Difference between revisions of "Abraham"

<p> Abraham ("father of a multitude".) Up to &nbsp;Genesis 17:4-5, his being sealed with circumcision, the sign of the covenant, ABRAM (father of elevation). Son of Terah, brother of [[Nahor]] and Haran. Progenitor of the Hebrew, Arabs, Edomites, and kindred tribes; the ninth in descent from Shem, through Heber. [[Haran]] died before Terah, leaving [[Lot]] and two daughters, [[Milcah]] and Iscah. Nahor married his niece Milcah: Abraham Iscah, i.e. Sarai, daughter, i.e. granddaughter, of his father, not of his mother (&nbsp;Genesis 20:12). Ur, his home, is the modern Mugheir, the primeval capital of Chaldaea; its inscriptions are probably of the 22nd century B.C. The alphabetical [[Hebrew]] system is Phoenician, and was probably brought by Abraham to Canaan, where it became modified. Abraham, at God's call, went forth from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldees]] (&nbsp;Genesis 11:31-12). </p> <p> In Haran [[Terah]] died. The statement in &nbsp;Genesis 11:26, that Terah was 70 when he begat Abram, Nahor, and Haran, must apply only to the oldest, Haran. His being oldest appears from the fact that his brothers married his daughters, and that [[Sarai]] was only ten years younger than Abraham (&nbsp;Genesis 17:17); the two younger were born subsequently, Abram, the youngest, when Terah was 130, as appears from comparing &nbsp;Genesis 11:31 with &nbsp;Genesis 12:4; &nbsp;Acts 7:3-4; "before he dwelt in [[Charran]] '''''Ηaran''''' , while he was in Mesopotamia," in his 60th year, at Ur he received his first call: "Depart from thy land, to a land which I will show thee" (as yet the exact land was not defined). In Haran he received a second call: "Depart from thy father's house unto THE land ''(Heb., '' &nbsp;Genesis 12:1 ''('' which I will show thee;" and with it a promise, temporal (that God would bless him, and make him founder of a great nation) and spiritual (that in him all families of the earth should be blessed). </p> <p> The deluge, the revelation to Noah, and the [[Babel]] dispersion had failed to counteract the universal tendency to idolatrous apostasy, obliterating every trace of primitive piety. God therefore provided an antidote in separating one family and nation to be the repository of His truth against the fullness of time when it should be revealed to the whole world. From &nbsp;Joshua 24:2; &nbsp;Joshua 24:14-15, it appears Terah and his family served other gods beyond the Euphrates. [[Silly]] traditions as to Terah being a maker of idols, and Abraham having been east into a fiery furnace by [[Nimrod]] for disbelief in idols, were drawn from this Scripture, and from Ur ("fire"). The second call additionally required that, now when his father was dead and filial duty had been discharged, after the stay of 15 years in Haran, he should leave his father's house, i.e. his brother Nahor's family, in Haran. The call was personally to himself. </p> <p> He was to be isolated not only from his nation but from his family. Lot, his nephew, accompanied him, being regarded probably as his heir, as the promise of seed and the specification of his exact destination were only by degrees unfolded to him (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:8). [[Nicolaus]] of [[Damascus]] ascribed to him the conquest of Damascus on his way to Canaan. [[Scripture]] records nothing further than that his chief servant was [[Eliezer]] of Damascus; he pursued [[Chedorlaomer]] to Hobah, on the left of Damascus, subsequently (&nbsp;Genesis 14:15), Abraham entered [[Canaan]] along the valley of the Jabbok, and encamped first in the rich [[Moreh]] valley, near Sichem, between mounts [[Ebal]] and Gerizim. There he received a confirmation of the promise, specifying "this land" as that which the original more general promise pointed to. Here therefore he built his first altar to God. The unfriendly attitude of the [[Canaanites]] induced him next to move to the mountain country between [[Bethel]] and Ai, where also he built an altar to Jehovah, whose worship was fast passing into oblivion in the world. </p> <p> [[Famine]] led him to Egypt, the granary of the world, next. The record of his unbelieving cowardice there, and virtual lie as to Sarai (See [[Abimelech]] ) is a striking proof of the candor of Scripture. Its heroes' faults are not glossed over; each saint not only falls at times, but is represented as failing in the very grace (e.g. Abraham in faith) for which he was most noted. Probably the [[Hyksos]] (akin to the Hebrew), or shepherds' dynasty, reigned then at Memphis, which would make Abraham's visit specially acceptable there. On his return his first visit was to the altar which he had erected to [[Jehovah]] before his fall (compare &nbsp;Genesis 13:4 with &nbsp;Hosea 2:7; &nbsp;Revelation 2:5). The greatness of his and Lot's substance prevented their continuing together. The promise of a direct heir too may have influenced Lot, as, no longer being heir, to seek a more fixed home, in the region of Sodom, than he had with Abraham, "dwelling in tents." Contrast the children of the world with the children of God (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:9-10; &nbsp;Hebrews 11:18-16). His third resting place was Mamre, near [[Hebron]] ("association", namely, that of Abraham, Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner; next called [[Kirjath]] Arba; then it resumed its old name, Hebron, the future capital of Judah). This position, communicating with Egypt, and opening on the pastures of Beersheba, marks the greater power of his retinue now, as compared with what it was when he encamped in the mountain fastness of Ai. </p> <p> [[Fourteen]] years previously Chedorlaomer, king of [[Elam]] (the region S. of Assyria, E. of Persia, Susiana), the chief sovereign, with Amrephar of [[Shinar]] (Babylon), [[Arioch]] of [[Ellasar]] (the [[Chaldean]] Larissa, or Larsa, half way between Ur, or Mugheir, and Erech, or Warka, in Lower Babylonia), and Tidal, king of nations, attacked [[Bera]] of Sodom, [[Birsha]] of Gomorrah, [[Shinab]] of Admah, and [[Shemeber]] of Zeboiim, and the king of [[Bela]] or Zoar, because after twelve bears of subordination they "rebelled" (Genesis 14). [[Babylon]] was originally the predominant power; but a recently deciphered [[Assyrian]] record states that an Elamitie king, Kudur Nakhunta, conquered Babylon 2296 B.C. Kudur Mabuk is called in the inscriptions the "ravager of Syria," so that the Scripture account of Chedorlaomer (from '''''Lagsmar''''' , a goddess, in Semitic; answering to '''''Μabuk''''' in Hamitic) exactly tallies with the monumental inscriptions which call him '''''Αpda Martu''''' , "ravager," not conqueror, "of the West." Abraham, with 318 followers, and aided by the [[Amorite]] chiefs, Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner, overtook the victorious invaders near Jordan's springs, and attacked them by night from different quarters and routed them, and recovered Lot with all the men and the goods carried off. </p> <p> His disinterestedness was evinced in refusing any of the goods which [[Arabian]] war usage entitled him to, lest the king of worldly [[Sodom]] should say, "I have made Abraham rich" (compare &nbsp;Esther 9:15-16; &nbsp;2 Kings 5:16; contrast Lot, &nbsp;Genesis 13:10-11). Melchizedek, one of the only native princes who still served Jehovah, and was at once king and priest, blessed Abraham in the name of the Most High God, possessor of heaven and earth, and blessed God in Abraham's name, by a beautiful reciprocation of blessing, and ministered to him bread and wine; and Abraham "gave him tithes of all." Immediately after Abraham had