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== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_54913" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_54913" /> == | ||
<p> The term ‘Apostle’ (Gr. ἀπόστολος) is more definite than ‘messenger’ (Gr. ἄγγελος) in that the apostle has a special mission, and is the commissioner of the person who sends him. This distinction holds good both in classical and in biblical Greek. There is no good reason for doubting that the title ‘apostle’ was given to the Twelve by Christ Himself [ Luke 6:13 = Mark 3:14, where ‘whom he also named apostles’ is strongly attested). That the title was used in the first instance simply in reference to the temporary mission of the Twelve to prepare for Christ’s own preaching is a conjecture which receives some support from the fact that, in the [[Apostolic]] Church. [[Barnabas]] and Paul are first called ‘apostles’ ( Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14) when they are acting as envoys of the Church in [[Antioch]] in St. Paul’s first missionary journey. On this hypothesis, the temporary apostleship, though not identical with the permanent office, was typical of it and preparatory to it (Hort, <i> The [[Christian]] [[Ecclesia]] </i> , 1897, p. 28f.). </p> <p> There is fundamental agreement between the work of the apostles during Christ’s ministry and their work after the Ascension: their functions undergo no radical change. But the changes are considerable. Christ chose them in the first instance ( Mark 3:14) ‘that they might be with him,’ to be educated and trained, ‘and that he might send them forth to preach’ and do works of mercy Instruction is the main thing, and ‘disciples’ is the usual designation; mission work is secondary and temporary. After the [[Ascension]] their mission work becomes primary and permanent. Apostle-ship is now the main thing; in Acts ‘apostles’ is the dominant appellation, and in the [[Epistles]] ‘disciples’ are not mentioned. Instead of being led and guided, the Twelve now become leaders and guides or rather, instead of having a visible Guide, they now have an invisible one-instead of Jeans, ‘the Spirit of Jesus’ ( Acts 16:7), who helps them to lead others. The guidance of the Spirit is the dominant idea in the Apostolic Church. Nevertheless, the other way of stating the change is true; they have become teachers rather than disciples. But the purpose is the same; their mission is unchanged. With enlarged experience, with powers greatly augmented at Pentecost, and with an enormously extended sphere of work, they have to make known the [[Kingdom]] of God. Cf. articleDisciple. </p> <p> This extension of sphere is one of the special marks of the transfigured apostleship. It is no longer restricted to ‘the lost sheep of the house of Israel,’ but is to embrace ‘all the nations’ throughout ‘all the world.’ The tentative mission to the inhabitants of [[Palestine]] at a peculiar crisis has become one which has no limitations of either space or time ( Matthew 28:19, Luke 24:47, Acts 1:8). But this universality of sphere was not the only or the most important characteristic of the new mission. The chief mark was the duty of bearing witness. The Twelve seem to have been selected originally because of their fitness for bearing witness. They were not specially qualified for grasping or expounding theological doctrines; nor were such qualifications greatly needed, for the doctrines which the [[Master]] taught them were few and simple. Yet they had difficulty in apprehending some of these, and sometimes surprised their Master by their inability to understand ( Mark 7:16; Mark 8:17; Mark 9:32). But because of their simplicity they were very credible witnesses of what they had heard and seen. They had been men of homely circumstances, and their unique experiences as the disciples of Christ made a deep impression upon them, especially with regard to the hopeless sense of loss when He was put to death, and to the amazing recovery of joy when their own senses convinced them that He had risen again. They were thus well qualified to convince others. They evidently had not the wit to invent an elaborate story, or to retain it when it had been elaborated, and therefore what they stated with such confidence was likely to be true. They were chosen to keep alive and extend the knowledge of events that were of the utmost importance to mankind-the knowledge that Jesus Christ had died on the cross, and had risen from the grave. That He had died and been buried was undisputed and indisputable; and all of them could testify that they had repeatedly seen Him alive after His burial. This was the primary function of an apostle-to bear witness of Christ’s [[Resurrection]] ( Acts 1:22; Acts 4:2; Acts 4:33), and the influence of the testimony was enormous. The apostles did not argue; they simply stated what they knew. Everyone who heard them felt that they were men who had an intense belief in the truth of what they stated. There is no trace in either Acts or the Epistles of hesitation or doubt as to the certainty of their knowledge; they knew that their witness was true ( John 21:24, 1 John 1:1-3). And the confidence with which they delivered their testimony was communicated to those who heard it all the more effectually because, without any sign of collusion or conspiracy, they all told the same story. They differed in age, temperament, and ability, but they did not differ when they spoke of what they had seen and heard. Nay, this still held good when one whom they had at first regarded with fear and suspicion ( Acts 9:26) was added to their company. [[Greatly]] as Saul of [[Tarsus]] differed from the Twelve in some things, he was entirely at one with them respecting fundamental facts. He, like them, had seen and heard the risen Christ ( 1 Corinthians 9:1; 1 Corinthians 15:8; 1 Corinthians 15:11; Latham, <i> pastor Pastorum </i> , 1890, pp. 228-230). </p> <p> It was probably owing to St. Paul’s persistent claim to be an apostle, equal in rank with the Twelve ( Galatians 1:1, 1 Corinthians 9:1), that it became customary from very early times to restrict the appellation of ‘apostle’ to the Twelve and the [[Apostle]] of the Gentiles; but there is no such restriction in the NT. It is certainly given to Barnabas, but perhaps primarily as being an envoy from the Church of Antioch ( Acts 13:1-2; Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14), rather than as having a direct mission from Christ. St. Paul seems to speak of him as a colleague, recognized by Peter and John as equal to himself in the mission to the [[Gentiles]] ( Galatians 2:9), and as one who, like himself, used the apostolic privilege of working for nothing, although he had a right to maintenance ( 1 Corinthians 9:6). We need not doubt that Barnabas continued to be called an apostle in a general sense after the mission from Antioch was over. </p> <p> Perhaps the simplest and most natural way of understanding Galatians 1:19 is that James, the Lord’s brother, had the title of ‘apostle’ in the wider sense. It may be regarded as certain that this James was not one of the Twelve. But 1 Corinthians 15:7 ought not to be quoted as implying either that there was a company of apostles larger than the Twelve or that James was a member of this larger company. ‘Next he appeared to James; then to the whole body of the apostles.’ There is no emphasis on ‘all,’ implying an antithesis between ‘to one, then to all.’ Such an antithesis, as well as the idea that James was in some sense an apostle, is foreign to the context. The ‘all’ probably looks back to ‘the twelve’ in 1 Corinthians 15:10, which is an official and not a numerical designation, for only ten were there, [[Thomas]] and [[Judas]] being absent. ‘Then to all the apostles’ probably means that on that occasion the apostolic company was complete (for Thomas was present) rather than that some were there who were called apostles although they were not of the original Twelve. It is highly probable that James, the Lord’s brother, was such a person, but 1 Corinthians 15:7 ought not to be quoted as evidence of this. It is after the murder of James the son of [[Zebedee]] that James the Lord’s brother comes on the scene. He may have taken the place of his namesake in the number of the Twelve. </p> <p> That [[Silvanus]] and Timothy were regarded as apostles in the wider sense is not improbable. In both 1 and 2 Thess. they are associated with St. Paul in the address, and in both letters the first person plural is used with a regularity which is not found in any other group of the [[Pauline]] Epistles: ‘our gospel,’ <i> i.e. </i> ‘the gospel which we apostles preach,’ is specially remarkable ( 1 Thessalonians 1:5, 2 Thessalonians 2:14). Still more remarkable is the casual addition, ‘when we might have been burdensome as apostles of Christ’ ( 1 Thessalonians 2:6). </p> <p> Romans 16:7 probably means that [[Andronicus]] and [[Junias]] were distinguished as apostles; but there are two elements of doubt: ἐπίσημοι ἐν τοῖς ἀποστόλοις might mean ‘well known to the apostles,’ but it more probably means that among the apostles they were illustrious persons; and Ἰουνίαν may be masc. or fem., <i> Junias </i> or <i> [[Junia]] </i> , If <i> Junia </i> is right, the probability that Andronicus and Junia (? man and wife) were distinguished members of the apostolic body is lessened. But Chrysostom does not shrink from the thought that a woman may be an apostle. He says that to be an apostle at all is a great thing, and therefore to be illustrious amongst such persons is very high praise; and ‘how great is the devotion of this woman, that she should be even counted worthy of the appellation of apostle!’ (Sanday-Headlam, <i> ad loc. </i> ). </p> <p> The fact that there were people who claimed, without any right, the title of ‘apostle’ ( 2 Corinthians 11:13, Revelation 2:2) amounts to proof that in the Apostolic Church there were ‘apostles’ outside the Twelve with the addition of St. Paul. It is incredible that there were people who claimed to belong to a body so well known us the Twelve, or any who tried to personate St. Paul; and ‘it would be unprofitable to waste words on the strange theory that St. Paul is meant by these false apostles’ (Hort, <i> Judaistic [[Christianity]] </i> , 1894, p. 163). Very soon, though not in the NT, the title of ‘apostle’ was given to the Seventy. It is not likely that [[Joseph]] [[Barsabbas]] and [[Matthias]] were the only persons among the 120 gathered together after the Ascension ( Acts 1:15) who had the apostolic qualification of having seen the Lord; probably most of them had been His personal disciples. All of those who took to missionary work would be likely to be styled ‘apostles’; and it is not impossible that the ‘false apostles’ who opposed St. Paul had this qualification, and therefore claimed to have a better right to the title than he had. </p> <p> The cumulative effect of the facts and probabilities stated above is very strong-so strong that we are justified in affirming that in the NT there are persons other than the Twelve and St. Paul who were called apostles, and in conjecturing that they were rather numerous. All who seemed to be called by Christ or the Spirit to do missionary work would be thought worthy of the title, especially such as had been in personal contact with the Master. When it is said that this reasonable affirmation, based entirely upon Scripture, is confirmed by the account in the <i> [[Didache]] </i> of an order of wandering preachers who were called ‘apostles,’ we must be careful not to exaggerate the amount of confirmation. There is no proof, and there is not a very high degree of probability, that the ‘apostles’ of the <i> Didache </i> are the same kind of ministers as those who are called ‘apostles’ in the NT, although not of the number of the Twelve. We must not infer that they are the lineal descendants, officially, of workers such as Silvanus, Andronicus, and Junias. But the fact that in the sub-Apostolic Age there were itinerant ministers called ‘apostles’ does give confirmation to the assertion that in the NT there were, outside the apostolic body, ministers who were known as ‘apostles.’ Chief among these were Paul, Barnabas, and James, of whom Paul certainly, and the other two probably, were regarded by most [[Christians]] as equal to the Twelve. Like the Twelve, Paul and Barnabas had no local ties: they retained a general authority over the churches which they founded, but they did not take up their abode in them as permanent rulers. They trained the churches to govern themselves. The Twelve are to be twelve [[Patriarchs]] of the larger Israel, twelve repetitions of Christ (Harnack, <i> [[Expansion]] of Christianity </i> , Eng. translation, 1904-5, i. 72), and at first they were the whole ministry of the infant Church. The first act of the infant Church was to restore the typical number twelve by the election of Matthias; and it is worthy of note, as indicating both the undeveloped condition of the ministry and also the germs of future developments, that in Acts all three terms, ‘diaconate’ ( Acts 1:17; Acts 1:25), ‘bishopric’ ( Acts 1:20), and ‘apostleship’ ( Acts 1:25), are used in connexion with the election of Matthias. There is no good ground for the conjecture that the choice of Matthias did not receive subsequent sanction, that he was set aside, and that St. Paul was Divinely appointed to take his place. It is true that he subsequently falls into the background and is lost from sight; but so do most of the Twelve. </p> <p> The absence from Christ’s teaching of any statement respecting the priesthood of the Twelve, or respecting the transmission of the powers of the Twelve to others, is remarkable. As the primary function of the Twelve was to be witnesses of what Christ had taught and done, especially in rising from the dead, no transmission of so exceptional an office was possible. Even with regard to the high authority which all apostles possessed, it is not clear that it was a jurisdiction which was to be passed on from generation to generation. Belief in the speedy return of Christ would prevent any such intention. The apostles wore commissioned to found a living Church, with power to supply itself with ministers and to organize them. </p> <p> Literature.