so that they cannot see the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God" (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4 ). The New [[Testament]] reveals that believers are subject to spiritual blindness. Peter deems those who fail increasingly to exhibit diligence in pursuit of spiritual virtue as blind or nearsighted (&nbsp;2 Peter 1:9 ). And the exalted Lord of the church views the lukewarm but haughty [[Laodicean]] church as wretched, pitiful, poor, blind, and naked (&nbsp;Revelation 3:17 ). </p> <p> Spiritual blindness, then, refers in some instances to the inability of unbelievers to comprehend spiritual truth, specifically failure to recognize the true identity of the incarnate Word, Jesus Christ. It is vital, therefore, to conduct all Christian witness in dependence on the [[Holy]] Spirit, who works to counteract the cataracts of Satan and to reveal the truth of God. But spiritual blindness can also afflict believers who fail to perceive their true spiritual condition. To avoid the plague of spiritual blindness and escape the condemnation of leading others into spiritual ruin, believers must be quick to appropriate and obey the Word of God. </p> <p> Ralph E. Enlow, Jr. </p>
       
== American Tract Society Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_15627" /> ==
<p> This distressing malady is very prevalent in the East. Many physical causes in those countries unite to injure the organs of vision. The sun is hot, and in the atmosphere floats a very fine dust, which enters and frets the eye. The armies of [[France]] and England, which were so long in Egypt during the French was, suffered severely from ophthalmic disease. In the cities of Egypt, blindness is perpetuated as a contagious disease by the filthy habits of the natives. It is of frequent occurrence also on the coast of Syria. In ancient times the eyes of person hated or feared were often torn out, &nbsp;Judges 16:21 &nbsp; 1 Samuel 11:2 &nbsp; 2 Kings 25:7 . Blindness was sometimes inflicted as a punishment, &nbsp;Genesis 19:11 &nbsp; Acts 13:6; and it was often threatened as a penalty, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:28 . The Jews were enjoined by the humane laws of Moses to show all kindness and consideration to the blind, &nbsp;Leviticus 19:14 &nbsp; Deuteronomy 27:18 . No one affected with this infirmity could officiate as priest, &nbsp;Leviticus 21:18 . </p> <p> Our [[Savior]] miraculously cured many cases of blindness, both that which was caused by disease and that which had existed from birth. In these cases there was a double miracle; for not only was the organ of sight restored, but also the faculty of using it which is usually gained only by long experience, &nbsp;Mark 8:22-25 . The touching of the eyes of the blind, and anointing them with clay, &nbsp;Matthew 9:29 &nbsp; John 9:6 , can not have had any medicinal or healing effect. The healing was miraculous, by the power of God. </p> <p> "Blindness" is often used for ignorance and error, especially our sinful want of discernment as to spiritual things, &nbsp;Matthew 15:14 &nbsp; 2 Corinthians 4:4 . The abuse of God's mercy increases this blindness, &nbsp;John 12:40 . Blessed are the eyes that fix their adoring gaze first of all on the Redeemer. </p>
       
== Fausset's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_34582" /> ==
<p> Its cure is one of our Lord's most frequent miracles (&nbsp;Luke 7:21; &nbsp;Matthew 9:27; &nbsp;Mark 8:23; &nbsp;John 5:3; &nbsp;John 9:1), as had been foretold (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:18; &nbsp;Isaiah 35:5). In coincidence with this is the commonness of it in the E. In Ludd (Lydda) the saying is, every one is either blind or has but one eye. Jaffa has 500 blind out of 5,000 of a population. The dust and sand pulverized by the intense heat, the constant glare, and in the sandy districts the absence of the refreshing "green grass," (the presence of which Mark notices as noteworthy in the miracle of the feeding the multitudes,) the cold sea air on the coasts, the night dews affecting those sleeping on the roofs, all tend to produce blindness. </p> <p> It is a constant image used of spiritual darkness, and Jesus' restoration of sight to the blind pointed to the analogous spiritual bestowal of sight on the soul. Paul, who had passed through both the physical and the spiritual transition from darkness to light (&nbsp;Acts 9:8-9), instinctively, by an obviously undesigned coincidence confirming authenticity, often uses the expressive image (&nbsp;Acts 26:18; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4; &nbsp;Ephesians 1:18; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18; &nbsp;Colossians 1:13). [[Elymas]] was smitten with blindness at Paul's word (&nbsp;Acts 13:11, compare &nbsp;Genesis 19:11; &nbsp;2 Kings 6:18). The blind were to be treated kindly (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:14; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18). The pagan conquerors sometimes blinded captives (&nbsp;2 Kings 25:7; &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:2). </p>
       
== Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary <ref name="term_47580" /> ==
<p> The Scripture very frequently makes use of this word, by way of expressing the blindness of the soul while in an unawakened unregenerate state. [[Persons]] of this description are said to "have eyes, and see not;" and "ears, and hear not." And such, indeed, is the case of every man by nature. They see not their own corruption; they have no apprehension of their want of Christ; they see no beauty in Christ. So awful a state is this, that the Holy Ghost no less than seven times, in his blessed word, speaks of it in the same strong figures. (See &nbsp;Isaiah 6:9; &nbsp;Matthew 13:14; &nbsp;Mark 4:12; &nbsp;Luke 8:10; &nbsp;John 12:40; &nbsp;Acts 28:26; &nbsp;Romans 11:8) It is a blessed testimony that Jesus hath opened our eyes to say, with the poor man at the pool of Siloam, "One thing I know, that whereas I was blind, now I see." (&nbsp;John 9:25) </p>
       
== Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_80295" /> ==
<p> is often used in Scripture to express ignorance or want of discernment in divine things, as well as the being destitute of natural sight. See &nbsp;Isaiah 42:18-19; &nbsp;Isaiah 6:10; &nbsp;Matthew 15:14 . "Blindness of heart" is the want of understanding arising from the influence of vicious passions. "Hardness of heart" is stubbornness of will, and destitution of moral feeling. Moses says, "Thou shalt not put a stumbling block before the blind," &nbsp;Leviticus 19:14 , which may be understood literally; or figuratively, as if Moses recommended that charity and instruction should be shown to them who want light and counsel, or to those who are in danger of going wrong through their ignorance. Moses says also, "Cursed be he who maketh the blind to wander out of his way," &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18 , which may also be taken in the same manner. An ignorant or erring teacher is compared by our Lord to a blind man leading a blind man;—a strong representation of the presumption of him that professes to teach the way of salvation without due qualifications, and of the danger of that implicit faith which is often placed by the people in the authority of man, to the neglect of the Holy Scriptures. </p>
       
== Smith's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_71733" /> ==
<p> '''Blindness.''' Blindness is extremely common in the East, from many causes. Blind beggars figure repeatedly, in the New Testament, &nbsp;Matthew 12:22, and "opening the eyes of the blind" is mentioned in prophecy, as a peculiar attribute of the [[Messiah]] . &nbsp;Isaiah 29:18; &nbsp;Isaiah 42:7, etc. </p> <p> The Jews were specially charged to treat the blind with compassion and care. &nbsp;Leviticus 19:14; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18. Blindness willfully inflicted for political or other purposes is alluded to in Scripture. &nbsp;1 Samuel 11:2; &nbsp;Jeremiah 39:7. </p>
       
== Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types <ref name="term_197568" /> ==
<p> &nbsp;Romans 11:25 (a) This describes the condition of the minds of Israel in that they could not and did not understand the person and the work of [[Christ]] and the fulfillment of the provision made by GOD. The same meaning applies in2Co &nbsp;3:14. </p> <p> &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18 (b) As in the former Scriptures, their minds were blind so that their thoughts were perverted. In this passage, the heart did not understand the things of GOD, therefore the feelings were perverted. </p> <p> &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4 (b) This is a picture of the effect that Satan produces on the minds of people when he presents to them false teachings, erroneous doctrines, and baseless theories. </p>
       
== Morrish Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_65345" /> ==
<p> Used metaphorically to describe the state of man by nature under the influence of Satan, &nbsp;2 Corinthians 4:4; also a professing Christian who hates his brother, &nbsp;1 John 2:11; also the state of Israel in their heartless profession, &nbsp;Matthew 23:16-26; and the judicial blindness on Israel. &nbsp;John 12:40 . In &nbsp;Romans 11:7,25; &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:14; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18 , it is rather 'obdurateness or hardness,' from πωρόω,'to harden.' </p>
       
== King James Dictionary <ref name="term_58366" /> ==
<p> BLINDNESS, n. Want of bodily sight want of intellectual discernment ignorance. </p>
       
== Webster's Dictionary <ref name="term_93909" /> ==
<p> (n.) State or condition of being blind, literally or figuratively. </p>
       
== Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_49877" /> ==
<p> <strong> BLINDNESS </strong> . See Medicine. </p>
       
== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_2114" /> ==
<p> ''''' blı̄nd´ness ''''' ( עור , <i> ''''' ‛āwar ''''' </i> , and variants; τυφλός , <i> ''''' tuphlós ''''' </i> ): The word blind is used as a verb, as &nbsp;John 12:40 , usually in the sense of obscuring spiritual perception. In reference to physical blindness it is used as a noun frequently or else as an adjective with the noun <i> man </i> . There are 54 references to this condition, and there is no reason to believe, as has been surmised, that blindness was any less rife in ancient times than it is now, when defective eyes and bleared, inflamed lids are among the commonest and most disgusting sights in a [[Palestine]] crowd. In the [[Papyrus]] Ebers (1500 bc) there are enumerated a number of diseases of the eye and a hundred prescriptions are given for their treatment. That the disease occurred in children and caused destruction and atrophy of the eyeball is testified to by the occurrence of a considerable number of mummy heads, in which there is marked diminution in size of one orbit. The commonest disease is a purulent ophthalmia, a highly infectious condition propagated largely by the flies which can be seen infesting the crusts of dried secretion undisturbed even on the eyes of infants. (In Egypt there is a superstition that it is unlucky to disturb them.) This almost always leaves the eyes damaged with bleared lids, opacities of the cornea, and sometimes extensive internal injury as well. Like other plagues, this disease was thought to be a Divine infliction (&nbsp;Exodus 4:11 ). Minor forms of the disease destroy the eyelashes and produce the unsightly <i> tender-eyes </i> (in &nbsp; [[Genesis]] 29:17 the word <i> ''''' rakh ''''' </i> may mean simply "weak"). </p> <p> Blindness from birth is the result of a form of this disease known as <i> ophthalmia neonatorum </i> which sets in a few days after birth. I have seen cases of this disease in Palestine. Sometimes ophthalmia accompanies malarial fever (&nbsp; Leviticus 26:16 ). All these diseases are aggravated by sand, and the sun glare, to which the unprotected inflamed eyes are exposed. Most of the extreme cases which one sees are beyond remedy - and hence, the giving of sight to the blind is generally put in the front of the mighty works of healing by our Lord. The methods used by Him in these miracles varied probably according to the degree of faith in the blind man; all were merely tokens, not intended as remedies. The case of the man in &nbsp;Mark 8:22 whose healing seemed gradual is an instance of the phenomenon met with in cases where, by operation, sight has been given to one congenitally blind, where it takes some time before he can interpret his new sensations. </p> <p> The blindness of old age, probably from senile cataract, is described in the cases of [[Eli]] at 98 years of age (&nbsp;1 Samuel 3:2; &nbsp;1 Samuel 4:15 ), [[Ahijah]] (&nbsp;1 Kings 14:4 ), and Isaac (&nbsp;Genesis 27:1 ). The smiting of Elymas (&nbsp;Acts 13:11 ) and the [[Syrian]] soldiers (&nbsp;2 Kings 6:18 ) was either a miraculous intervention or more probably a temporary hypnotism; that of Paul (&nbsp;Acts 9:8 ) was doubtless a temporary paralysis of the retinal cells from the bright light. The "scales" mentioned were not material but in the restoration of his sight it seemed as if scales had fallen from his eyes. It probably left behind a weakness of the eyes (see [[Thorn In The Flesh]] ). That blindness of [[Tobit]] (Tobit 2:10), from the irritation of sparrows' dung, may have been some form of conjunctivitis, and the cure by the gall of the fish is paralleled by the account given in Pliny (xxxii.24) where the gall of the fish <i> Callionymus [[Lyra]] </i> is recommended as an application in some cases of blindness. The hypothesis that the gall was used as a pigment to obscure the whiteness of an opaque cornea (for which Indian ink tattooing has been recommended, not as a cure but to remove the unsightliness of a white spot) has nothing in its favor for thereby the sight would not be restored. The only other reference to medicaments is the figurative mention of eyesalve in &nbsp; Revelation 3:18 . </p> <p> Blindness unfitted a man for the priesthood (&nbsp;Leviticus 21:18 ); but care of the blind was specially enjoined in the Law (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:14 ), and offenses against them are regarded as breaches of Law (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18 ). </p> <p> Figuratively , blindness is used to represent want of mental perception, want of prevision, recklessness, and incapacity to perceive moral distinctions (&nbsp;Isaiah 42:16 , &nbsp;Isaiah 42:18 , &nbsp;Isaiah 42:19; &nbsp;Matthew 23:16; &nbsp;John 9:39 ). </p>
       
== Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature <ref name="term_15228" /> ==
<p> The frequent occurrence of blindness in the East has always excited the astonishment of travelers. [[Volney]] says that, out of a hundred persons in Cairo, he has met twenty quite blind, ten wanting one eye, and twenty others having their eyes red, purulent, or blemished. This is principally owing to the [[Egyptian]] ophthalmia, which is endemic in that country and on the coast of Syria. This disease is contagious; but it is not often communicated from one individual to another. It is not confined to the East, but appears here and there throughout Europe. The French and English suffered greatly from it while they were in Egypt, and subsequently. </p> <p> Small pox is another great cause of blindness in the East. </p> <p> In the New Testament, blind mendicants are frequently mentioned (&nbsp;Matthew 9:27; &nbsp;Matthew 12:22; &nbsp;Matthew 20:30; &nbsp;Matthew 21:14; &nbsp;John 5:3). The blindness of Bar Jesus (&nbsp;Acts 13:6-11) was miraculously produced, and of its nature we know nothing. Examples of blindness from old age occur in &nbsp;Genesis 27:1; &nbsp;1 Kings 14:4; &nbsp;1 Samuel 4:15. The Syrian army that came to apprehend [[Elisha]] was suddenly smitten with blindness in a miraculous manner (&nbsp;2 Kings 6:18); and so also was St. Paul (&nbsp;Acts 9:9). The [[Mosaic]] law has not neglected to inculcate humane feelings towards the blind (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:14; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 27:18). Blindness is sometimes threatened in the Old Testament as a punishment for disobedience (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:28; &nbsp;Leviticus 26:16; &nbsp;Zephaniah 1:17). </p>
       
== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_26192" /> ==
<p> is a term often used in Scripture to denote ignorance or a want of discernment in divine things, as well as the being destitute of natural sight (&nbsp;Isaiah 6:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 42:18-19; &nbsp;Matthew 15:14). " Blindness of heart" is the want of understanding arising from the influence of vicious passions, while " hardness of heart" is stubborness of will and absence of moral feeling ( '''''Πώρωσις''''' , &nbsp;Mark 3:5; &nbsp;Romans 11:25; &nbsp;Ephesians 4:18). </p>
          
          
==References ==
==References ==
<references>
<references>


<ref name="term_55180"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-new-testament/blindness+(2) Blindness from Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament]</ref>
<ref name="term_55189"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-new-testament/blindness Blindness from Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_39100"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/holman-bible-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Holman Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_17680"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/baker-s-evangelical-dictionary-of-biblical-theology/blindness Blindness from Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_15627"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/american-tract-society-bible-dictionary/blindness Blindness from American Tract Society Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_34582"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/fausset-s-bible-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Fausset's Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_47580"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hawker-s-poor-man-s-concordance-and-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_80295"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/watson-s-biblical-theological-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_71733"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/smith-s-bible-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Smith's Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_197568"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/wilson-s-dictionary-of-bible-types/blindness Blindness from Wilson's Dictionary of Bible Types]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_65345"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/morrish-bible-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Morrish Bible Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_58366"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/king-james-dictionary/blindness Blindness from King James Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_93909"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/webster-s-dictionary/blindness Blindness from Webster's Dictionary]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_49877"> [https://bibleportal.com/dictionary/hastings-dictionary-of-the-bible/blindness Blindness from Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_2114"> [https://bibleportal.com/encyclopedia/international-standard-bible-encyclopedia/blindness Blindness from International Standard Bible Encyclopedia]</ref>
       
<ref name="term_15228"> [https://bibleportal.com/encyclopedia/kitto-s-popular-cyclopedia-of-biblial-literature/blindness Blindness from Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature]</ref>
          
          
<ref name="term_26195"> [https://bibleportal.com/encyclopedia/cyclopedia-of-biblical-theological-and-ecclesiastical-literature/blindness+(2) Blindness from Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature]</ref>
<ref name="term_26192"> [https://bibleportal.com/encyclopedia/cyclopedia-of-biblical-theological-and-ecclesiastical-literature/blindness Blindness from Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature]</ref>
          
          
</references>
</references>
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