refused worldly rewards Jehovah in vision said, "I am ... thy exceeding great reward." The promise now was made more specific: Eliezer shall not be thine heir, but "he that shall come forth out of thine own bowels ... Tell if thou be able to number the stars; so shall thy seed be." His faith herein was called forth to accept what was above nature on the bore word of God; so "it ''(His Faith)'' was counted to him for righteousness" (Genesis 15). </p> <p> Hence he passes into direct covenant relation with God, confirmed by the sign of the burning lamp (compare &nbsp;Isaiah 62:1) passing between the divided pieces of a heifer, she goat, and ram, and accompanied by the revelation that his posterity are to be afflicted in a foreign land 400 years, then to come forth and conquer Canaan when the iniquity of the [[Amorites]] shall be full. The earthly inheritance was to include the whole region "from the river of Egypt unto the ... river Euphrates," a promise only in part fulfilled under David and [[Solomon]] (&nbsp;2 Samuel 8:3; &nbsp;2 Kings 4:21; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:26). [[Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] were never conquered; therefore the complete fulfillment remains for the millennial state, when "the meek shall inherit the land," and &nbsp;Psalms 72:8-10 shall be realized; compare &nbsp;Luke 20:37. The taking of [[Hagar]] the Egyptian, Sarai's maid, at the suggestion of Sarai, now 75 years old, was a carnal policy to realize the promise in Ishmael. </p> <p> Family quarreling was the inevitable result, and Hagar fled from Sarai, who dealt hardly with her maid when that maid despised her mistress. Abraham in his 99th year was recalled to the standing of faith by Jehovah's charge, "Walk before Me and be thou perfect" (Genesis 17). God then gave circumcision as seal of the covenant of righteousness by faith, which he had while yet uncircumcised (Romans 4). His name was changed at circumcision from [[Abram]] to Abraham (father of many nations), to mark that the covenant was not to include merely his seed after the flesh, the Israelites, but the numerous [[Gentile]] nations also, who in his Seed, Christ, should be children of his faith (Galatians 3). Sarai (my princess, or "nobility," Gesenius) became [[Sarah]] (princess) no longer queen of one family, but spiritually of all nations (&nbsp;Galatians 3:16). The promise now advances a stage further in explicitness, being definitely assigned to a son to be born of Sarah. </p> <p> Its temporal blessings [[Ishmael]] shall share, but the spiritual and everlasting with the temporal are only to be through Sarah's son. Sarah laughed. more from joy though not without unbelief, as her subsequent laugh and God's rebuke imply (&nbsp;Genesis 18:12-15). Now first, Jehovah, with two ministering angels, reveals Himself and His judicial purposes (Genesis 18) in familiar intercourse with Abraham as "the friend of God" (&nbsp;John 15:15; &nbsp;Psalms 25:14; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;James 2:23; &nbsp;Amos 3:7), and accepts his intercession to a very great extent for the doomed cities of the plain. The passionate intercession was probably prompted by feeling for his kinsman Lot, who was in Sodom, for he intercedes only for Sodom, not also for Gomorrah, an undesigned propriety, a mark of genuineness. This epiphany of God contrasts in familiarity with the more distant and solemn manifestations of earlier and later times. </p> <p> [[Loving]] confidence takes the place of instinctive fear, as in man's intercourse with God in Eden; Moses similarly (&nbsp;Exodus 33:11; &nbsp;Numbers 12:8); Peter, James, and John on the mount of transfiguration (Matthew 17). A mile from Hebron stands a massive oak, called "Abraham's oak." His abode was "the oaks of Mamre" (as &nbsp;Genesis 18:1 ought to be translated, not "plains".) A terebinth tree was supposed in Josephus' time to mark the spot. It stood within the enclosure, "Abraham's house." Isaac's birth, beyond nature, the type of Him whose name is [[Wonderful]] (&nbsp;Luke 1:35-37, and contrast Mary's joy with Sarah's half incredulous laugh and Zacharias' unbelief, &nbsp;Luke 1:38; &nbsp;Luke 1:45-47; &nbsp;Luke 1:20), was the first grand earnest of the promise. Ishmael's expulsion, though painful to the father who clung to him (&nbsp;Genesis 17:18), was needed to teach Abraham that all ties must give way to the one great end. The full spiritual meaning of it, but faintly revealed to Abraham, appears in &nbsp;Galatians 4:22-31. </p> <p> When Isaac was 25 years old the crowning trial whereby Abraham's. faith was perfected took place (&nbsp;James 2:21-23). Still it was his faith, not his work, which was "imputed to him for righteousness"; but the faith that justified him was evinced, by his offering at God's command his son, to be not a dead but a living "faith that works by love." Paul's doctrine is identical with James's (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 13:2; &nbsp;Galatians 5:6). The natural feelings of the father, the divine promise specially attached to Isaac, born out of due time and beyond nature, a promise which seemed impossible to be fulfilled if Isaac were slain, the divine command against human bloodshedding (&nbsp;Genesis 9:5-6), —all might well perplex him. But it was enough for him that God had commanded; his faith obeyed, leaving confidently the solution of the perplexities to God, "accounting that God was able to raise Isaac even from the dead" (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:19), "from whence he received him in a figure." The "figure" was: Isaac's death (in Abraham's intention) and rescue from it (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 1:9-10) vividly represented Christ's death and resurrection on the "third" day (&nbsp;Genesis 22:4). </p> <p> The ram's substitution represented Christ's vicarious death: it was then that Abraham saw Christ's day and was glad (&nbsp;John 8:56). The scene was [[Moriah]] (i.e. chosen by Jehovah); others suppose Moreh, three days' journey from Beersheba. His faith was rewarded by the original promises being now confirmed by Jehovah's oath by Himself (&nbsp;Hebrews 6:13; &nbsp;Hebrews 6:17); and his believing reply to his son, "God will provide Himself a lamb," received its lasting commemoration in the name of that place, Jehovah Jireh, "the Lord will provide." His giving up his only and well beloved son (by Sarah) typifies the Father's not sparing the Only [[Begotten]] Son who is in the bosom of the Father, in order that He might spare us. Sarah died at Kirjath Arba, whither Abraham had returned from Beersheba. The only possession he got, and that, by purchase from the Hittites, was a burying place for Sarah, the cave of Machpelah, said to be under the mosque of Hebron. </p> <p> His care that he and his should be utterly separated from idolatry appears in his strict charge to Eliezer as to the choice of Isaac's wife, not to take a [[Canaanite]] woman nor yet to bring his son back to Abraham's original home. Abraham being left alone at Isaac's marriage, and having his youthful vigor renewed at Isaac's generation, married Keturah. The children by her, [[Midian]] and others, he sent away, lest they should dispute the inheritance with Isaac after his death. He died at 175 years, Isaac and Ishmael joining to bury him beside Sarah. Through his descendants, the Arabs, Israelites, and descendants of Midian, "children of the East," Abraham's name is still widely known in Asia. As "father of the faithful," who left home and all at the call of God, to be a sojourner in tents, he typifies Him who at the Father's call left His own heaven to be a homeless stranger on earth, and to sacrifice Himself, the unspeakably precious Lamb, for us: "the Word tabernacled Greek &nbsp;John 1:14 among us." </p>