-In addition to the works already cited, see | <p> The term ‘Apostle’ (Gr. ἀπόστολος) is more definite than ‘messenger’ (Gr. ἄγγελος) in that the apostle has a special mission, and is the commissioner of the person who sends him. This distinction holds good both in classical and in biblical Greek. There is no good reason for doubting that the title ‘apostle’ was given to the Twelve by Christ Himself [ Luke 6:13 = Mark 3:14, where ‘whom he also named apostles’ is strongly attested). That the title was used in the first instance simply in reference to the temporary mission of the Twelve to prepare for Christ’s own preaching is a conjecture which receives some support from the fact that, in the [[Apostolic]] Church. [[Barnabas]] and Paul are first called ‘apostles’ ( Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14) when they are acting as envoys of the Church in [[Antioch]] in St. Paul’s first missionary journey. On this hypothesis, the temporary apostleship, though not identical with the permanent office, was typical of it and preparatory to it (Hort, <i> The [[Christian]] [[Ecclesia]] </i> , 1897, p. 28f.). </p> <p> There is fundamental agreement between the work of the apostles during Christ’s ministry and their work after the Ascension: their functions undergo no radical change. But the changes are considerable. Christ chose them in the first instance ( Mark 3:14) ‘that they might be with him,’ to be educated and trained, ‘and that he might send them forth to preach’ and do works of mercy Instruction is the main thing, and ‘disciples’ is the usual designation; mission work is secondary and temporary. After the [[Ascension]] their mission work becomes primary and permanent. Apostle-ship is now the main thing; in Acts ‘apostles’ is the dominant appellation, and in the [[Epistles]] ‘disciples’ are not mentioned. Instead of being led and guided, the Twelve now become leaders and guides or rather, instead of having a visible Guide, they now have an invisible one-instead of Jeans, ‘the Spirit of Jesus’ ( Acts 16:7), who helps them to lead others. The guidance of the Spirit is the dominant idea in the Apostolic Church. Nevertheless, the other way of stating the change is true; they have become teachers rather than disciples. But the purpose is the same; their mission is unchanged. With enlarged experience, with powers greatly augmented at Pentecost, and with an enormously extended sphere of work, they have to make known the [[Kingdom]] of God. Cf. articleDisciple. </p> <p> This extension of sphere is one of the special marks of the transfigured apostleship. It is no longer restricted to ‘the lost sheep of the house of Israel,’ but is to embrace ‘all the nations’ throughout ‘all the world.’ The tentative mission to the inhabitants of [[Palestine]] at a peculiar crisis has become one which has no limitations of either space or time ( Matthew 28:19, Luke 24:47, Acts 1:8). But this universality of sphere was not the only or the most important characteristic of the new mission. The chief mark was the duty of bearing witness. The Twelve seem to have been selected originally because of their fitness for bearing witness. They were not specially qualified for grasping or expounding theological doctrines; nor were such qualifications greatly needed, for the doctrines which the [[Master]] taught them were few and simple. Yet they had difficulty in apprehending some of these, and sometimes surprised their Master by their inability to understand ( Mark 7:16; Mark 8:17; Mark 9:32). But because of their simplicity they were very credible witnesses of what they had heard and seen. They had been men of homely circumstances, and their unique experiences as the disciples of Christ made a deep impression upon them, especially with regard to the hopeless sense of loss when He was put to death, and to the amazing recovery of joy when their own senses convinced them that He had risen again. They were thus well qualified to convince others. They evidently had not the wit to invent an elaborate story, or to retain it when it had been elaborated, and therefore what they stated with such confidence was likely to be true. They were chosen to keep alive and extend the knowledge of events that were of the utmost importance to mankind-the knowledge that Jesus Christ had died on the cross, and had risen from the grave. That He had died and been buried was undisputed and indisputable; and all of them could testify that they had repeatedly seen Him alive after His burial. This was the primary function of an apostle-to bear witness of Christ’s [[Resurrection]] ( Acts 1:22; Acts 4:2; Acts 4:33), and the influence of the testimony was enormous. The apostles did not argue; they simply stated what they knew. Everyone who heard them felt that they were men who had an intense belief in the truth of what they stated. There is no trace in either Acts or the Epistles of hesitation or doubt as to the certainty of their knowledge; they knew that their witness was true ( John 21:24, 1 John 1:1-3). And the confidence with which they delivered their testimony was communicated to those who heard it all the more effectually because, without any sign of collusion or conspiracy, they all told the same story. They differed in age, temperament, and ability, but they did not differ when they spoke of what they had seen and heard. Nay, this still held good when one whom they had at first regarded with fear and suspicion ( Acts 9:26) was added to their company. [[Greatly]] as Saul of [[Tarsus]] differed from the Twelve in some things, he was entirely at one with them respecting fundamental facts. He, like them, had seen and heard the risen Christ ( 1 Corinthians 9:1; 1 Corinthians 15:8; 1 Corinthians 15:11; Latham, <i> pastor Pastorum </i> , 1890, pp. 228-230). </p> <p> It was probably owing to St. Paul’s persistent claim to be an apostle, equal in rank with the Twelve ( Galatians 1:1, 1 Corinthians 9:1), that it became customary from very early times to restrict the appellation of ‘apostle’ to the Twelve and the [[Apostle]] of the Gentiles; but there is no such restriction in the NT. It is certainly given to Barnabas, but perhaps primarily as being an envoy from the Church of Antioch ( Acts 13:1-2; Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14), rather than as having a direct mission from Christ. St. Paul seems to speak of him as a colleague, recognized by Peter and John as equal to himself in the mission to the [[Gentiles]] ( Galatians 2:9), and as one who, like himself, used the apostolic privilege of working for nothing, although he had a right to maintenance ( 1 Corinthians 9:6). We need not doubt that Barnabas continued to be called an apostle in a general sense after the mission from Antioch was over. </p> <p> Perhaps the simplest and most natural way of understanding Galatians 1:19 is that James, the Lord’s brother, had the title of ‘apostle’ in the wider sense. It may be regarded as certain that this James was not one of the Twelve. But 1 Corinthians 15:7 ought not to be quoted as implying either that there was a company of apostles larger than the Twelve or that James was a member of this larger company. ‘Next he appeared to James; then to the whole body of the apostles.’ There is no emphasis on ‘all,’ implying an antithesis between ‘to one, then to all.’ Such an antithesis, as well as the idea that James was in some sense an apostle, is foreign to the context. The ‘all’ probably looks back to ‘the twelve’ in 1 Corinthians 15:10, which is an official and not a numerical designation, for only ten were there, [[Thomas]] and [[Judas]] being absent. ‘Then to all the apostles’ probably means that on that occasion the apostolic company was complete (for Thomas was present) rather than that some were there who were called apostles although they were not of the original Twelve. It is highly probable that James, the Lord’s brother, was such a person, but 1 Corinthians 15:7 ought not to be quoted as evidence of this. It is after the murder of James the son of [[Zebedee]] that James the Lord’s brother comes on the scene. He may have taken the place of his namesake in the number of the Twelve. </p> <p> That [[Silvanus]] and Timothy were regarded as apostles in the wider sense is not improbable. In both 1 and 2 Thess. they are associated with St. Paul in the address, and in both letters the first person plural is used with a regularity which is not found in any other group of the [[Pauline]] Epistles: ‘our gospel,’ <i> i.e. </i> ‘the gospel which we apostles preach,’ is specially remarkable ( 1 Thessalonians 1:5, 2 Thessalonians 2:14). Still more remarkable is the casual addition, ‘when we might have been burdensome as apostles of Christ’ ( 1 Thessalonians 2:6). </p> <p> Romans 16:7 probably means that [[Andronicus]] and [[Junias]] were distinguished as apostles; but there are two elements of doubt: ἐπίσημοι ἐν τοῖς ἀποστόλοις might mean ‘well known to the apostles,’ but it more probably means that among the apostles they were illustrious persons; and Ἰουνίαν may be masc. or fem., <i> Junias </i> or <i> [[Junia]] </i> , If <i> Junia </i> is right, the probability that Andronicus and Junia (? man and wife) were distinguished members of the apostolic body is lessened. But Chrysostom does not shrink from the thought that a woman may be an apostle. He says that to be an apostle at all is a great thing, and therefore to be illustrious amongst such persons is very high praise; and ‘how great is the devotion of this woman, that she should be even counted worthy of the appellation of apostle!’ (Sanday-Headlam, <i> ad loc. </i> ). </p> <p> The fact that there were people who claimed, without any right, the title of ‘apostle’ ( 2 Corinthians 11:13, Revelation 2:2) amounts to proof that in the Apostolic Church there were ‘apostles’ outside the Twelve with the addition of St. Paul. It is incredible that there were people who claimed to belong to a body so well known us the Twelve, or any who tried to personate St. Paul; and ‘it would be unprofitable to waste words on the strange theory that St. Paul is meant by these false apostles’ (Hort, <i> Judaistic [[Christianity]] </i> , 1894, p. 163). Very soon, though not in the NT, the title of ‘apostle’ was given to the Seventy. It is not likely that [[Joseph]] [[Barsabbas]] and [[Matthias]] were the only persons among the 120 gathered together after the Ascension ( Acts 1:15) who had the apostolic qualification of having seen the Lord; probably most of them had been His personal disciples. All of those who took to missionary work would be likely to be styled ‘apostles’; and it is not impossible that the ‘false apostles’ who opposed St. Paul had this qualification, and therefore claimed to have a better right to the title than he had. </p> <p> The cumulative effect of the facts and probabilities stated above is very strong-so strong that we are justified in affirming that in the NT there are persons other than the Twelve and St. Paul who were called apostles, and in conjecturing that they were rather numerous. All who seemed to be called by Christ or the Spirit to do missionary work would be thought worthy of the title, especially such as had been in personal contact with the Master. When it is said that this reasonable affirmation, based entirely upon Scripture, is confirmed by the account in the <i> [[Didache]] </i> of an order of wandering preachers who were called ‘apostles,’ we must be careful not to exaggerate the amount of confirmation. There is no proof, and there is not a very high degree of probability, that the ‘apostles’ of the <i> Didache </i> are the same kind of ministers as those who are called ‘apostles’ in the NT, although not of the number of the Twelve. We must not infer that they are the lineal descendants, officially, of workers such as Silvanus, Andronicus, and Junias. But the fact that in the sub-Apostolic Age there were itinerant ministers called ‘apostles’ does give confirmation to the assertion that in the NT there were, outside the apostolic body, ministers who were known as ‘apostles.’ Chief among these were Paul, Barnabas, and James, of whom Paul certainly, and the other two probably, were regarded by most [[Christians]] as equal to the Twelve. Like the Twelve, Paul and Barnabas had no local ties: they retained a general authority over the churches which they founded, but they did not take up their abode in them as permanent rulers. They trained the churches to govern themselves. The Twelve are to be twelve [[Patriarchs]] of the larger Israel, twelve repetitions of Christ (Harnack, <i> [[Expansion]] of Christianity </i> , Eng. translation, 1904-5, i. 72), and at first they were the whole ministry of the infant Church. The first act of the infant Church was to restore the typical number twelve by the election of Matthias; and it is worthy of note, as indicating both the undeveloped condition of the ministry and also the germs of future developments, that in Acts all three terms, ‘diaconate’ ( Acts 1:17; Acts 1:25), ‘bishopric’ ( Acts 1:20), and ‘apostleship’ ( Acts 1:25), are used in connexion with the election of Matthias. There is no good ground for the conjecture that the choice of Matthias did not receive subsequent sanction, that he was set aside, and that St. Paul was Divinely appointed to take his place. It is true that he subsequently falls into the background and is lost from sight; but so do most of the Twelve. </p> <p> The absence from Christ’s teaching of any statement respecting the priesthood of the Twelve, or respecting the transmission of the powers of the Twelve to others, is remarkable. As the primary function of the Twelve was to be witnesses of what Christ had taught and done, especially in rising from the dead, no transmission of so exceptional an office was possible. Even with regard to the high authority which all apostles possessed, it is not clear that it was a jurisdiction which was to be passed on from generation to generation. Belief in the speedy return of Christ would prevent any such intention. The apostles wore commissioned to found a living Church, with power to supply itself with ministers and to organize them. </p> <p> Literature.-In addition to the works already cited, see J. B. Lightfoot, <i> Galatians </i> , ed. 1892, pp. 92-101; E. Haupt, <i> Zum Verständnis des Apostolats im NT </i> , Halle, 1896; H. Monnier, <i> La Notion de l’apostolat </i> , Paris, 1903; P. Batiffol, <i> L’Église naissante </i> 3, do. 1909, pp. 46-68; also article‘Apostle,’ in <i> Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible (5 vols) </i> , <i> Dict. of Christ and the [[Gospels]] </i> <i> , Encyclopaedia Biblica </i> , and <i> Encyclopaedia Britannica </i> 11. </p> <p> Alfred Plummer. </p> | ||
== Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_80083" /> == | == Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_80083" /> == | ||
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== Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_17626" /> == | == Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_17626" /> == | ||
<p> (Gk. <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος]). Envoy, ambassador, or messenger commissioned to carry out the instructions of the commissioning aget. </p> <p> <i> Etymology and Usage of the Term </i> Pre-Christian use of <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] in the sense of messenger is rare. More common is the verb <i> apostello, </i> referring to the sending of a fleet or an embassy. Only in [[Herodotus]] (1.21; 5.38) is it used of a personal envoy. [[Josephus]] employs it once <i> (Antiquities </i> 17.11.1) in the classical sense of an embassy. [[Epictetus]] <i> (Discourse </i> 3.22) speaks of the ideal Cynic teacher as one "sent by Zeus" to be a messenger of the gods and an "overseer" of human affairs. </p> <p> The [[Septuagint]] uses <i> apostello </i> [Ἐμπέμπω Ἀποστέλλω] or <i> exapostello </i> [Ἐξαποστέλλω] some seven hundred times to translate the Hebrew <i> salah </i> [שָׁלַח] ("stretch out, " "send"). More than the act of sending, this word includes the idea of the authorization of a messenger. The noun <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] is found only in 1 Kings 14:6 , where the commissioning and empowering of the prophet are clearly in mind. Thus, the Septuagint uses the <i> apostello </i> [Ἐμπέμπω Ἀποστέλλω] word-group to denote the authorization of an individual to fulfill a particular function, with emphasis on the one who sends, not on the one who is sent. </p> <p> The noun <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] appears seventy-nine times in the New [[Testament]] (ten in the Gospels; twenty-eight in Acts; thirty-eight in the Epistles; and three in Revelation). The vast majority of these occurrences are found in Luke-Acts (thirty-four) and in the Pauline epistles (thirty-four), and refer to those appointed by Christ for a special function in the church. Their unique place is based not only on having witnessed the resurrection, but also on having been commissioned and empowered by the resurrected Lord to proclaim the gospel to all nations. </p> <p> In the New Testament <i> apostolos </i> [ Hebrews 3:1 ), to those sent by God to preach to [[Israel]] ( Luke 11:49 ), to those sent by churches (2Col 8:23; Philippians 2:25 ), and most often, to the individuals who had been appointed by Christ to preach the gospel of the kingdom. This latter category, however, is understood differently by New Testament writers. For example, Luke-Acts uses the term "apostle" to refer almost exclusively to the Twelve, while Paul uses it in relation to a broader group of individuals. The expression "all the apostles" in 1 Corinthians 15:7 seems to include more than the twelve referred to in verse 5. James is considered here, and in Galatians 1:19 , to be an apostle. Barnabas is referred to as an apostle in Acts 14:14 (11:22-24; 13:1-4). Paul calls Andronicus and Junias apostles in Romans 16:7 . In this broader sense, an apostle was a witness to the resurrection of Christ, sent by him to make disciples of all nations. </p> <p> <i> Christ the Apostle </i> Although there is only one explicit reference to Jesus as an apostle ( Hebrews 3:1 ), implicit references to his having been "sent" by the Father are found throughout the New Testament. Nowhere is this more pronounced than in the Gospel of John, where Christ's entire ministry is qualified by the term <i> apostello </i> [3:17,34; 5:36-38; 6:29,57; 10:36; 17:3,8, 18,21, 23; 20:21), Jesus in turn "sends out" his disciples (4:38; 17:18) to continue and extend his mission. Thus, all apostleship finds its meaning in Jesus the Apostle, sent by God to be the [[Savior]] of the world ( 1 John 4:14 ). </p> <p> <i> The Twelve </i> Jesus had a large number of disciples during his ministry, but not all of them were apostles. The Twelve were chosen out of a wider group both to be with Jesus as disciples and to be sent out to preach and teach as apostles. There are four lists of the Twelve in the New Testament, one in each of the three Synoptic Gospels ( Matthew 10:1-4; Mark 3:13-19; Luke 6:12-16 ) and one in Acts (1:13). These lists are roughly the same, representing four variant forms of a single early oral tradition. </p> <p> Matthew and Mark identify the Twelve as apostles only once, and in each case, in the context of a missionary journey ( Matthew 10:2; Mark 6:30 ). Here the word designates function rather than status. Luke, however, frequently and almost exclusively calls the Twelve "apostles" (6:13; 9:10; 17:5; 22:14; 24:10; Acts 1:26; 2:43; 4:35,36 , 37; 5:2,12 , 18; 8:1 ). Except for Luke 11:49 and Acts 14:14 , Luke applies <i> apostolos </i> [ Matthew 28:19-20; Mark 16:15-18; Luke 24:48-49; John 20:21-23; Acts 1:8 ). Thus, the essential qualification of an apostle is being called and sent by Christ. In the case of Matthias, additional qualifications come to light. In addition to the divine call, the person must have been a disciple of Jesus from John's baptism to the ascension, and specifically a witness of the resurrection ( Acts 1:21-22 ). </p> <p> Jesus' choice of twelve disciples to form an inner circle of followers served to symbolize the truth that he had come to build a new house of Israel. The Twelve formed the nucleus of this new people of God, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel, and signifying God's saving activity at work in Jesus and his followers. Their number implies that they were destined primarily to work among the children of Israel. Although not confined to the Jews, the mission of the Twelve had special relation to the twelve tribes of Israel, as emphasized in the promise of Matthew 19:28 . </p> <p> <i> Paul the Apostle </i> Since Paul had not accompanied Jesus during his earthly ministry, he did not meet the apostolic criteria of Acts 1:21-22 . It is clear, however, that he considered himself to be an apostle. Even though the only place in the Book of Acts where Paul is called an apostle is in reference to the apostles of the church in Antioch (14:4,14), Luke's portrayal of Paul's ministry as paradigmatic for the church gives implicit support to his apostolic claims. Not only does Acts depict Paul as manifesting the signs of an apostle, but in its three accounts of the [[Damascus]] [[Road]] encounter, his apostolic task is presented as the direct action of the risen Christ (9:3-5; 22:6-8; 26:12-18; cf. 2 Corinthians 4:6; Galatians 1:16 ). </p> <p> Paul's own claim to apostleship is likewise based on the divine call of Christ ( Romans 1:1; 1Col 1:1; Galatians 1:1,15; cf. 2Col 1:1; Ephesians 1:1; Colossians 1:1; 1 Timothy 1:1; 2 Timothy 1:1; Titus 1:1 ). He is an apostle, "not from men nor by man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised him from the dead" ( Galatians 1:1 ). His encounter with the resurrected Jesus served as the basis for his unique claim to be an "apostle to the Gentiles" ( Romans 11:13 ). Paul bases his apostleship on the grace of God, not on ecstatic gifts or the signs of an apostle ( 2 Corinthians 12 ). His apostolic commission is to serve God primarily through preaching the gospel ( Romans 1:9; 15:19; 1Col 1:17). </p> <p> Paul uses the word "apostle" in more than one sense. At times he employs the term in the broader sense of messenger or aget (2Col 8:23; Philippians 2:25 ). More often, however, Paul uses the term to refer to those who had been commissioned by the risen Lord to the apostolic task. Included in this category are the Twelve (although he never explicitly applies the title of apostle to them as a group), Peter ( Galatians 1:18 ), Paul himself ( Romans 1:1; 1Col 1:1; 9:1-2; 15:8-10; Galatians 2:7-8 ), James the brother of Jesus ( Galatians 1:19; cf. Acts 15:13 ), Barnabas (1Col 9:1-6; Galatians 2:9; cf. Acts 14:4,14 ), and possibly others ( Romans 16:7 ). In addition to understanding apostleship in terms of its basis in a divine call, Paul views the life of an apostle as being one of self-sacrificial service that entails suffering (1Col 4:9-13; 15:30-32; 2Col 4:7-12; 11:23-29). </p> <p> <i> Apostles and the Spirit </i> The primary function of the apostles was to witness to Christ. The Twelve had intimate knowledge of his life, and a wider group had been witnesses to his resurrection. Their commissioning by the risen Lord to worldwide witness ( Acts 1:8 ), however, was incomplete without the anointing of the Spirit. Only after [[Pentecost]] were they empowered by the Spirit for their ministry of word and deed. Their witness to Christ was not only empowered, but also guided and validated by the Spirit ( John 14:26 ). Thus, their full apostolic vocation was realized only in the Spirit ( John 14-17 ). Paul viewed apostleship as a gift of the Spirit ( 1 Corinthians 12:28 ), which was often accompanied by miraculous signs and mighty works ( 2 Corinthians 12:12 ). Such signs and wonders, however, were clearly secondary to the apostolic functions of preaching and teaching. </p> <p> <i> Apostolic [[Authority]] </i> Having direct knowledge of the incarnate Word, and being sent out as authorized agets of the gospel, the apostles provided the authentic interpretation of the life and teaching of Jesus. Because their witness to Christ was guided by the Spirit ( John 15:26-27 ), the apostles' teaching was considered normative for the church. They were regarded as the "pillars" ( Galatians 2:9 ) and "foundation" ( Ephesians 2:20; cf. Revelation 21:14 ) of the church, and their teaching became the norm for Christian faith and practice. The deposit of revelation transmitted by the apostles and preserved in its written form in the New Testament thus forms the basis of postapostolic preaching and teaching in the church. </p> <p> It is evident that the apostles formed the nucleus of primitive Christianity. The New Testament highlights their function as apostles, without delineating in detail the authoritative nature of their office in relation to the church. What is emphasized is that their apostolic commission authorized them to preach ( 1 Corinthians 1:17 ); to be ambassadors for Christ (2Col 5:20; Ephesians 6:20 ); to be witnesses to all nations ( Luke 24:48 ); and to make disciples of all peoples ( Matthew 28:19 ). </p> <p> R. David Rightmire </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . F. Agnew, <i> JBL </i> 105 (1986): 75-96; | <p> (Gk. <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος]). Envoy, ambassador, or messenger commissioned to carry out the instructions of the commissioning aget. </p> <p> <i> Etymology and Usage of the Term </i> Pre-Christian use of <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] in the sense of messenger is rare. More common is the verb <i> apostello, </i> referring to the sending of a fleet or an embassy. Only in [[Herodotus]] (1.21; 5.38) is it used of a personal envoy. [[Josephus]] employs it once <i> (Antiquities </i> 17.11.1) in the classical sense of an embassy. [[Epictetus]] <i> (Discourse </i> 3.22) speaks of the ideal Cynic teacher as one "sent by Zeus" to be a messenger of the gods and an "overseer" of human affairs. </p> <p> The [[Septuagint]] uses <i> apostello </i> [Ἐμπέμπω Ἀποστέλλω] or <i> exapostello </i> [Ἐξαποστέλλω] some seven hundred times to translate the Hebrew <i> salah </i> [שָׁלַח] ("stretch out, " "send"). More than the act of sending, this word includes the idea of the authorization of a messenger. The noun <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] is found only in 1 Kings 14:6 , where the commissioning and empowering of the prophet are clearly in mind. Thus, the Septuagint uses the <i> apostello </i> [Ἐμπέμπω Ἀποστέλλω] word-group to denote the authorization of an individual to fulfill a particular function, with emphasis on the one who sends, not on the one who is sent. </p> <p> The noun <i> apostolos </i> [Ἀπόστολος] appears seventy-nine times in the New [[Testament]] (ten in the Gospels; twenty-eight in Acts; thirty-eight in the Epistles; and three in Revelation). The vast majority of these occurrences are found in Luke-Acts (thirty-four) and in the Pauline epistles (thirty-four), and refer to those appointed by Christ for a special function in the church. Their unique place is based not only on having witnessed the resurrection, but also on having been commissioned and empowered by the resurrected Lord to proclaim the gospel to all nations. </p> <p> In the New Testament <i> apostolos </i> [ Hebrews 3:1 ), to those sent by God to preach to [[Israel]] ( Luke 11:49 ), to those sent by churches (2Col 8:23; Philippians 2:25 ), and most often, to the individuals who had been appointed by Christ to preach the gospel of the kingdom. This latter category, however, is understood differently by New Testament writers. For example, Luke-Acts uses the term "apostle" to refer almost exclusively to the Twelve, while Paul uses it in relation to a broader group of individuals. The expression "all the apostles" in 1 Corinthians 15:7 seems to include more than the twelve referred to in verse 5. James is considered here, and in Galatians 1:19 , to be an apostle. Barnabas is referred to as an apostle in Acts 14:14 (11:22-24; 13:1-4). Paul calls Andronicus and Junias apostles in Romans 16:7 . In this broader sense, an apostle was a witness to the resurrection of Christ, sent by him to make disciples of all nations. </p> <p> <i> Christ the Apostle </i> Although there is only one explicit reference to Jesus as an apostle ( Hebrews 3:1 ), implicit references to his having been "sent" by the Father are found throughout the New Testament. Nowhere is this more pronounced than in the Gospel of John, where Christ's entire ministry is qualified by the term <i> apostello </i> [3:17,34; 5:36-38; 6:29,57; 10:36; 17:3,8, 18,21, 23; 20:21), Jesus in turn "sends out" his disciples (4:38; 17:18) to continue and extend his mission. Thus, all apostleship finds its meaning in Jesus the Apostle, sent by God to be the [[Savior]] of the world ( 1 John 4:14 ). </p> <p> <i> The Twelve </i> Jesus had a large number of disciples during his ministry, but not all of them were apostles. The Twelve were chosen out of a wider group both to be with Jesus as disciples and to be sent out to preach and teach as apostles. There are four lists of the Twelve in the New Testament, one in each of the three Synoptic Gospels ( Matthew 10:1-4; Mark 3:13-19; Luke 6:12-16 ) and one in Acts (1:13). These lists are roughly the same, representing four variant forms of a single early oral tradition. </p> <p> Matthew and Mark identify the Twelve as apostles only once, and in each case, in the context of a missionary journey ( Matthew 10:2; Mark 6:30 ). Here the word designates function rather than status. Luke, however, frequently and almost exclusively calls the Twelve "apostles" (6:13; 9:10; 17:5; 22:14; 24:10; Acts 1:26; 2:43; 4:35,36 , 37; 5:2,12 , 18; 8:1 ). Except for Luke 11:49 and Acts 14:14 , Luke applies <i> apostolos </i> [ Matthew 28:19-20; Mark 16:15-18; Luke 24:48-49; John 20:21-23; Acts 1:8 ). Thus, the essential qualification of an apostle is being called and sent by Christ. In the case of Matthias, additional qualifications come to light. In addition to the divine call, the person must have been a disciple of Jesus from John's baptism to the ascension, and specifically a witness of the resurrection ( Acts 1:21-22 ). </p> <p> Jesus' choice of twelve disciples to form an inner circle of followers served to symbolize the truth that he had come to build a new house of Israel. The Twelve formed the nucleus of this new people of God, corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel, and signifying God's saving activity at work in Jesus and his followers. Their number implies that they were destined primarily to work among the children of Israel. Although not confined to the Jews, the mission of the Twelve had special relation to the twelve tribes of Israel, as emphasized in the promise of Matthew 19:28 . </p> <p> <i> Paul the Apostle </i> Since Paul had not accompanied Jesus during his earthly ministry, he did not meet the apostolic criteria of Acts 1:21-22 . It is clear, however, that he considered himself to be an apostle. Even though the only place in the Book of Acts where Paul is called an apostle is in reference to the apostles of the church in Antioch (14:4,14), Luke's portrayal of Paul's ministry as paradigmatic for the church gives implicit support to his apostolic claims. Not only does Acts depict Paul as manifesting the signs of an apostle, but in its three accounts of the [[Damascus]] [[Road]] encounter, his apostolic task is presented as the direct action of the risen Christ (9:3-5; 22:6-8; 26:12-18; cf. 2 Corinthians 4:6; Galatians 1:16 ). </p> <p> Paul's own claim to apostleship is likewise based on the divine call of Christ ( Romans 1:1; 1Col 1:1; Galatians 1:1,15; cf. 2Col 1:1; Ephesians 1:1; Colossians 1:1; 1 Timothy 1:1; 2 Timothy 1:1; Titus 1:1 ). He is an apostle, "not from men nor by man, but by Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised him from the dead" ( Galatians 1:1 ). His encounter with the resurrected Jesus served as the basis for his unique claim to be an "apostle to the Gentiles" ( Romans 11:13 ). Paul bases his apostleship on the grace of God, not on ecstatic gifts or the signs of an apostle ( 2 Corinthians 12 ). His apostolic commission is to serve God primarily through preaching the gospel ( Romans 1:9; 15:19; 1Col 1:17). </p> <p> Paul uses the word "apostle" in more than one sense. At times he employs the term in the broader sense of messenger or aget (2Col 8:23; Philippians 2:25 ). More often, however, Paul uses the term to refer to those who had been commissioned by the risen Lord to the apostolic task. Included in this category are the Twelve (although he never explicitly applies the title of apostle to them as a group), Peter ( Galatians 1:18 ), Paul himself ( Romans 1:1; 1Col 1:1; 9:1-2; 15:8-10; Galatians 2:7-8 ), James the brother of Jesus ( Galatians 1:19; cf. Acts 15:13 ), Barnabas (1Col 9:1-6; Galatians 2:9; cf. Acts 14:4,14 ), and possibly others ( Romans 16:7 ). In addition to understanding apostleship in terms of its basis in a divine call, Paul views the life of an apostle as being one of self-sacrificial service that entails suffering (1Col 4:9-13; 15:30-32; 2Col 4:7-12; 11:23-29). </p> <p> <i> Apostles and the Spirit </i> The primary function of the apostles was to witness to Christ. The Twelve had intimate knowledge of his life, and a wider group had been witnesses to his resurrection. Their commissioning by the risen Lord to worldwide witness ( Acts 1:8 ), however, was incomplete without the anointing of the Spirit. Only after [[Pentecost]] were they empowered by the Spirit for their ministry of word and deed. Their witness to Christ was not only empowered, but also guided and validated by the Spirit ( John 14:26 ). Thus, their full apostolic vocation was realized only in the Spirit ( John 14-17 ). Paul viewed apostleship as a gift of the Spirit ( 1 Corinthians 12:28 ), which was often accompanied by miraculous signs and mighty works ( 2 Corinthians 12:12 ). Such signs and wonders, however, were clearly secondary to the apostolic functions of preaching and teaching. </p> <p> <i> Apostolic [[Authority]] </i> Having direct knowledge of the incarnate Word, and being sent out as authorized agets of the gospel, the apostles provided the authentic interpretation of the life and teaching of Jesus. Because their witness to Christ was guided by the Spirit ( John 15:26-27 ), the apostles' teaching was considered normative for the church. They were regarded as the "pillars" ( Galatians 2:9 ) and "foundation" ( Ephesians 2:20; cf. Revelation 21:14 ) of the church, and their teaching became the norm for Christian faith and practice. The deposit of revelation transmitted by the apostles and preserved in its written form in the New Testament thus forms the basis of postapostolic preaching and teaching in the church. </p> <p> It is evident that the apostles formed the nucleus of primitive Christianity. The New Testament highlights their function as apostles, without delineating in detail the authoritative nature of their office in relation to the church. What is emphasized is that their apostolic commission authorized them to preach ( 1 Corinthians 1:17 ); to be ambassadors for Christ (2Col 5:20; Ephesians 6:20 ); to be witnesses to all nations ( Luke 24:48 ); and to make disciples of all peoples ( Matthew 28:19 ). </p> <p> R. David Rightmire </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . F. Agnew, <i> JBL </i> 105 (1986): 75-96; C. K. Barrett, <i> [[Signs]] of an Apostle </i> ; W. Baur, <i> New Testament [[Apocrypha]] </i> 2 (1965): 35-74; O. Cullmann, <i> Early Church </i> ; E. J. Goodspeed, <i> The Twelve </i> ; L. Goppelt, <i> Apostolic and Post-Apostolic Times </i> ; J. B. Lightfoot, <i> Galatians, </i> pp. 92-101; H. Mosbech, <i> ST </i> 2 (1948): 166-200; D. Mller, <i> NIDNTT, </i> 1:126-33; J. Munck, <i> ST </i> 3 (1949): 96-100; K. Rengstorf, <i> TDNT, </i> 1:398-447; W. Schneemelcher, <i> New Testament Apocrypha </i> 2 (1965): 25-34; R. Schnackenburg, <i> Apostolic History and the Gospel, </i> pp. 287-303. </p> | ||
== Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18395" /> == | == Bridgeway Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_18395" /> == | ||
| Line 39: | Line 39: | ||
== Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary <ref name="term_47486" /> == | == Hawker's Poor Man's Concordance And Dictionary <ref name="term_47486" /> == | ||
<p> This is a word well known in the New Testament, It is peculiarly applied to the twelve men, whom the Lord Jesus called and commissioned to be his more immediate disciples and followers, to preach the gospel. But Christ himself condescended to be called by the same name. ( Hebrews 3:1.) Indeed, he was the apostle of | <p> This is a word well known in the New Testament, It is peculiarly applied to the twelve men, whom the Lord Jesus called and commissioned to be his more immediate disciples and followers, to preach the gospel. But Christ himself condescended to be called by the same name. ( Hebrews 3:1.) Indeed, he was the apostle of [[Jehovah]] As it may be gratifying to have their names brought into one </p> <p> 1Peter. </p> <p> 2Andrew. </p> <p> 3John. </p> <p> 4Philip. </p> <p> 5 James the Greater. </p> <p> 6 Bartholomew. </p> <p> 7 Thomas. </p> <p> 8 Matthew. </p> <p> 9 Simon the Canaanite. </p> <p> 10 Jude, the brother of James. </p> <p> 11James the Less. </p> <p> 12Judas the Traitor. </p> <p> Matthias was elected in the Traitor's room. </p> | ||
== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_20399" /> == | == Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_20399" /> == | ||
<p> ( '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' '','' from '''''Ἀποστέλλω''''' , ''To [[Send]] Forth).'' In Attic Greek the term is used to denote ''A Fleet'' or ''Naval Armament.'' It occurs only once in the Sept. ( 1 Kings 14:6), and there, as uniformly in the New Testament, it signifies ''A Person Sent By Another, A Messenger.'' It has been asserted that the Jews were accustomed to term the collector of the half shekel which every [[Israelite]] paid annually to the [[Temple]] an apostle; and we have better authority for asserting that they used the word to denote one who carried about encyclical letters from their rulers. OEcumenius states that it is even vet a custom among the Jews to call those who carry about circular letters from their rulers by the name of apostles. To this use of the term Paul has been supposed to refer ( Galatians 1:1) when he asserts that he was "an apostle, not of men, neither by men" '''''—''''' an apostle not like those known among the Jews by that name, who derived their authority and received their mission from the chief priests or principal men of their nation. The import of the word is strongly brought out in John 13:16, where it occurs along with its correlate, "The servant is not greater than his Lord, neither he ''Who Is Sent'' ( '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' ) greater than he who sent him." </p> <p> It is the opinion of Suicer (Thesaurus, art. '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' ) that the appellation "apostle" is in the N.T. employed as a general name for Christian ministers as ''"Sent'' by God," in a qualified use of that phrase, to preach the word. The word is indeed used in this loose sense by the fathers. Thus we find Archippus, Philemon, Apphia, the seventy disciples ( Luke 10:17), termed apostles; and even Mary [[Magdalene]] is said '''''Γενέσθαι''''' '''''Τοῖς''''' '''''Ἀποστόλοις''''' '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' , to become an apostle to the apostles. No evidence, however, can be brought forward of the term being thus used in the N.T. Andronicus and Junia ( Romans 16:7) are indeed said to be '''''Ἐπίσημοι''''' '''''Ἐν''''' '''''Τοῖς''''' '''''Ἀποστόλοις''''' , "of note among the apostles;" but these words by no means imply that they were apostles, but only that they were well known and esteemed by the apostles. The '''''Συνεργο''''' . . . the fellow- workers of the apostles, are by Chrysostom denominated '''''Συναπόστολοι''''' ''.'' The argument founded on 1 Corinthians 4:9, compared with 1 Corinthians 4:6, to prove that [[Apollos]] is termed an apostle, cannot bear examination. The only instance in which it seems probable that the word, as expressive of an office in the Christian Church, is applied to an individual whose call to that office is not made the subject of special narration, is to be found in Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14, where Barnabas, as well as Paul, is termed an apostle. At the same time, it is by no means absolutely certain that the term apostles, or messengers, does not in this place refer rather to the mission of Paul and Barnabas by the prophets and teachers at Antioch, under the impulse of the Holy Ghost ( Acts 13:1-4), than to that direct call to the Christian apostleship which we know Paul received, and which if Barnabas had received, we can scarcely persuade ourselves that no trace of so important an event should have been found in the sacred history but a passing hint, which admits, to say the least, of being plausibly accounted for in another way. '''''‘''''' We know that, on the occasion referred to, "the prophets and teachers, when they had fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on Barnabas and Saul, sent them away" ( '''''Ἀτέλυσαν''''' ); so that, in the sense in which we will immediately find the words occurring, they were '''''Ἀπόστολοι''''' '''''—''''' prophets and teachers (Vollhagen, ''De Apost. Ebr.'' Greifsw. 