<p> Son of Terah and grandson of Nahor, the seventh descendant from Shem. His name was at first ABRAM, 'father of elevation;' but was altered by God into ABRAHAM, 'father of a multitude.' In this name (Abraham) the blessing of the [[Gentiles]] is secured by God. The family dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees, and were idolaters. &nbsp;Joshua 24:2 . Abraham was the first to receive a definite <i> call </i> from God to leave not only the idolatrous nation to which his ancestors belonged, but to leave his kindred and his father's house and to go into a land that God would show him. God would bless him and make him a blessing, and bless all who blessed him and would curse all who cursed him. &nbsp; Genesis 12:1-3 . He thus became the depositary of God's promise and blessing. Abraham at first only partially obeyed the call: he left Ur and went to dwell at Haran, in [[Mesopotamia]] (Charran in &nbsp;Acts 7:4 ), but <i> with </i> his father and kindred; and did not enter Canaan until the death of his father. When in the land God promised that unto his seed He would give the land. Abraham built an altar, and called upon the name of Jehovah. A famine occurring in the land Abraham went to sojourn in Egypt, and for want of faith he called Saraihis sister and she was taken into the house of Pharaoh, but the Lord protected her, and Abraham with his wife was sent away with a rebuke. When near Bethel he could again call on the name of the Lord. He had now become so rich in cattle that disputes arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot, and Abraham asked Lot to choose where he would sojourn, if he went to the right Abraham would go to the left; and they separated. Again Jehovah declared that as far as Abraham's eye could reach in all directions the land should belong to his seed. The next recorded event is that Lot was taken prisoner and carried to the north. Abraham pursued the enemy and recovered all. He refused to take even a thread of the spoil from the king of Sodom: he would not be made rich from such a source; but he was blessed by Melchisedec, king of Salem, the priest of the most high God, who brought forth bread and wine: to whom Abraham gave tenths of all. See [[Melchisedec]] God now revealed Himself to Abraham as His shield and exceeding great reward. </p> <p> When Abraham lamented to God that he had no son, God declared that he should have a son, and that his seed should be as the stars of the heaven for multitude. <i> Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him for righteousness. </i> This is the first time that faith is spoken of. Still he asked whereby should he know that his seed should possess the land, and was told to take a heifer, a she goat, and a ram, all of three years old, a turtle dove and a young pigeon. These he divided in the midst, except the birds, and laid them one against another. When the sun went down a smoking furnace and a burning lamp passed between the pieces: type of the fire that consumes the dross, and a light for the path. The same day God made a <i> covenant </i> with Abraham that to his seed should the land be given from the river of Egypt to the great river [[Euphrates]] : cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 34:18,19 : it had been ratified in death, a type of Christ. When Abraham had fallen into a deep sleep, he was informed that his seed should be in a strange land, and be afflicted 400 years. &nbsp;Genesis 15 See [[Israel In Egypt]]  </p> <p> Abraham had believed that God would give him a son, but now he waits not God's time, and at Sarai's suggestion he associates with Hagar, a bondmaid, and Ishmael is born, &nbsp;Genesis 16 . — a figure of the law, that is, man's attempt to possess the blessing by his own effort. </p> <p> God now reveals Himself to Abraham as 'the almighty God,' a name which signifies that all resource is in God Himself. 'God talked with him,' and made a covenant with him according to that name. It is now that his name is changed from Abram, because he was to be a father of many nations. Abraham was to walk before the [[Almighty]] God and be perfect, and was to keep the covenant by having all the males circumcised (a figure of no confidence in the flesh), which he at once put into practice. Sarai's s name was altered to Sarah, for she was to be a <i> princess </i> and should have a son. </p> <p> Abraham entertained three visitors: on two leaving him the third is spoken of as the Lord who asks, "shall I hide from Abraham the thing which I do?" According to &nbsp;John 15:14,15 , this gives the key to Abraham being called "the friend of God." &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8; &nbsp;James 2:23 . God opened His mind to him, and Abraham was emboldened to plead for the righteous in Sodom. </p> <p> Abraham's faith again fails him and at Gerar he once more calls Sarah his sister, which might have led to sin had not God protected her, and Abraham is again rebuked. </p> <p> Isaac is born, and conflict ensues between that which is a type of the flesh and the Spirit: Hagar and her son Ishmael are cast out. &nbsp;Genesis 21 : cf. &nbsp;Galatians 4:22-31 . God then tried the faith of Abraham by telling him to offer up his son Isaac for a burnt offering. Abraham obeyed, and, but for the intervention of the angel of the Lord, would have killed his son, believing "that God was able to raise him up even from the dead." After the death and resurrection in figure of Isaac, the unconditional promise is confirmed to Abraham that in his seed — which is Christ — should all the nations of the earth be blessed. &nbsp;Genesis 22:18; &nbsp;Galatians 3:14-18 . If any are Christ's, they are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to promise. &nbsp;Galatians 3:29 . The promise is sure to all the seed, "not only to that which is of the law, but to that also which is of the faith of Abraham, who is the father of us all." &nbsp;Romans 4:16 . </p> <p> Abraham was by faith so much a stranger (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:9 ) that, on the death of Sarah, he had to buy a piece of ground of the children of Heth, to secure a sepulchre in the land. &nbsp;Genesis 23 . He was so careful that Isaac should not marry one of the daughters of the Canaanites that he sent his servant (Eliezer perhaps) to his own kindred to seek a bride for Isaac, being convinced that God would send His angel and prosper the mission, which resulted in [[Rebecca]] being the wife of Isaac. &nbsp;Genesis 24 . </p> <p> Abraham had another wife, Keturah, and concubines by whom he had sons; but to these he gave gifts and sent them eastward, so that Isaac and his seed might peacefully dwell in the promised land. Abraham died at the age of 175, and was buried with Sarah. </p> <p> The history of Abraham in Genesis divides itself into three parts. <i> a. </i> &nbsp; Genesis 12 - 14., his public walk and testimony as called of God. <i> b. </i> &nbsp; Genesis 15 - 21., his private and domestic history with God, illustrating the growth of soul, etc. <i> c. </i> &nbsp;Genesis 22 - 25. give in type a prophetical outline of events: namely, the sacrifice of Christ; the setting aside of Israel for a time; the call of the bride; and the final settlement of the nations in blessing in the end of the days. </p> <p> The nation of Israel was descended from Abraham, and we know how zealously they contended for the relationship, though alas, they had not and have not the same faith. Still the land was given to them, and when God's set time comes they will surely be brought back to their 'fatherland' and after trial and discipline will be blessed therein. </p> <p> Abraham being the father of Ishmael and the other sons sent into the East it is not to be wondered at that he is a personage of universal fame in that immense quarter of the world, and that there are numerous traditions concerning him. It can hardly be doubted that their relationship to Abraham will yet be found in their favour during the millennium when the promise that his seed should be 'as the sand of the sea shore' will have its fulfilment. </p> <p> To the Christian the life of this patriarch is worthy of the deepest attention, in view of the varied manifestations whereby God revealed Himself to him, whether in the formation of his character under those manifestations, or in the Christian's connections with him in the way of faith, or with respect to the unconditional promises made to him as to the possession of the land of Palestine both in the past and in the future. </p>

<p> '''A'braham.''' ''(Father Of A Multitude).'' Abraham was the son of Terah, and founder of the great Hebrew nation. (B.C. 1996-1822). His family, a branch of the descendants of Shem, was settled in Ur of the Chaldees, beyond the Euphrates, where Abraham was born. Terah had two other sons, Nahor and Haran. Haran died before his father in Ur of the Chaldees, leaving a son, Lot; and Terah, taking with him Abram, with Sarai his wife and his grandson Lot, emigrated to Haran in Mesopotamia, where he died. </p> <p> On the death of his father, Abram, then in the 75th year of his age, with Sarai and Lot, pursued his course to the land of Canaan, whither he was directed by divine command, &nbsp;Genesis 12:5, when he received the general promise that he should become the founder of a great nation, and that all the families of the earth should be blessed in him. He passed through the heart of the country by the great highway to Shechem, and pitched his tent beneath the terebinth of Moreh. &nbsp;Genesis 12:6. Here he received in vision from [[Jehovah]] the further revelation that this was the land which his descendants should inherit. &nbsp;Genesis 12:7. </p> <p> The next halting-place of the wanderer was on a mountain between Bethel and Ai, &nbsp;Genesis 12:8, but the country was suffering from famine, and Abram journeyed still southward to the rich corn lands of Egypt. There, fearing that the great beauty of Sarai might tempt the powerful monarch of Egypt and expose his own life to peril, he arranged that Sarai should represent herself as his sister, which her actual relationship to him, as probably the daughter of his brother Haran, allowed her to do with some semblance of truth. But her beauty was reported to the king, and she was taken into the royal harem. The deception was discovered, and Pharaoh with some indignation dismissed Abram from the country. &nbsp;Genesis 12:10-20. </p> <p> He left Egypt with great possessions, and, accompanied by Lot, returned by the south of Palestine to his former encampment between Bethel and Ai. The increased wealth of the two kinsmen was the ultimate cause of their separation. Lot chose the fertile plain of the [[Jordan]] near Sodom, while Abram pitched his tent among the groves of Mamre, close to Hebron. &nbsp;Genesis 13:1. </p> <p> Lot with his family and possessions having been carried away captive by Chedorlaomer king of Elam, who had invaded Sodom, Abram pursued the conquerors and utterly routed them not far from Damascus. The captives and plunder were all recovered, and Abram was greeted on his return by the king of Sodom, and by [[Melchizedek]] king of Salem, priest of the most high God, who mysteriously appears upon the scene to bless the patriarch and receive from him a tenth of the spoil. &nbsp;Genesis 14:1. </p> <p> After this, the thrice-repeated promise that his descendants should become a mighty nation and possess the land in which he was a stranger was confirmed with all the solemnity of a religious ceremony. &nbsp;Genesis 15:1. Ten years had passed since he had left his father's house, and the fulfillment of the promise was apparently more distant than at first. At the suggestion of Sarai, who despaired of having children of her own, he took as his concubine Hagar, her Egyptian main, who bore him Ishmael in the 86th year of his age. &nbsp;Genesis 16:1. ''See '' '''Hagar; Ishmael''' ''.'' </p> <p> But this was not the accomplishment of the promise. [[Thirteen]] years elapsed, during which Abram still dwelt in Hebron, when the covenant was renewed, and the rite of circumcision established as its sign. This most important crisis in Abram's life, when he was 99 years old, is marked by the significant change of his name to Abraham, "father of a multitude;" while his wife's from Sarai became Sarah. </p> <p> The promise that Sarah should have a son was repeated in the remarkable scene described in Genesis 18. Three men stood before Abraham as he sat in his tent door in the heat of the day. The patriarch, with true Eastern hospitality, welcomed the strangers, and bade them rest and refresh themselves. The meal ended, they foretold the birth of Isaac, and went on their way to Sodom. Abraham accompanied them, and is represented as an interlocutor in a dialogue with [[Jehovah]] , in which he pleaded in vain to avert the vengeance threatened to the devoted cities of the plain. &nbsp;Genesis 18:17-33. </p> <p> In remarkable contrast with Abraham's firm faith with regard to the magnificent fortunes of his posterity stand the incident which occurred during his temporary residence among the [[Philistines]] in Gerar, whither he had for some cause removed after the destruction of Sodom. It was almost a repetition of what took place in Egypt a few years before. At length Isaac, the long-looked for child, was born. Sarah's jealousy aroused by the mockery of Ishmael at the "great banquet" which Abram made to celebrate the weaning of her son, &nbsp;Genesis 21:9 demanded that, with his mother Hagar, he should be driven out. &nbsp;Genesis 21:10. </p> <p> But the severest trial of his faith was yet to come. For a long period the history is almost silent. At length he receives the strange command to take Isaac, his only son, and offer him for a [[Burnt]] [[Offering]] at an appointed place Abraham hesitated not to obey. His faith, hitherto unshaken, supported him in this final trial, "accounting that God was able to raise up his son, even from the dead, from whence also he received him in a figure." &nbsp;Hebrews 11:19. The sacrifice was stayed by the angel of [[Jehovah]] , the promise of spiritual blessing made for the first time, and Abraham with his son returned to Beersheba, and for a time dwelt there. &nbsp;Genesis 22:1. </p> <p> But we find him after a few years in his original residence at Hebron, for there Sarah died, &nbsp;Genesis 23:2, and was buried in the cave of Machpelah. The remaining years of Abraham's life are marked by but few incidents. After Isaac's marriage with [[Rebekah]] and his removal to Lahai-roi, Abraham took to wife Keturah, by whom he had six children, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok and Shuah, who became the ancestors of nomadic tribes inhabiting the countries south and southeast of Palestine. </p> <p> Abraham lived to see the gradual accomplishment of the promise in the birth of his grandchildren Jacob and Esau, and witnessed their growth to manhood. &nbsp;Genesis 25:26. At the goodly age of 175, he was "gathered to his people," and laid beside Sarah in the tomb of Machpelah by his sons Isaac and Ishmael. &nbsp;Genesis 25:7-10. </p>