1704). </p> <p> In 2 Corinthians 8:23, we meet with the phrase '''''Ἀπόστολοι''''' '''''Ἐκκλησιῶν''''' , rendered in our version "the messengers of the churches." Who these were, and why they received this name, is obvious from the context. The churches of [[Macedonia]] had made a contribution for the relief of the saints of Judaea, and had not merely requested the apostle "to receive the gift, and take on him the fellowship of ministering to the saints," but at his suggestion had appointed some individuals to accompany him to Jerusalem with their alms. These "apostles or messengers of the churches" were those "who were chosen of the churches to travel with the apostle with this grace [gift], which was administered by him," to the glory of their common Lord ( 2 Corinthians 8:1-4; 2 Corinthians 8:19). With much the same meaning and reference [[Epaphroditus]] ( Philippians 2:25) is termed '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' '''''—''''' a messenger of the [[Philippian]] Church '''''—''''' having been employed by them to carry pecuniary assistance to the apostle ( Philippians 4:14-18). </p> <p> The word "apostle" occurs once in the New Testament ( Hebrews 3:1) as a descriptive designation of Jesus Christ: '''''‘''''' " The apostle of our profession," i.e. the apostle whom we profess or acknowledge. The Jews were in the habit of applying the term '''''שָׁלַיחִ''''' , from '''''שָׁלִח''''' , ''To Send,'' to the person who presided over the synagogue, and directed all its officers and affairs. The Church is represented as "the house or family of God," over which he had placed, during the Jewish economy, Moses as the superintendent-over which he has placed, under the Christian economy, Christ Jesus. The import of the term [[Apostle]] is divinely commissioned superintendent; and of the whole phrase, ''"The Apostle Of Our Profession,"'' the divinely commissioned superintendent whom WE Christians acknowledge, in contradistinction to the divinely appointed superintendent Moses, whom the Jews acknowledged. </p> <p> '''1.''' The term apostle, however, is generally employed in the New Testament as the descriptive appellation of a comparatively small class of men, to whom Jesus Christ intrusted the organization of his Church and the dissemination of his religion among mankind. At an early period of his ministry "he ordained twelve" of his disciples "that they should be with him." Their names were: </p> <p> '''1.''' Simon Peter (Cephas, Bar-jona); </p> <p> '''2.''' Andrew; </p> <p> '''3.''' John </p> <p> '''4.''' Philip; </p> <p> '''5.''' James the Elder; </p> <p> '''6.''' [[Nathanael]] (Bartholomew); </p> <p> '''7.''' Thomas (Didymus); </p> <p> '''8.''' Matthew (Levi); </p> <p> '''9.''' Simon Zelotes; </p> <p> '''10.''' Jude (Lebbaeus, Judas, Thaddaeus); </p> <p> '''11.''' James the Less; </p> <p> '''12.''' Judas Iscariot. </p> <p> (For their names according to Mohammedan traditions, see Thilo, Apocr. 1:152.) "These he named apostles." Some time afterward "he gave to them power against unclean spirits to cast them out, and to heal all manner of disease;" "and he sent them to preach the kingdom of God" ( Mark 3:14; Matthew 10:1-5; Mark 6:7; Luke 6:13; Luke 9:1). To them he gave "the keys of the kingdom of God," and constituted them princes over the spiritual Israel, that "people whom God was to take from among the Gentiles, for his name" ( Matthew 16:19; Matthew 18:18; Matthew 19:28; Luke 22:30). Previously to his death he promised to them the Holy Spirit, to fit them to be the founders and governors of the Christian Church ( John 14:16-17; John 14:26; John 15:26-27; John 16:7-15). After his resurrection he solemnly confirmed their call, saying, "As the Father hath sent me, so send I you;" and gave them a commission to "preach the gospel to every creature" ( John 20:21-23; Matthew 18:18-20). After his ascension he, on the day of Pentecost, communicated to them those supernatural gifts which were necessary to the performance of the high functions he had commissioned them to exercise; and in the exercise of these gifts they, in the Gospel history and in their epistles, with the Apocalypse, gave a complete view of the will of their Master in reference to that new order of things of which he was the author. They "had the mind of Christ." They spoke "the wisdom of God in a mystery." That mystery "God revealed to them by his Spirit," and they spoke it, "not in words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth." They were "ambassadors for Christ," and besought men, "in Christ's stead, to be reconciled to God." They authoritatively taught the doctrine and the law of their Lord; they organized churches, and required them to "keep the traditions," i.e. the doctrines and ordinances delivered to them" (Acts 2; 1 Corinthians 2:16; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 1 Corinthians 2:10; 1 Corinthians 2:13; 2 Corinthians 5:20; 1 Corinthians 11:2). Of the twelve originally ordained to the apostleship, one, Judas Iscariot, "fell from it by transgression," and Matthias, "who had companied" with the other apostles "all the time that the Lord Jesus went out and in among them," was by lot substituted in his place ( Acts 1:17-26). Saul of. Tarsus, afterward termed Paul, was also miraculously added to the number of these permanent rulers of the Christian society (Acts 9; Acts 20:4; Acts 26:15-18; 1 Timothy 1:12; 1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11). (See [[Disciples]]) ''(Twelve).'' </p> <p> '''2.''' The number [[Twelve]] was probably fixed upon after the analogy of the twelve tribes of the [[Israelites]] ( Matthew 19:28; Lightfoot, ''Hor. Heb.'' p. 323; comp. Tertull. c. Marcion. 4:415), and was so exact that the apostles are often termed simply "the Twelve" ( Matthew 26:14; Matthew 26:47; John 6:67; John 20:24; 1 Corinthians 15:5). Their general commission was to preach the gospel. (See generally Cave, ''Hist. Of The Apostles,'' Lond. 1677; Spanheim, ''De Apostolatu,'' in his ''Dissert. Hist. Quaternio,'' Lugd. B. 1679; Buddae ''Eccles. Apost.'' Jen. 1729; Burmann, ''Exercit. Acad.'' 2, 104 sq.; Hess, ''Gesch. U. Schrift. D. Apostel,'' Tir. 1821; Planck, ''Gesch. Des Christenth.'' Gott. 1818; Wilhelm, ''Christi Apostel,'' Heidelb. 1825; Capelli ''Histor. Apost. Illustr.'' Genev. 1634, Salmur. 1683, Frckf. 1691; Von Einem, ''Historia Christ. Et Apostol.'' Gott. 1758; Rullmann, ''De Apostolis,'' Rint. 1789; Stanley, ''Sermons On The Apostolic Age,'' Oxf. 1847, 1852; Renan, ''Les Apotres,'' Paris, 1866. ) They were uneducated persons (F. Lami, ''De Eruditione Apostolorum,'' Flor. 1738) taken from common life, mostly [[Galileans]] ( Matthew 11:25), and many of them had been disciples of John the [[Baptist]] ( John 1:35 sq.). Some of them appear to have been relatives of Jesus himself. (See [[Brother]]). Our Lord chose them early in his public career, though some of them had certainly partly attached themselves to him before; but after their call as apostles they appear to have been continuously with him or in his service. They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth; and the prelatical supremacy of Peter, founded by the Romish Church upon Matthew 16:18, is nowhere alluded to in the apostolical period. We find one indeed, Peter, from fervor of personal character, usually prominent among them, and distinguished by having the first place assigned him in founding the Jewish and Gentile churches, (See [[Peter]]); but we never find the slightest trace in Scripture of any superiority or primacy being in consequence accorded to him. We also find that he and two others, James and John, the sons of Zebedee, are admitted to the inner privacy of our Lord's acts and sufferings on several occasions ( Mark 5:37; Matthew 17:1 sq.; Matthew 26:37); but this is no proof of superiority in rank or office. Early in our Lord's ministry, he sent them out two and two to preach repentance, and perform miracles in his name (Matthew 10; Luke 9). This their mission was of the nature of a solemn call to the children of Israel, to whom it was confined ( Matthew 10:5-6). </p> <p> There is, however, in his charge to the apostles on this occasion not a word of their proclaiming his own mission as the [[Messiah]] of the Jewish people; their preaching was at this time strictly of a preparatory kind, resembling that of John the Baptist, the Lord's forerunner. Jesus early informed the apostles respecting the solemn nature, the hardships, and even positive danger of their vocation ( Matthew 10:17), but he never imparted to them any [[Esoteric]] instruction, nor even initiated them into any special mysteries; since the whole tendency of his teaching was practical; but they constantly accompanied him in his tours of preaching and to the festivals (being unhindered by their domestic relations, comp. Matthew 8:14; 1 Corinthians 9:5; see Euseb. ''Hist. Eccl.'' 3:30; Schmid, ''De Apostolis Uxoratis,'' Helmst. 1704, Viteb. 1734; comp. Deyling, ''Observ. 3,'' 469 sq.; Pfaff, ''De Circumductione Soror. Mulierum Apostolica,'' Tubing. 1751; Schulthess, ''Neueste.Theol. Nachricht.'' 1828, 1:130 sq.), beheld his wonderful acts, listened to his discourses addressed to the multitude ( Matthew 5:1 sq.; Matthew 23:1 sq.; Luke 4:13 sq.), or his discussions with learned Jews ( Matthew 19:13 sq.; Luke 10:25 sq.); occasionally (especially the favorite Peter, John, and James the elder) followed him in private ( Matthew 17:1 sq.), and conversed freely with him, eliciting information ( Matthew 15:15 sq.; Matthew 18:1 sq.; Luke 8:9 sq.; Luke 12:41; Luke 17:5; John 9:2 sq.) on religious subjects, sometimes with respect to the sayings of Jesus, sometimes in general ( Matthew 13:10 sq.), and were even on one occasion themselves incited to make attempts at the promulgation of the Gospel ( Matthew 6:7 sq.; Luke 9:6 sq.), and with this view performed cures ( Mark 6:13; Luke 9:6), although in this last they were not always successful ( Matthew 17:16). They had, indeed; already acknowledged him ( Matthew 16:16; Luke 9:20) as the Messiah ( '''''Ὁ''''' '''''Ξριστὸς''''' '''''Τοῦ''''' '''''Θεοῦ''''' ), endowed with miraculous powers ( Luke 9:54), yet they were slow in apprehending the spiritual doctrine and aim of their Master, being impeded by their weak perception and their national prepossessions ( Matthew 15:16; Matthew 16:22; Matthew 17:20 sq.; Luke 9:54; John 16:12), insomuch that they had to ask him concerning the obvious import of the plainest parables ( Luke 12:41 sq.), and, indeed, they themselves at times confessed their want of faith ( Luke 17:5); nor even at the departure of Jesus from the earth, when for two or three years they had been his constant and intimate companions ( Matthew 16:21), were they at all mature ( Luke 24:21; comp. John 16:12) in the knowledge appropriate to their mission (see Vollborth, ''De Discip. Christiper Gradus [[Ad]] Dignitatem Et Potent. Apostolor. Evectis,'' Gott. 1790; Bagge, ''De Sapientia [[Christi]] In Electione, Institutione Et Missione Apostolor.'' Jen. 1754; Ziez, ''Quomodo Notio De Messia In Animis Apost. Sensim Sensimque Claris Orem Acceperit Lucem,'' Lubec. 1793; Liebe, in Augustij ''N. Theol. Blatt.'' II, 1, 42 sq.; Ernesti, ''De Prceclara Chr. In Apost.'' instituendis sapientia, Gott. 1834; Neander, Leb. Jes. p. 229 sq.; comp. also Mahn, De via qua Apost. [[Jesu]] doctrinam divin. melius perspexerint, Gott. 1809). </p> <p> Even the inauguration with which they were privileged at the last supper with Jesus under so solemn circumstances ( Matthew 26:26 sq.; Mark 14:22 sq.; Luke 22:17 sq.) neither served to awaken their enthusiasm, nor indeed to preserve them from outright faithlessness at the death of their Master ( Matthew 16:14 sq.; Luke 24:13 sq., Luke 24:36 sq.; John 20:9; John 20:25 sq.). One who was but a distant follower of Jesus and a number of females charged themselves with the interment of his body, and it was only his incontestable resurrection that gathered together again his scattered disciples. Yet the most of them returned even after this to their previous occupation ( John 21:3 sq.), as if in abandonment of him, and it required a fresh command of the Master (Matthew 28:28 sq.) to direct them to their mission, and collect them at Jerusalem ( Acts 1:4). Here they awaited in: a pious association the advent of the Holy Spirit ( John 20:22), which Jesus had promised them ( Acts 1:8) as the [[Paraclete]] ( John 14:26; John 16:13); and soon after the ascension of their teacher, on the Pentecost established at the founding of the old dispensation, they felt themselves surprised by an extraordinary phenomenon (see Schulthess, ''De Charismatib. Spir. Sancti,'' Leipz. 1818; Schulz, ''Geistesgaben Der Ersten Christen,'' Bresl. 1836; Neander, ''Planting,'' 1:11 sq.), resulting in an internal influx of the power of that Spirit (Acts 2); and thereupon they immediately began, as soon as the vacancy occasioned by the defection of Judas Iscariot had been filled by the election of Matthias ( Acts 1:15 sq.), to publish, as witnesses of the life and resurrection of their Lord, the Gospel in the Holy City with ardor and success ( Acts 2:41). Their course was henceforth decided, and over much that had hitherto been dark to them now beamed a clear light ( John 2:22; John 12:16; see Henke, in Pott's ''Sylloge,'' 1:19 sq.). </p> <p> '''3.''' Under the eyes of the apostles, and not without personal sacrifice on their part, the original Christian membership at Jerusalem erected themselves into a community within the pale of Judaism, although irrespective of its sacred rites, with which, however, they maintained a connection (Acts 3-7), and the apostolical activity soon disseminated the divine word among the Samaritans likewise ( Acts 8:5; Acts cf., 15), where already Jesus had gained some followers (John 4). In the mother Church at Jerusalem their superior dignity and power were, universally acknowledged by the rulers and the people ( Acts 5:12 sq.