<p> &nbsp;Genesis 24:2 (c) In this passage Abraham is a type of the Father who sent His servant (the Spirit) to obtain a bride (Rebecca) for his son Isaac. The servant represents the [[Holy]] Spirit, and Isaac represents the Lord [[Jesus Christ]] Of course, Abraham represents GOD the Father. Rebecca. represents the Church. The Holy Spirit knocks at the heart's door, tells of the loveliness, the riches and the glory of the Son of GOD, and thus wins the stranger and makes him willing to leave his old haunts and companions to live for and with [[Jesus Christ]]  the Son. </p> <p> &nbsp;Romans 4:3 (c) He is a type of the true believer from the standpoint of "faith." </p> <ul> <li> He was called out of idolatry by GOD, and so are we. </li> <li> He took the path of separation, and so should we. </li> <li> He obeyed GOD, and walked in a path of obedience, as we should do. </li> <li> He believed GOD about the "seed" (CHRIST), so do we. </li> <li> He was made righteous through believing in [[Christ]] So are we. </li> </ul> <p> GOD revealed His secrets to Abraham, the man of faith, and so He does today to those who believe His Word. </p> <p> Abraham was the father of the faithful, and we too who believe GOD should have spiritual children who have faith as we have. </p>

<p> ''''' a´bra ''''' - ''''' ham ''''' : </p> <p> I. Name </p> <p> 1. Various Forms </p> <p> 2. Etymology </p> <p> 3. Association </p> <p> II. [[Kindred]] </p> <p> III. Career </p> <p> 1. Period of [[Wandering]] </p> <p> 2. Period of [[Residence]] at Hebron </p> <p> 3. Period of Residence in the Negeb </p> <p> IV. [[Conditions]] of Life </p> <p> 1. Economic Conditions </p> <p> 2. Social Conditions </p> <p> 3. Political Conditions </p> <p> 4. Cultural Conditions </p> <p> V. Character </p> <p> 1. [[Religious]] Beliefs </p> <p> 2. [[Morality]] </p> <p> 3. Personal Traits </p> <p> VI. Significance in the History of [[Religion]] </p> <p> 1. In the Old Testament </p> <p> 2. In the New Testament </p> <p> 3. In Jewish Tradition </p> <p> 4. In the Koran </p> <p> VII. Interpretations of the Story Other Than [[Historical]] </p> <p> 1. The Allegorical [[Interpretation]] </p> <p> 2. The Personification Theory </p> <p> 3. The Mythical Theory </p> <p> 4. The "Saga" Theory </p> I. Name <p> 1. Various Forms </p> <p> In the Old Testament, when applied, to the patriarch, the name appears as אברם , <i> ''''' 'abhrām ''''' </i> , up to &nbsp;Genesis 17:5; thereafter always as אברהם , <i> ''''' 'abhrāhām ''''' </i> ̌ . Two other persons are named אבירם , <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄rām ''''' </i> ̌ . The identity of this name with <i> ''''' 'abhrām ''''' </i> cannot be doubted in view of the variation between <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄nēr ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'abhnēr ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄shālōm ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'abhshālōm ''''' </i> , etc. Abraham also appears in the list at Karnak of places conquered by Sheshonk I: <i> ''''' 'brm ''''' </i> (no. 72) represents ברם ), with which Spiegelberg ( <i> Aegypt. Randglossen zum Altes Testament </i> , 14) proposes to connect the preceding name (so that the whole would read "the field of Abram." Outside of Palestine this name ( <i> ''''' Abirāmu ''''' </i> ) has come to light just where from the Biblical tradition we should expect to find it, namely, in [[Babylonia]] (e.g. in a contract of the reign of Apil-Sin, second predecessor of ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' ; also for the aunt (!) of [[Esarhaddon]] 680-669 bc). Ungnad has recently found it, among documents from Dilbat dating from the ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' dynasty, in the forms <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> , as well as <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> . </p> <p> 2. Etymology </p> <p> Until this latest discovery of the apparently full, historical form of the Babylonian equivalent, the best that could be done with the etymology was to make the first constituent "father of" (construct <i> -i </i> rather than suffix <i> -i </i> ), and the second constituent "Ram," a proper name or an abbreviation of a name. (Yet observe above its use in [[Assyria]] for a woman; compare [[Abishag]]; [[Abigail]] ). Some were inclined rather to concede that the second element was a mystery, like the second element in the majority of names beginning with <i> ''''' 'ābh ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'aḥ ''''' </i> , "father" and "brother." But the full cuneiform writing of the name, with the case-ending am, indicates that the noun "father" is in the accusative, governed by the verb which furnishes the second component, and that this verb therefore is probably <i> ''''' rāmu ''''' </i> (= Hebrew רחם , <i> ''''' rāḥam ''''' </i> ) "to love," etc.; so that the name would mean something like "he loves the (his) father." (So Ungnad, also Ranke in Gressmann's article "Sage und Geschichte in den Patriarchenerzahlungen," <i> ZATW </i> (1910), 3.) [[Analogy]] proves that this is in the Babylonian fashion of the period, and that judging from the various writings of this and similar names, its pronunciation was not far from <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rām ''''' </i> ̌ . </p> <p> 3. Association </p> <p> While the name is thus not "Hebrew" in origin, it made itself thoroughly at home among the Hebrews, and to their ears conveyed associations quite different from its etymological signification. "Popular etymology" here as so often doubtless led the Hebrew to hear in <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rām ''''' </i> , "exalted father," a designation consonant with the patriarch's national and religious significance. In the form <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rāhām ''''' </i> his ear caught the echo of some root (perhaps <i> r-h-m </i> ; compare Arabic <i> ''''' ruhām ''''' </i> , "multitude") still more suggestive of the patriarch's extensive progeny, the reason ("for") that accompanies the change of name &nbsp;Genesis 17:5 being intended only as a verbal echo of the sense in the sound. This longer and commoner form is possibly a dialectical variation of the shorter form, a variation for which there are analogies in comparative Semitic grammar. It is, however, possible also that the two forms are different names, and that <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rāhām ''''' </i> is etymologically, and not merely by association of sound, "father of a multitude" (as above). (Another theory, based on South-Arabic orthography, in Hommel, <i> Altisraelitische Ueberlieferung </i> , 177.) </p> II. Kindred <p> &nbsp;Genesis 11:27 , which introduces Abraham, contains the heading, "These are the generations of Terah." All the story of Abraham is contained within the section of Genesis so entitled. Through Terah Abraham's ancestry is traced back to Shem, and he is thus related to Mesopotamian and Arabian families that belonged to the "Semitic" race. He is further connected with this race geographically by his birthplace, which is given as <i> ''''' 'ūr ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' kasdı̄m ''''' </i> (see UR), and by the place of his pre-Canaanitish residence, Haran in the [[Aramean]] region. The purely Semitic ancestry of his descendants through Isaac is indicated by his marriage with his own half-sister (&nbsp;Genesis 20:12 ), and still further emphasized by the choice for his daughter-in-law of Rebekah, descended from both of his brothers, Nahor and Haran (&nbsp;Genesis 11:29; &nbsp;Genesis 22:22 ). Both the beginning and the end of the residence in Haran are left chronologically undetermined, for the new beginning of the narrative at &nbsp;Genesis 12:1 is not intended by the writer to indicate chronological sequence, though it has been so understood, e.g. by [[Stephen]] (&nbsp; Acts 7:4 ). All that is definite in point of time is that an Aramean period of residence intervened between the Babylonian origin and the Palestinian career of Abraham. It is left to a comparison of the Biblical data with one another and with the data of archaeology, to fix the opening of Abraham's career in Palestine not far from the middle of the 20th century bc. </p> III. Career <p> Briefiy summed up, that career was as follows. </p> <p> 1. Period of Wandering </p> <p> Abraham, endowed with Yahweh's promise of limitless blessing, leaves Haran with Lot his nephew and all their establishment, and enters Canaan. Successive stages of the slow journey southward are indicated by the mention of Shechem, Bethel and the Negeb (South-country). Driven by famine into Egypt, Abraham finds hospitable reception, though at the price of his wife's honor, whom the Pharaoh treats in a manner characteristic of an Egyptian monarch. (Gressmann, op. cit., quotes from Meyer, <i> Geschichte des Alterthums </i> , 12, 142, the passage from a magic formula in the pyramid of Unas, a Pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty: "Then he (namely, the Pharaoh) takes away the wives from their husbands whither he will if desire seize his heart.") Retracing the path to Canaan with an augmented train, at Bethel Abraham and Lot find it necessary to part company. Lot and his dependents choose for residence the great Jordan Depression; Abraham follows the backbone of the land southward to Hebron, where he settles, not in the city, but before its gates "by the great trees" (Septuagint sing., "oak") of Mamre. </p> <p> 2. Period of Residence at Hebron </p> <p> [[Affiliation]] between Abraham and the local chieftains is strengthened by a brief campaign, in which all unite their available forces for the rescue of Lot from an [[Elamite]] king and his confederates from Babylonia. The pursuit leads them as far as the [[Lebanon]] region. On the return they are met by Melchizedek, king of Salem, priest of <i> ''''' 'ēl ‛elyōn ''''' </i> , and blessed by him in his priestly capacity, which Abraham recognizes by presenting him with a tithe of the spoils. Abraham's anxiety for a son to be the bearer of the divine promises conferred upon a "seed" yet unborn should have been relieved by the solemn renewal thereof in a formal covenant, with precise specifications of God's gracious purpose. But human desire cannot wait upon divine wisdom, and the Egyptian woman Hagar bears to Abraham a son, Ishmael, whose existence from its inception proves a source of moral evil within the patriarchal household. The sign of circumcision and the change of names are given in confirmation of the covenant still unrealized, together with specification of the time and the person that should begin its realization. The theophany that symbolized outwardly this climax of the Divine favor serves also for an intercessory colloquy, in which Abraham is granted the deliverance of Lot in the impending overthrow of Sodom. Lot and his family, saved thus by human fidelity and Divine clemency, exhibit in the moral traits shown in their escape and subsequent life the degeneration naturally to be expected from their corrupt environment. [[Moabites]] and [[Ammonites]] are traced in their origin to these cousins of Jacob and Esau. </p> <p> 3. Period of Residence in the Negeb </p> <p> Removal to the South-country did not mean permanent residence in a single spot, but rather a succession of more or less temporary resting-places. The first of these was in the district of Gerar, with whose king, Abimelech, Abraham and his wife had an experience similar to the earlier one with the Pharaoh. The birth of Isaac was followed by the expulsion of Ishmael and his mother, and the sealing of peaceful relations with the neighbors by covenant at Beersheba. Even the birth of Isaac, however, did not end the discipline of Abraham's faith in the promise, for a Divine command to sacrifice the life of this son was accepted <i> bona fide </i> , and only the sudden interposition of a Divine prohibition prevented its obedient execution. The death of Sarah became the occasion for Abraham's acquisition of the first permanent holding of Palestine soil, the nucleus of his promised inheritance, and at the same time suggested the probable approach of his own death. This thought led to immediate provision for a future seed to inherit through Isaac, a provision realized in Isaac's marriage with Rebekah, grand-daughter of Abraham's brother Nahor and of Milcah the sister of Lot. But a numerous progeny not associated with the promise grew up in Abraham's household, children of Keturah, a woman who appears to have had the rank of wife after Sarah's death, and of other women unnamed, who were his concubines. Though this last period was passed in the Negeb, Abraham was interred at Hebron in his purchased possession, the spot with which Semitic tradition has continued to associate him to this day. </p> IV. Conditions of Life <p> The life of Abraham in its outward features may be considered under the following topics: economic, social, political and cultural conditions. </p> <p> 1. Economic Conditions </p> <p> Abraham's manner of life may best be described by the adjective "semi-nomadic," and illustrated by the somewhat similar conditions prevailing today in those border-communities of the East that fringe the [[Syrian]] and Arabian deserts. Residence is in tents, wealth consists of flocks, herds and slaves, and there is no ownership of ground, only at most a proprietorship in well or tomb. All this in common with the nomad. But there is a relative, or rather, intermittent fixity of habitation, unlike the pure Bedouin, a limited amount of agriculture, and finally a sense of divergence from the Ishmael type - all of which tend to assimilate the seminomadic Abraham to the fixed Canaanitish population about him. As might naturally be expected, such a condition is an unstable equilibrium, which tends, in the family of Abraham as in the history of all border-tribes of the desert, to settle back one way or the other, now into the city-life of Lot, now into the desert-life of Ishmael. </p> <p> 2. Social Conditions </p> <p> The head of a family, under these conditions, becomes at the same time the chief of a tribe, that live together under patriarchal rule though they by no means share without exception the tie of kinship. The family relations depicted in Gen conform to and are illuminated by the social features of <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> . (See K. D. Macmillan, article "Marriage among the Early [[Babylonians]] and Hebrews," <i> [[Princeton]] Theological Review </i> , April, 1908.) There is one legal wife, Sarah, who, because persistently childless, obtains the coveted offspring by giving her own maid to Abraham for that purpose (compare <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , sections 144, 146). The son thus borne, Ishmael, is Abraham's legal son and heir. When Isaac is later borne by Sarah, the elder son is disinherited by divine command (&nbsp;Genesis 21:10-12 ) against Abraham's wish which represented the prevailing law and custom ( <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , sections 168f). The "maid-servants" mentioned in the inventories of Abraham's wealth (&nbsp;Genesis 12:16; &nbsp;Genesis 24:35 ) doubtless furnished the "concubines" mentioned in &nbsp;Genesis 25:6 as having borne sons to