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the first check on the spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not seem to have brought peril to the apostles ( Acts 8:1). Here ends, properly speaking (or rather, perhaps, with the general visitation hinted at in Acts 9:32), the [[First]] period of the apostles' agency, during which its center is Jerusalem, and the prominent figure is that of Peter. Agreeably to the promise of our Lord to him ( Matthew 16:18), which we conceive it impossible to understand otherwise than in a personal sense, he among the twelve foundations ( Revelation 21:14), was the stone on whom the Church was first built; and it was his privilege first to open the doors of the kingdom of heaven to Jews ( Acts 2:14; Acts 2:42) and to Gentiles ( Acts 10:11). The next decisive step was taken by Peter, who, not without misgivings and even disapproval on the part of the primitive body of Christians, had published the Gospel on the sea-coast (Acts 10, 11); and this led to the establishment of a second community in the [[Syrian]] metropolis Antioch ( Acts 11:21), which kept up a friendly connection with the Church at Jerusalem ( Acts 11:22 sq.), and constitutes the center of this ''Second'' period of the apostolical history. </p> <p> But all that had hitherto taken place was destined to be cast into the shade by the powerful influence of one individual, a Pharisee, who received the apostolate in a most remarkable manner, namely, Paul. [[Treated]] at first with suspicion, he soon acquired influence and consideration in the circle of the apostles by his enthusiasm (Acts 13), but, betaking himself to Antioch, he carried forth thence in every direction the Gospel into distant heathen lands, calling out and employing active associates, and resigning to others (Peter; comp. Galatians 2:7) the conversion of the Jews. His labors form the [[Third]] apostolical period. From this time Paul is the central character of the apostolical history; even Peter gradually disappears, and it is only after Paul had retired from Asia Minor that John appears there, but even then laboring in a quiet manner. Thus a man who had probably not personally, known Christ, who, at least, was not (originally) designated and consecrated by him to the apostleship, yet accomplished more for Christianity than all the directly-appointed apostles, not only in extent, measuring his activity by the geographical region traversed, but also in intensity, since he especially grasped the comprehensive scope of the Christian remedial system, and sought to harmonize the heavenly doctrine with sound learning. It is not a little remarkable that a [[Pharisee]] should thus most successfully comprehend the world-wide spirit of Christianity. </p> <p> '''4.''' [[Authentic]] history records nothing concerning the apostles beyond what Luke has afforded respecting Peter, John ( Acts 8:14), and the two James's ( Acts 12:2; Acts 12:17; Acts 15:13; Acts 21:18). Traditions, derived in part from early times (Euseb. ''Hist. Ecclesiastes 3, 1'' ), have come down to us concerning nearly all of them (see the ''Acta Apostolorunm Apocrypha,'' which have been usually ascribed to one Abdias, in Fabricii Cod. Apocryph. 1, 402 sq.; and Cave's Antiquitates Apostol. ut sup.; also Perionii Vitae Apostolorum, Par. 1551, Fref. 1774; comp. Ludewig, Die Apost. Jes. Quedlinb. 1841; Heringa, De vitis apostolorum, Tielae, 1844), but they must be cautiously resorted to, as they sometimes conflict with one another, and their gradual growth can often be traced. All that can be gathered with certainty respecting the subsequent history of the apostles is that James (q.v.), after the martyrdom of James the greater ( Acts 12:2), usually remained at Jerusalem as the acknowledged head of the fraternity (comp. Acts 12:17) and president of the college of the apostles ( Acts 15:13; Acts 21:18; Galatians 2:9); while Peter traveled mostly as missionary among the Jews ("apostle of the Circumcision," Galatians 2:8), and John (all three are named "pillars" of the Christian community, Galatians 2:9) eventually strove at [[Ephesus]] to extend the kindly practical character of Christianity, which had been endangered by Gnostical tendencies, and to win disciples in this temper. From this period it certainly becomes impossible to determine the sphere of these or the other apostles' activity; but it must ever remain remarkable that precisely touching the evangelical mission of the immediate apostles no more information is extant, and that the memory of the services of most of them survived the very first century only in extremely unreliable stories. </p> <p> We might he even tempted to consider the choice of Jesus as in a great measure a failure, especially since a Judas was among the select; but we must not forget, in the first place, that it was of great importance for Jesus to form as early as possible a narrow circle of disciples, i.e. at a time when there was small opportunity for selection ( Matthew 9:37 sq.); in the second place, that, in making the choice, he could only have regard to moral and intellectual constitution, in which respect the apostles chosen probably compared favorably with his other followers; and finally that, even if (as some infer from John 2:25) the ultimate results had been clearly foreseen by him, they did not (especially after the new turn given to the Christian enterprise by Paul) strictly depend upon this act of his, since, in fact, the successful issue of the scheme justified his sagacity as to the instrumentalities by which it was on the whole carried forward. Some writers (Neander, Leb. Jes. p. 223 sq.) have made out quite an argument for the selection of the apostles from their various idiosyncracies and marked traits of character (Gregorii Diss. de temperamentis scriptorum N.T. Lips. 1710; comp. Hase, Leb. Jes. p. 112 sq.), and Jesus himself clearly never intended that they should all have an equal career or mission; the founding of the Church in Palestine and its vicinity was their first and chief work, and their services in other countries, however important in themselves, were of secondary interest to this. See generally, respecting single apostles and their activity (especially in the N.T.), Neander's [[Planting]] and Training of the Prim. Ch. (Hamb. 3d ed. 1841, Edinb. 1843); | <p> ( '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' '','' from '''''Ἀποστέλλω''''' , ''To [[Send]] Forth).'' In Attic Greek the term is used to denote ''A Fleet'' or ''Naval Armament.'' It occurs only once in the Sept. ( 1 Kings 14:6), and there, as uniformly in the New Testament, it signifies ''A Person Sent By Another, A Messenger.'' It has been asserted that the Jews were accustomed to term the collector of the half shekel which every [[Israelite]] paid annually to the [[Temple]] an apostle; and we have better authority for asserting that they used the word to denote one who carried about encyclical letters from their rulers. OEcumenius states that it is even vet a custom among the Jews to call those who carry about circular letters from their rulers by the name of apostles. To this use of the term Paul has been supposed to refer ( Galatians 1:1) when he asserts that he was "an apostle, not of men, neither by men" '''''—''''' an apostle not like those known among the Jews by that name, who derived their authority and received their mission from the chief priests or principal men of their nation. The import of the word is strongly brought out in John 13:16, where it occurs along with its correlate, "The servant is not greater than his Lord, neither he ''Who Is Sent'' ( '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' ) greater than he who sent him." </p> <p> It is the opinion of Suicer (Thesaurus, art. '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' ) that the appellation "apostle" is in the N.T. employed as a general name for Christian ministers as ''"Sent'' by God," in a qualified use of that phrase, to preach the word. The word is indeed used in this loose sense by the fathers. Thus we find Archippus, Philemon, Apphia, the seventy disciples ( Luke 10:17), termed apostles; and even Mary [[Magdalene]] is said '''''Γενέσθαι''''' '''''Τοῖς''''' '''''Ἀποστόλοις''''' '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' , to become an apostle to the apostles. No evidence, however, can be brought forward of the term being thus used in the N.T. Andronicus and Junia ( Romans 16:7) are indeed said to be '''''Ἐπίσημοι''''' '''''Ἐν''''' '''''Τοῖς''''' '''''Ἀποστόλοις''''' , "of note among the apostles;" but these words by no means imply that they were apostles, but only that they were well known and esteemed by the apostles. The '''''Συνεργο''''' . . . the fellow- workers of the apostles, are by Chrysostom denominated '''''Συναπόστολοι''''' ''.'' The argument founded on 1 Corinthians 4:9, compared with 1 Corinthians 4:6, to prove that [[Apollos]] is termed an apostle, cannot bear examination. The only instance in which it seems probable that the word, as expressive of an office in the Christian Church, is applied to an individual whose call to that office is not made the subject of special narration, is to be found in Acts 14:4; Acts 14:14, where Barnabas, as well as Paul, is termed an apostle. At the same time, it is by no means absolutely certain that the term apostles, or messengers, does not in this place refer rather to the mission of Paul and Barnabas by the prophets and teachers at Antioch, under the impulse of the Holy Ghost ( Acts 13:1-4), than to that direct call to the Christian apostleship which we know Paul received, and which if Barnabas had received, we can scarcely persuade ourselves that no trace of so important an event should have been found in the sacred history but a passing hint, which admits, to say the least, of being plausibly accounted for in another way. '''''‘''''' We know that, on the occasion referred to, "the prophets and teachers, when they had fasted and prayed, and laid their hands on Barnabas and Saul, sent them away" ( '''''Ἀτέλυσαν''''' ); so that, in the sense in which we will immediately find the words occurring, they were '''''Ἀπόστολοι''''' '''''—''''' prophets and teachers (Vollhagen, ''De Apost. Ebr.'' Greifsw. 1704). </p> <p> In 2 Corinthians 8:23, we meet with the phrase '''''Ἀπόστολοι''''' '''''Ἐκκλησιῶν''''' , rendered in our version "the messengers of the churches." Who these were, and why they received this name, is obvious from the context. The churches of [[Macedonia]] had made a contribution for the relief of the saints of Judaea, and had not merely requested the apostle "to receive the gift, and take on him the fellowship of ministering to the saints," but at his suggestion had appointed some individuals to accompany him to Jerusalem with their alms. These "apostles or messengers of the churches" were those "who were chosen of the churches to travel with the apostle with this grace [gift], which was administered by him," to the glory of their common Lord ( 2 Corinthians 8:1-4; 2 Corinthians 8:19). With much the same meaning and reference [[Epaphroditus]] ( Philippians 2:25) is termed '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' '''''—''''' a messenger of the [[Philippian]] Church '''''—''''' having been employed by them to carry pecuniary assistance to the apostle ( Philippians 4:14-18). </p> <p> The word "apostle" occurs once in the New Testament ( Hebrews 3:1) as a descriptive designation of Jesus Christ: '''''‘''''' " The apostle of our profession," i.e. the apostle whom we profess or acknowledge. The Jews were in the habit of applying the term '''''שָׁלַיחִ''''' , from '''''שָׁלִח''''' , ''To Send,'' to the person who presided over the synagogue, and directed all its officers and affairs. The Church is represented as "the house or family of God," over which he had placed, during the Jewish economy, Moses as the superintendent-over which he has placed, under the Christian economy, Christ Jesus. The import of the term [[Apostle]] is divinely commissioned superintendent; and of the whole phrase, ''"The Apostle Of Our Profession,"'' the divinely commissioned superintendent whom WE Christians acknowledge, in contradistinction to the divinely appointed superintendent Moses, whom the Jews acknowledged. </p> <p> '''1.''' The term apostle, however, is generally employed in the New Testament as the descriptive appellation of a comparatively small class of men, to whom Jesus Christ intrusted the organization of his Church and the dissemination of his religion among mankind. At an early period of his ministry "he ordained twelve" of his disciples "that they should be with him." Their names were: </p> <p> '''1.''' Simon Peter (Cephas, Bar-jona); </p> <p> '''2.''' Andrew; </p> <p> '''3.''' John </p> <p> '''4.''' Philip; </p> <p> '''5.''' James the Elder; </p> <p> '''6.''' [[Nathanael]] (Bartholomew); </p> <p> '''7.''' Thomas (Didymus); </p> <p> '''8.''' Matthew (Levi); </p> <p> '''9.''' Simon Zelotes; </p> <p> '''10.''' Jude (Lebbaeus, Judas, Thaddaeus); </p> <p> '''11.''' James the Less; </p> <p> '''12.''' Judas Iscariot. </p> <p> (For their names according to Mohammedan traditions, see Thilo, Apocr. 1:152.) "These he named apostles." Some time afterward "he gave to them power against unclean spirits to cast them out, and to heal all manner of disease;" "and he sent them to preach the kingdom of God" ( Mark 3:14; Matthew 10:1-5; Mark 6:7; Luke 6:13; Luke 9:1). To them he gave "the keys of the kingdom of God," and constituted them princes over the spiritual Israel, that "people whom God was to take from among the Gentiles, for his name" ( Matthew 16:19; Matthew 18:18; Matthew 19:28; Luke 22:30). Previously to his death he promised to them the Holy Spirit, to fit them to be the founders and governors of the Christian Church ( John 14:16-17; John 14:26; John 15:26-27; John 16:7-15). After his resurrection he solemnly confirmed their call, saying, "As the Father hath sent me, so send I you;" and gave them a commission to "preach the gospel to every creature" ( John 20:21-23; Matthew 18:18-20). After his ascension he, on the day of Pentecost, communicated to them those supernatural gifts which were necessary to the performance of the high functions he had commissioned them to exercise; and in the exercise of these gifts they, in the Gospel history and in their epistles, with the Apocalypse, gave a complete view of the will of their Master in reference to that new order of things of which he was the author. They "had the mind of Christ." They spoke "the wisdom of God in a mystery." That mystery "God revealed to them by his Spirit," and they spoke it, "not in words which man's wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost teacheth." They were "ambassadors for Christ," and besought men, "in Christ's stead, to be reconciled to God." They authoritatively taught the doctrine and the law of their Lord; they organized churches, and required them to "keep the traditions," i.e. the doctrines and ordinances delivered to them" (Acts 2; 1 Corinthians 2:16; 1 Corinthians 2:7; 1 Corinthians 2:10; 1 Corinthians 2:13; 2 Corinthians 5:20; 1 Corinthians 11:2). Of the twelve originally ordained to the apostleship, one, Judas Iscariot, "fell from it by transgression," and Matthias, "who had companied" with the other apostles "all the time that the Lord Jesus went out and in among them," was by lot substituted in his place ( Acts 1:17-26). Saul of. Tarsus, afterward termed Paul, was also miraculously added to the number of these permanent rulers of the Christian society (Acts 9; Acts 20:4; Acts 26:15-18; 1 Timothy 1:12; 1 Timothy 2:7; 2 Timothy 1:11). (See [[Disciples]]) ''(Twelve).'' </p> <p> '''2.''' The number [[Twelve]] was probably fixed upon after the analogy of the twelve tribes of the [[Israelites]] ( Matthew 19:28; Lightfoot, ''Hor. Heb.'' p. 323; comp. Tertull. c. Marcion. 4:415), and was so exact that the apostles are often termed simply "the Twelve" ( Matthew 26:14; Matthew 26:47; John 6:67; John 20:24; 1 Corinthians 15:5). Their general commission was to preach the gospel. (See generally Cave, ''Hist. Of The Apostles,'' Lond. 1677; Spanheim, ''De Apostolatu,'' in his ''Dissert. Hist. Quaternio,'' Lugd. B. 1679; Buddae ''Eccles. Apost.'' Jen. 1729; Burmann, ''Exercit. Acad.'' 2, 104 sq.; Hess, ''Gesch. U. Schrift. D. Apostel,'' Tir. 1821; Planck, ''Gesch. Des Christenth.'' Gott. 1818; Wilhelm, ''Christi Apostel,'' Heidelb. 1825; Capelli ''Histor. Apost. Illustr.'' Genev. 1634, Salmur. 1683, Frckf. 1691; Von Einem, ''Historia Christ. Et Apostol.'' Gott. 1758; Rullmann, ''De Apostolis,'' Rint. 1789; Stanley, ''Sermons On The Apostolic Age,'' Oxf. 1847, 1852; Renan, ''Les Apotres,'' Paris, 1866. ) They were uneducated persons (F. Lami, ''De Eruditione Apostolorum,'' Flor. 1738) taken from common life, mostly [[Galileans]] ( Matthew 11:25), and many of them had been disciples of John the [[Baptist]] ( John 1:35 sq.). Some of them appear to have been relatives of Jesus himself. (See [[Brother]]). Our Lord chose them early in his public career, though some of them had certainly partly attached themselves to him before; but after their call as apostles they appear to have been continuously with him or in his service. They seem to have been all on an equality, both during and after the ministry of Christ on earth; and the prelatical supremacy of Peter, founded by the Romish Church upon Matthew 16:18, is nowhere alluded to in the apostolical period. We find one indeed, Peter, from fervor of personal character, usually prominent among them, and distinguished by having the first place assigned him in founding the Jewish and Gentile churches, (See [[Peter]]); but we never find the slightest trace in Scripture of any superiority or primacy being in consequence accorded to him. We also find that he and two others, James and John, the sons of Zebedee, are admitted to the inner privacy of our Lord's acts and sufferings on several occasions ( Mark 5:37; Matthew 17:1 sq.; Matthew 26:37); but this is no proof of superiority in rank or office. Early in our Lord's ministry, he sent them out two and two to preach repentance, and perform miracles in his name (Matthew 10; Luke 9). This their mission was of the nature of a solemn call to the children of Israel, to whom it was confined ( Matthew 10:5-6). </p> <p> There is, however, in his charge to the apostles on this occasion not a word of their proclaiming his own mission as the [[Messiah]] of the Jewish people; their preaching was at this time strictly of a preparatory kind, resembling that of John the Baptist, the Lord's forerunner. Jesus early informed the apostles respecting the solemn nature, the hardships, and even positive danger of their vocation ( Matthew 10:17), but he never imparted to them any [[Esoteric]] instruction, nor even initiated them into any special mysteries; since the whole tendency of his teaching was practical; but they constantly accompanied him in his tours of preaching and to the festivals (being unhindered by their domestic relations, comp. Matthew 8:14; 1 Corinthians 9:5; see Euseb. ''Hist. Eccl.'' 3:30; Schmid, ''De Apostolis Uxoratis,'' Helmst. 1704, Viteb. 1734; comp. Deyling, ''Observ. 3,'' 469 sq.; Pfaff, ''De Circumductione Soror. Mulierum Apostolica,'' Tubing. 1751; Schulthess, ''Neueste.Theol. Nachricht.'' 1828, 1:130 sq.), beheld his wonderful acts, listened to his discourses addressed to the multitude ( Matthew 5:1 sq.; Matthew 23:1 sq.; Luke 4:13 sq.), or his discussions with learned Jews ( Matthew 19:13 sq.; Luke 10:25 sq.); occasionally (especially the favorite Peter, John, and James the elder) followed him in private ( Matthew 17:1 sq.), and conversed freely with him, eliciting information ( Matthew 15:15 sq.; Matthew 18:1 sq.; Luke 8:9 sq.; Luke 12:41; Luke 17:5; John 9:2 sq.) on religious subjects, sometimes with respect to the sayings of Jesus, sometimes in general ( Matthew 13:10 sq.), and were even on one occasion themselves incited to make attempts at the promulgation of the Gospel ( Matthew 6:7 sq.; Luke 9:6 sq.), and with this view performed cures ( Mark 6:13; Luke 9:6), although in this last they were not always successful ( Matthew 17:16). They had, indeed; already acknowledged him ( Matthew 16:16; Luke 9:20) as the Messiah ( '''''Ὁ''''' '''''Ξριστὸς''''' '''''Τοῦ''''' '''''Θεοῦ''''' ), endowed with miraculous powers ( Luke 9:54), yet they were slow in apprehending the spiritual doctrine and aim of their Master, being impeded by their weak perception and their national prepossessions ( Matthew 15:16; Matthew 16:22; Matthew 17:20 sq.; Luke 9:54; John 16:12), insomuch that they had to ask him concerning the obvious import of the plainest parables ( Luke 12:41 sq.), and, indeed, they themselves at times confessed their want of faith ( Luke 17:5); nor even at the departure of Jesus from the earth, when for two or three years they had been his constant and intimate companions ( Matthew 16:21), were they at all mature ( Luke 24:21; comp. John 16:12) in the knowledge appropriate to their mission (see Vollborth, ''De Discip. Christiper Gradus [[Ad]] Dignitatem Et Potent. Apostolor. Evectis,'' Gott. 1790; Bagge, ''De Sapientia [[Christi]] In Electione, Institutione Et Missione Apostolor.'' Jen. 1754; Ziez, ''Quomodo Notio De Messia In Animis Apost. Sensim Sensimque Claris Orem Acceperit Lucem,'' Lubec. 1793; Liebe, in Augustij ''N. Theol. Blatt.'' II, 1, 42 sq.; Ernesti, ''De Prceclara Chr. In Apost.'' instituendis sapientia, Gott. 1834; Neander, Leb. Jes. p. 229 sq.; comp. also Mahn, De via qua Apost. [[Jesu]] doctrinam divin. melius perspexerint, Gott. 1809). </p> <p> Even the inauguration with which they were privileged at the last supper with Jesus under so solemn circumstances ( Matthew 26:26 sq.; Mark 14:22 sq.; Luke 22:17 sq.) neither served to awaken their enthusiasm, nor indeed to preserve them from outright faithlessness at the death of their Master ( Matthew 16:14 sq.; Luke 24:13 sq., Luke 24:36 sq.; John 20:9; John 20:25 sq.). One who was but a distant follower of Jesus and a number of females charged themselves with the interment of his body, and it was only his incontestable resurrection that gathered together again his scattered disciples. Yet the most of them returned even after this to their previous occupation ( John 21:3 sq.), as if in abandonment of him, and it required a fresh command of the Master (Matthew 28:28 sq.) to direct them to their mission, and collect them at Jerusalem ( Acts 1:4). Here they awaited in: a pious association the advent of the Holy Spirit ( John 20:22), which Jesus had promised them ( Acts 1:8) as the [[Paraclete]] ( John 14:26; John 16:13); and soon after the ascension of their teacher, on the Pentecost established at the founding of the old dispensation, they felt themselves surprised by an extraordinary phenomenon (see Schulthess, ''De Charismatib. Spir. Sancti,'' Leipz. 1818; Schulz, ''Geistesgaben Der Ersten Christen,'' Bresl. 1836; Neander, ''Planting,'' 1:11 sq.), resulting in an internal influx of the power of that Spirit (Acts 2); and thereupon they immediately began, as soon as the vacancy occasioned by the defection of Judas Iscariot had been filled by the election of Matthias ( Acts 1:15 sq.), to publish, as witnesses of the life and resurrection of their Lord, the Gospel in the Holy City with ardor and success ( Acts 2:41). Their course was henceforth decided, and over much that had hitherto been dark to them now beamed a clear light ( John 2:22; John 12:16; see Henke, in Pott's ''Sylloge,'' 1:19 sq.). </p> <p> '''3.''' Under the eyes of the apostles, and not without personal sacrifice on their part, the original Christian membership at Jerusalem erected themselves into a community within the pale of Judaism, although irrespective of its sacred rites, with which, however, they maintained a connection (Acts 3-7), and the apostolical activity soon disseminated the divine word among the Samaritans likewise ( Acts 8:5; Acts cf., 15), where already Jesus had gained some followers (John 4). In the mother Church at Jerusalem their superior dignity and power were, universally acknowledged by the rulers and the people ( Acts 5:12 sq.). Even the persecution which arose about Stephen, and put the first check on the spread of the Gospel in Judaea, does not seem to have brought peril to the apostles ( Acts 8:1). Here ends, properly speaking (or rather, perhaps, with the general visitation hinted at in Acts 9:32), the [[First]] period of the apostles' agency, during which its center is Jerusalem, and the prominent figure is that of Peter. Agreeably to the promise of our Lord to him ( Matthew 16:18), which we conceive it impossible to understand otherwise than in a personal sense, he among the twelve foundations ( Revelation 21:14), was the stone on whom the Church was first built; and it was his privilege first to open the doors of the kingdom of heaven to Jews ( Acts 2:14; Acts 2:42) and to Gentiles ( Acts 10:11). The next decisive step was taken by Peter, who, not without misgivings and even disapproval on the part of the primitive body of Christians, had published the Gospel on the sea-coast (Acts 10, 11); and this led to the establishment of a second community in the [[Syrian]] metropolis Antioch ( Acts 11:21), which kept up a friendly connection with the Church at Jerusalem ( Acts 11:22 sq.), and constitutes the center of this ''Second'' period of the apostolical history. </p> <p> But all that had hitherto taken place was destined to be cast into the shade by the powerful influence of one individual, a Pharisee, who received the apostolate in a most remarkable manner, namely, Paul. [[Treated]] at first with suspicion, he soon acquired influence and consideration in the circle of the apostles by his enthusiasm (Acts 13), but, betaking himself to Antioch, he carried forth thence in every direction the Gospel into distant heathen lands, calling out and employing active associates, and resigning to others (Peter; comp. Galatians 2:7) the conversion of the Jews. His labors form the [[Third]] apostolical period. From this time Paul is the central character of the apostolical history; even Peter gradually disappears, and it is only after Paul had retired from Asia Minor that John appears there, but even then laboring in a quiet manner. Thus a man who had probably not personally, known Christ, who, at least, was not (originally) designated and consecrated by him to the apostleship, yet accomplished more for Christianity than all the directly-appointed apostles, not only in extent, measuring his activity by the geographical region traversed, but also in intensity, since he especially grasped the comprehensive scope of the Christian remedial system, and sought to harmonize the heavenly doctrine with sound learning. It is not a little remarkable that a [[Pharisee]] should thus most successfully comprehend the world-wide spirit of Christianity. </p> <p> '''4.''' [[Authentic]] history records nothing concerning the apostles beyond what Luke has afforded respecting Peter, John ( Acts 8:14), and the two James's ( Acts 12:2; Acts 12:17; Acts 15:13; Acts 21:18). Traditions, derived in part from early times (Euseb. ''Hist. Ecclesiastes 3, 1'' ), have come down to us concerning nearly all of them (see the ''Acta Apostolorunm Apocrypha,'' which have been usually ascribed to one Abdias, in Fabricii Cod. Apocryph. 1, 402 sq.; and Cave's Antiquitates Apostol. ut sup.; also Perionii Vitae Apostolorum, Par. 1551, Fref. 1774; comp. Ludewig, Die Apost. Jes. Quedlinb. 