him. Both mothers and children were slaves, but had the right to freedom, though not to inheritance, on the death of the father ( <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , section 171). After Sarah's death another woman seems to have succeeded to the position of legal wife, though if so the sons she bore were disinherited like Ishmael (&nbsp;Genesis 25:5 ). In addition to the children so begotten by Abraham the "men of his house" (&nbsp;Genesis 17:27 ) consisted of two classes, the "home-born" slaves (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14; &nbsp;Genesis 17:12 , &nbsp;Genesis 17:23 , &nbsp;Genesis 17:27 ) and the "purchased" slaves (ibid.). The extent of the patriarchal tribe may be surmised from the number (318) of men among them capable of bearing arms, near the beginning of Abraham's career, yet after his separation from Lot, and recruited seemingly from the "home-born" class exclusively (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14 ). Over this entire establishment Abraham ruled with a power more, rather than less, absolute than that exhibited in detail in the <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> : more absolute, because Abraham was independent of any permanent superior authority, and so combined in his own person the powers of the Babylonian <i> paterfamilias </i> and of the Canaanite city-king. Social relations outside of the family-tribe may best be considered under the next heading. </p> <p> 3. Political Conditions </p> <p> It is natural that the chieftain of so considerable an organism should appear an attractive ally and a formidable foe to any of the smaller political units of his environment. That Canaan was at the time composed of just such inconsiderable units, namely, city-states with petty kings, and scattered fragments of older populations, is abundantly clear from the Biblical tradition and verified from other sources. Egypt was the only great power with which Abraham came into political contact after leaving the East. In the section of Genesis which describes this contact with the Pharaoh Abraham is suitably represented as playing no political role, but as profiting by his stay in Egypt only through an incidental social relation: when this terminates he is promptly ejected. The role of conqueror of Chedorlaomer, the Elamite invader, would be quite out of keeping with Abraham's political status elsewhere, if we were compelled by the narrative in Gen 14 to suppose a pitched battle between the forces of Abraham and those of the united Babylonian armies. What that chapter requires is in fact no more than a midnight surprise, by Abraham's band (including the forces of confederate chieftains), of a rear-guard or baggage-train of the Babylonians inadequately manned and picketed ("Slaughter" is quite too strong a rendering of the original <i> ''''' hakkōth ''''' </i> , "smiting," &nbsp;Genesis 14:17 ) [[Respect]] shown Abraham by the kings of Salem (&nbsp;Genesis 14:18 ), of Sodom (&nbsp;Genesis 14:21 ) and of Gerar (&nbsp;Genesis 20:14-16 ) was no more than might be expected from their relative degrees of political importance, although a moral precedence, assumed in the tradition, may well have contributed to this respect. </p> <p> 4. Cultural Conditions </p> <p> Recent archaeological research has revolutionized our conception of the degree of culture which Abraham could have possessed and therefore presumably did possess. The high plane which literature had attained in both Babylonia and Egypt by 2000 bc is sufficient witness to the opportunities open to the man of birth and wealth in that day for the interchange of lofty thought. And, without having recourse to Abraham's youth in Babylonia, we may assert even for the scenes of Abraham's maturer life the presence of the same culture, on the basis of a variety of facts, the testimony of which converges in this point, that Canaan in the second millennium bc was at the center of the intellectual life of the East and cannot have failed to afford, to such of its inhabitants as chose to avail themselves of it, every opportunity for enjoying the fruits of others' culture and for recording the substance of their own thoughts, emotions and activities </p> V. Character <p> Abraham's inward life may be considered under the rubrics of religion, ethics and personal traits. </p> <p> 1. Religious Beliefs </p> <p> The religion of Abraham centered in his faith in one God, who, because believed by him to be possessor of heaven and earth (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22; &nbsp;Genesis 24:3 ), sovereign judge of the nations (&nbsp;Genesis 15:14 ) of all the earth (&nbsp;Genesis 18:25 ), disposer of the forces of Nature (&nbsp;Genesis 18:14; &nbsp;Genesis 19:24; &nbsp;Genesis 20:17 ), exalted (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22 ) and eternal (&nbsp;Genesis 21:33 ), was for Abraham at least the only God. So far as the Biblical tradition goes, Abraham's monotheism was not aggressive (otherwise in later Jewish tradition), and it is theoretically possible to attribute to him a merely "monarchical" or "henotheistic" type of monotheism, which would admit the coexistence with his deity, say, of the "gods which (his) fathers served" (&nbsp;Joshua 24:14 ), or the identity with his deity of the supreme god of some Canaanite neighbor (&nbsp;Genesis 14:18 ). Yet this distinction of types of monotheism does not really belong to the sphere of religion as such, but rather to that of speculative philosophical thought. As religion, monotheism is just monotheism, and it asserts itself in corollaries drawn by the intellect only so far as the scope of the monotheist's intellectual life applies it. For Abraham [[Yahweh]] not only was alone God; He was also his personal God in a closeness of fellowship (&nbsp;Genesis 24:40; &nbsp;Genesis 48:15 ) that has made him for three religions the type of the pious man (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8 , &nbsp;James 2:23 , note the Arabic name of Hebron <i> ''''' [[El]] ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Khalı̄l ''''' </i> , i.e. the friend (viz of God)) To Yahweh Abraham attributed the moral attributes of [[Justice]] (&nbsp;Genesis 18:25 ), righteousness (&nbsp;Genesis 18:19 ), faithfulness (&nbsp;Genesis 24:27 ), wisdom (&nbsp;Genesis 20:6 ), goodness (&nbsp;Genesis 19:19 ), mercy (&nbsp;Genesis 20:6 ). These qualities were expected of men, and their contraries in men were punished by Yahweh (&nbsp;Genesis 18:19; &nbsp;Genesis 20:11 ). He manifested Himself in dreams (&nbsp;Genesis 20:3 ), visions (&nbsp;Genesis 15:1 ) and theophanies (&nbsp;Genesis 18:1 ), including the voice or apparition of the Divine <i> ''''' mal'ākh ''''' </i> or messenger ("angel") (&nbsp;Genesis 16:7; &nbsp;Genesis 22:11 ) On man's part, in addition to obedience to Yahweh's moral requirements and special commands, the expression of his religious nature was expected in sacrifice. This bringing of offerings to the deity was diligently practiced by Abraham, as indicated by the mention of his erection of an altar at each successive residence. Alongside of this act of sacrifice there is sometimes mention of a "calling upon the name" of Yahweh (compare &nbsp;1 Kings 18:24; &nbsp;Psalm 116:13 ). This publication of his faith, doubtless in the presence of Canaanites, had its counterpart also in the public regard in which he was held as a "prophet" or spokesman for God (&nbsp;Genesis 20:7 ). His mediation showed itself also in intercessory prayer (&nbsp;Genesis 17:20 for Ishmael; &nbsp; Genesis 18:23-32; compare &nbsp;Genesis 19:29 for Lot; &nbsp; Genesis 20:17 for Abimelech), which was but a phase