1841; Heringa, De vitis apostolorum, Tielae, 1844), but they must be cautiously resorted to, as they sometimes conflict with one another, and their gradual growth can often be traced. All that can be gathered with certainty respecting the subsequent history of the apostles is that James (q.v.), after the martyrdom of James the greater ( Acts 12:2), usually remained at Jerusalem as the acknowledged head of the fraternity (comp. Acts 12:17) and president of the college of the apostles ( Acts 15:13; Acts 21:18; Galatians 2:9); while Peter traveled mostly as missionary among the Jews ("apostle of the Circumcision," Galatians 2:8), and John (all three are named "pillars" of the Christian community, Galatians 2:9) eventually strove at [[Ephesus]] to extend the kindly practical character of Christianity, which had been endangered by Gnostical tendencies, and to win disciples in this temper. From this period it certainly becomes impossible to determine the sphere of these or the other apostles' activity; but it must ever remain remarkable that precisely touching the evangelical mission of the immediate apostles no more information is extant, and that the memory of the services of most of them survived the very first century only in extremely unreliable stories. </p> <p> We might he even tempted to consider the choice of Jesus as in a great measure a failure, especially since a Judas was among the select; but we must not forget, in the first place, that it was of great importance for Jesus to form as early as possible a narrow circle of disciples, i.e. at a time when there was small opportunity for selection ( Matthew 9:37 sq.); in the second place, that, in making the choice, he could only have regard to moral and intellectual constitution, in which respect the apostles chosen probably compared favorably with his other followers; and finally that, even if (as some infer from John 2:25) the ultimate results had been clearly foreseen by him, they did not (especially after the new turn given to the Christian enterprise by Paul) strictly depend upon this act of his, since, in fact, the successful issue of the scheme justified his sagacity as to the instrumentalities by which it was on the whole carried forward. Some writers (Neander, Leb. Jes. p. 223 sq.) have made out quite an argument for the selection of the apostles from their various idiosyncracies and marked traits of character (Gregorii Diss. de temperamentis scriptorum N.T. Lips. 1710; comp. Hase, Leb. Jes. p. 112 sq.), and Jesus himself clearly never intended that they should all have an equal career or mission; the founding of the Church in Palestine and its vicinity was their first and chief work, and their services in other countries, however important in themselves, were of secondary interest to this. See generally, respecting single apostles and their activity (especially in the N.T.), Neander's [[Planting]] and Training of the Prim. Ch. (Hamb. 3d ed. 1841, Edinb. 1843); D. F. Bacon, Lives of the Apost. (N. Y. 1846). </p> <p> '''5.''' The characteristic features of this highest office in the Christian Church have been very accurately delineated by M'Lean, in his ''Apostolic Commission.'' "It was essential to their office '''''—''''' </p> <p> '''(1.)''' That they should have seen the Lord, and been eye and ear witnesses of what they testified to the world ( John 15:27). This is laid down as an essential requisite in the choice of one to succeed Judas ( Acts 1:21-22), that he should have been personally acquainted with the whole ministerial course of our Lord, from the baptism of John till the day when He was taken up into heaven. He himself describes them as those that had continued with Him in his temptations. ( Luke 22:28). By this close personal intercourse with Him, they were peculiarly fitted to give testimony to the facts of redemption; and we gather, from his own words in John 14:28; John 15:26-27; John 16:13, that an especial bestowal of the Spirit's influence was granted them, by which their memories were quickened, and their power of reproducing that which they had heard from him increased above the ordinary measure of man. Paul is no exception here; for, speaking of those who saw Christ after his resurrection, he adds, '''''‘''''' and last of all he was seen of me' ( 1 Corinthians 15:8). And this he elsewhere mentions as one of his apostolic qualifications: '''''‘''''' Am I not an apostle? have I not seen the Lord?' ( 1 Corinthians 9:1). So that his seeing that Just One and hearing the word of his mouth was necessary to his being '''''‘''''' a witness of what he thus saw and heard' ( Acts 22:14-15). </p> <p> '''(2.)''' They must have been immediately called and chosen to that office by Christ himself. This was the case with every one of them ( Luke 6:13; Galatians 1:1), Matthias not excepted; for, as he had been a chosen disciple of Christ before, so the Lord, by determining the lot, declared his choice, and immediately called him to the office of an apostle ( Acts 1:24-26). </p> <p> '''(3.)''' [[Infallible]] inspiration was also essentially necessary to that office ( John 16:13; 1 Corinthians 2:10; Galatians 1:11-12). They had not only to explain the true sense and spirit of the Old Testament ( Luke 24:27; Acts 26:22-23; Acts 28:23), which were hid from the Jewish doctors, but also to give forth the New Testament revelation to the world. which was to be the unalterable standard of faith and practice in all succeeding generations ( 1 Peter 1:25; 1 John 4:6). It was therefore absolutely necessary that they should be secured against all error and mistake by unerring inspiration. Accordingly, Christ bestowed on them the Spirit to </p> <p> '''''‘''''' teach them all things,' to '''''‘''''' bring all things to their remembrance whatsoever he had said to them' ( John 14:26), to '''''‘''''' guide them into all truth,' and to '''''‘''''' show them things to come' ( John 16:13). Their word, therefore, must be received, '''''‘''''' not as the word of men, but, as it is in truth, the word of God' ( 1 Thessalonians 2:13), and as that whereby we are to distinguish '''''‘''''' the spirit of truth from the spirit of error" ( 1 John 4:6). </p> <p> '''(4.)''' Another qualification was the power of working miracles ( Mark 16:20; Acts 2:43), such as speaking with divers tongues, curing the lame, etc. ( 1 Corinthians 12:8-11). These were the credentials of their divine mission. '''''‘''''' Truly,' says Paul, '''''‘''''' the signs of an apostle were wrought among you in all patience, in signs, and wonders, and mighty deeds' ( 2 Corinthians 12:12). [[Miracles]] were necessary to confirm their doctrine at its first publication, and to gain credit to it in the world as a revelation from God, and by these '''''‘''''' God bare them witness' ( Hebrews 2:4). </p> <p> '''(5.)''' To these characteristics may be added the ''Universality'' of their mission. Their charge was not confined to any particular visible church, like that of ordinary pastors, but, being the oracles of God to men, they had '''''‘''''' the care of all the churches' ( 2 Corinthians 11:28). They had power to settle their faith and order as a model to future ages, to determine all controversies ( Acts 16:4), and to exercise the rod of discipline upon all offenders, whether pastors or flock ( 1 Corinthians 5:3-6; 2 Corinthians 10:8; 2 Corinthians 13:10)." </p> <p> '''6.''' It must be obvious, from this scriptural account of the apostolical office, that the apostles had; in the strict sense of the term, no successors. Their qualifications were supernatural, and their work, once performed, remains in the infallible record of the New Testament, for the advantage of the Church and the world in all future ages. They are the only authoritative teachers of Christian doctrine and law. All official men in Christian churches can legitimately claim no higher place than expounders of the doctrines and administrators of the laws found in their writings. Few things have been more injurious to the cause of Christianity than the assumption on the part of ordinary office-bearers in the Church of the peculiar prerogatives of "the holy apostles of our Lord Jesus." Much that is said of the latter is not at all applicable to the former; and much that admits of being applied can be so, in truth, only in a very secondary and extenuated sense. (See Succession). </p> <p> The apostolical office seems to have been pre-eminently that of founding the churches, and upholding them by supernatural power specially bestowed for that purpose. It ceased, as a matter of course, with its first holders; all continuation of it, from the very conditions of its existence (comp. 1 Corinthians 9:1), being impossible. The '''''Ἐπίσκοπος''''' or "bishop" of the ancient churches coexisted with, and did not in any sense succeed, the apostles; and when it is claimed for bishops or any church officers that they are their successors, it can be understood only chronologically. and not officially. (See Succession). </p> <p> '''7.''' In the early ecclesiastical writers we find the term '''''Ὁ''''' '''''Ἀπόστολος''''' , "the apostle," used as the designation of a portion of the canonical books, consisting chiefly of the Pauline Epistles. "The Psalter" and "the Apostle" are often mentioned together. It is also not uncommon with these writers to call Paul "The Apostle," by way of eminence. </p> <p> The several apostles are usually represented in mediaeval pictures with special badges or attributes: St. Peter, with the keys; St. Paul, with a sword; St. Andrew, with a cross; St. James the Less, with a fuller's pole; St. John, with a cup and a winged serpent flying out of it; St. Bartholomew, with a knife; St. Philip, with a long staff, whose upper end is formed into a cross; St. Thomas, with a lance; St. Matthew, with a hatchet; St. Matthias, with a battle-axe; St. James the Greater, with a pilgrim's staff and a gourd-bottle; St. Simon, with a saw; and St. Jude, with a club. (See Lardner, Works, 5, 255-6. 361.) </p> <p> For the history of the individual apostles, see each name (Mant, Biog. of the Apostles, Lond. 1840). </p> <p> '''8.''' Further works on the history of the apostles, besides the patristic ones by [[Dorotheus]] of [[Tyre]] (tr. in Hanmer's ''Eusebius,'' Lond. 1663), [[Jerome]] (in append. of his ''Opera,'' 2:945), Hippolytus (of doubtful genuineness, given with others in Fabricii ''Cod. Apocr. N.T.'' 2, 388, 744, 757; 3, 599), Nicetas (Lat. in ''Bibl. Max. Patr.'' 27:384; Gr. and Lat. by Combefis, ''Auct. Noviss.'' p. 327), and others (see J. A. Fabricius, ''Bibliotheca Eccles.'' append.), are the following: G. Fabricius, ''Hist. J. C. Itemque Apostol.'' etc. (Lips. 1566, 1581, 8vo); Cave, Lives of the Apostles (Lond. 1677, 1678, 1684, 1686, fol., and often since; new ed. by Cary, Oxf. 1840, 8vo; a standard work on the subject, above referred to); Hoffmann, Geschichtskalender d. Apostel (Prem. 1699, 8vo); Grunenberg, De Apostolis (Rost 1704, 1705); Reading, Hist. of our Lord, with Lives of the Apostles (Lond. 1716, 8vo); Anonymous, Hist. of the Apostles in Scripture (Lond. 1725, 8vo); Sandin, Hist. Apostolica (Petav. 1731, 8vo; an attempt to fortify the Acts by external accounts); G. Erasmus, Peregrinationes apostolor. (Regiom. 1702); Tillemont, L'Histoire Ecclesiastique, 1 and 2; Fleetwood, Life of Christ, s. f.; Lardner, Works, 6; Jacobi, Gesch. d. Apostel (Gotha, 1818, 8vo); Rosenm '''''Ü''''' ller, Die Apostel, nach ihrem Leben u. Wirken (Lpz. 1821, 8vo); Wilhelmi, Christi Apostel u. erste Bekenner (Heidelb. 1825, 8vo); Kitto, [[Daily]] Bible Illustrations, eve. ser. 4; Greens wood, Lives of the Apostles (3d ed. Bost. 1846, 12mo); also the works enumerated under [[Acts (Of The Apostles]] ) Of a more special character are the following among others: Ribov, De apostolatu Judaico, spec. Pauli (Gott. 1745); Heineccius, De habitu et insignib. apostolor. sacerdotalibus (Lips. 1702); Pflicke, De apostolor. et prophetar. in N.T. eminentia et discrimine (Lips. 1785); Rhodomann, De sapientia Chr. in electione apostolor. (Jen. 1752); C. W. F. Walch, De illuminatione apostolor. successiva (Gott. 1758); Michaelis, De aptitudine et sinceritate apostolor. (Hal. 1760); Jesse, [[Learning]] and Inspiration of the Apostles (Lond. 1798); Goldhorn, De institutione apostolor. precepta recte agendi a Jesu scepenumero repetenda (Lips. 1817); Tittmann, De discrimine discipline Christi et apostolorum (Lips. 1805); Hergang, De apostolor. sensu psychojogico (Budissae, 1841); Milman, Character and [[Conduct]] of the Apostles (Bampton Lect. Oxf. 1827); Whately, Lect. on the character of the Apostles (2d ed. Lond. 1853); Messner, Lehre der Apostel (Lpz. 1856). Monographs on various points relating to the apostolate have also been written in Latin by Moebius (Lips. 1660), Dannhauer (Argent. 1664), Kahler (Rint. 1700), [[Cyprian]] (Lips. 1717), Fischer (ib. 1720), Fromm (Ged. 1720), Neubauer (Hal. 1729), Beck (Viteb. 1735), Roser (Argent. 1743), Michaelis (Hal. 1749), Kocher (Jen. 1751), Stosch (Guelf. 1751), Rathlef (Harmon. 1752), C. W. F. Walch (Jen. 1754), J. E. J. Walch (ib. 1753,1755), J. G. Walch (ib. 1774), [[Pries]] (Rost. 1757), Schulze (Freft. 1758), Taddel (Rost. 1760), Stemler (Lips. 1767), Crusius (ib. 1769), Widmann (Jen. 1775), Wilcke (ib. 1676), Wichmann (ib. 1779), Schlegel (Lips. 1782), [[Ran]] (Erlang. 1788), Miller (Gott. 1789), Pisanski (Regiom. 1790), Heumann (Dissert. 1:120-155), Gude (Nov. misc. Lips. 3, 563 sq.), Christiansen (Traj. 1803), Bohme (Hal. 1826), etc.; in German by [[Gabler]] (Theol. Journ. 13:94 sq.), Grulich (Ann. d. Theol.), Ruhmer (in Schuderoff's Jahrb. 3, 3, 257-283),Vogel (Aufsatze, 2:4), and many others, especially in contributions to theological journals. (See [[Apostolic Age]]). </p> | ||
== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_813" /> == | == International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_813" /> == | ||