of his general practice of prayer. The usual accompaniment of sacrifice, a professional priesthood, does not occur in Abraham's family, yet he recognizes priestly prerogative in the person of Melchizedek, priest-king of Salem (&nbsp; Genesis 14:20 ). Religious sanction of course surrounds the taking of oaths (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22; &nbsp;Genesis 24:3 ) and the sealing of covenants (&nbsp;Genesis 21:23 ). Other customs associated with religion are circumcision (&nbsp;Genesis 17:10-14 ), given to Abraham as the sign of the perpetual covenant; tithing (&nbsp;Genesis 14:20 ), recognized as the priest's due; and child-sacrifice (&nbsp;Genesis 22:2 , &nbsp;Genesis 22:12 ), enjoined upon Abraham only to be expressly forbidden, approved for its spirit but interdicted in its practice. </p> <p> 2. Morality </p> <p> As already indicated, the ethical attributes of God were regarded by Abraham as the ethical requirement of man. This in theory. In the sphere of applied ethics and casuistry Abraham's practice, at least, fell short of this ideal, even in the few incidents of his life preserved to us. It is clear that these lapses from virtue were offensive to the moral sense of Abraham's biographer, but we are left in the dark as to Abraham's sense of moral obliquity. (The "dust and ashes" of &nbsp;Genesis 18:27 has no moral implication.) The demands of candor and honor are not satisfactorily met, certainly not in the matter of Sarah's relationship to him (&nbsp; Genesis 12:11-13; &nbsp;Genesis 20:2; compare &nbsp;Genesis 12:11-13 ), perhaps not in the matter of Isaac's intended sacrifice (&nbsp;Genesis 22:5 , &nbsp;Genesis 22:8 ). To impose our own monogamous standard of marriage upon the patriarch would be unfair, in view of the different standard of his age and land. It is to his credit that no such scandals are recorded in his life and family as blacken the record of Lot (&nbsp;Genesis 19:30-38 ), [[Reuben]] (&nbsp;Genesis 35:22 ) and Judah (&nbsp;Genesis 38:15-18 ). Similarly, Abraham's story shows only regard for life and property, both in respecting the rights of others and in expecting the same from them - the antipodes of Ishmael's character (&nbsp;Genesis 16:12 ). </p> <p> 3. Personal Traits </p> <p> Outside, the bounds of strictly ethical requirement, Abraham's personality displayed certain characteristics that not only mark him out distinctly among the figures of history, but do him great credit as a singularly symmetrical and attractive character. Of his trust and reverence enough has been said under the head of religion. But this love that is "the fulfilling of the law," manifested in such piety toward God, showed itself toward men in exceptional generosity (&nbsp;Genesis 13:9; &nbsp;Genesis 14:23; &nbsp;Genesis 23:9 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:13; &nbsp;Genesis 24:10; &nbsp;Genesis 25:6 ), fidelity (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14 , &nbsp;Genesis 14:24; &nbsp;Genesis 17:18; &nbsp;Genesis 18:23-32; &nbsp;Genesis 19:27; &nbsp;Genesis 21:11; &nbsp;Genesis 23:2 ), hospitality (&nbsp;Genesis 18:2-8; &nbsp;Genesis 21:8 ) and compassion (&nbsp;Genesis 16:6 and &nbsp; Genesis 21:14 when rightly understood, &nbsp; Genesis 18:23-32 ). A solid self-respect (&nbsp;Genesis 14:23; &nbsp;Genesis 16:6; &nbsp;Genesis 21:25; &nbsp;Genesis 23:9 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:13 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:16; &nbsp;Genesis 24:4 ) and real courage (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14-16 ) were, however, marred by the cowardice that sacrificed Sarah to purchase personal safety where he had reason to regard life as insecure (&nbsp;Genesis 20:11 ). </p> VI. Significance in the History of Religion <p> Abraham is a significant figure throughout the Bible, and plays an important role in extra-Biblical Jewish tradition and in the Mohammedan religion. </p> <p> 1. In the Old Testament </p> <p> It is naturally as progenitor of the people of Israel, "the seed of Abraham," as they are often termed, that Abraham stands out most prominently in the Old Testament books. Sometimes the contrast between him as an individual and his numerous progeny serves to point a lesson (&nbsp;Isaiah 51:2; &nbsp;Ezekiel 33:24; perhaps &nbsp;Malachi 2:10; compare &nbsp;Malachi 2:15 ). "The God of Abraham" serves as a designation of Yahweh from the time of Isaac to the latest period; it is by this title that Moses identifies the God who has sent him with the ancestral deity of the children of Israel (&nbsp;Exodus 3:15 ). Men remembered in those later times that this God appeared to Abraham in theophany (&nbsp;Exodus 6:3 ), and, when he was still among his people who worshipped other gods (&nbsp;Joshua 24:3 ) chose him (&nbsp;Nehemiah 9:7 ), led him, redeemed him (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:22 ) and made him the recipient of those special blessings (&nbsp;Micah 7:20 ) which were pledged by covenant and oath (so every larger historical book, also the historical &nbsp;Psalm 105:9 ), notably the inheritance of the land of Canaan (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:10 ) Nor was Abraham's religious personality forgotten by his posterity: he was remembered by them as God's friend (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8 ), His servant, the very recollection of whom by God would offset the horror with which the sins of his descendants inspired Yahweh (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:27 ). </p> <p> 2. In the New Testament </p> <p> When we pass to the New Testament we are astonished at the wealth and variety of allusion to Abraham. As in the Old Testament, his position of ancestor lends him much of his significance, not only as ancestor of Israel (&nbsp;Acts 13:26 ), but specifically as ancestor, now of the [[Levitical]] priesthood (&nbsp;Hebrews 7:5 ), now of the Messiah (&nbsp;Matthew 1:1 ), now, by the peculiarly Christian doctrine of the unity of believers in Christ, of Christian believers (&nbsp;Galatians 3:16 , &nbsp;Galatians 3:29 ). All that Abraham the ancestor received through Divine election, by the covenant made with him, is inherited by his seed and passes under the collective names of the promise (&nbsp;Romans 4:13 ), the blessing (&nbsp;Galatians 3:14 ), mercy (&nbsp;Luke 1:54 ), the oath (&nbsp;Luke 1:73 ), the covenant (&nbsp;Acts 3:25 ). The way in which Abraham responded to this peculiar goodness of God makes him the type of the Christian believer. Though so far in the past that he was used as a measure of antiquity (&nbsp;John 8:58 ), he is declared to have "seen" Messiah's "day" (&nbsp;John 8:56 ). It is his faith in the Divine promise, which, just because it was for him peculiarly unsupported by any evidence of the senses, becomes the type of the faith that leads to justification (&nbsp;Romans 4:3 ), and therefore in this sense again he is the "father" of Christians, as believers (&nbsp;Romans 4:11 ). For that promise to Abraham was, after all, a "preaching beforehand" of the Christian gospel, in that it embraced "all the families of the earth" (&nbsp;Galatians 3:8 ). Of this exalted honor, James reminds us, Abraham proved himself worthy, not by an inoperative faith, but by "works" that evidenced his righteousness (&nbsp;James 2:21; compare &nbsp;John 8:39 ). The obedience that faith wrought in him is what is especially praised by the author of Hebrews (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:8 , &nbsp;Hebrews 11:17 ). In accordance with this high estimate of the patriarch's piety, we read of his eternal felicity, not only in the current conceptions of the Jews (parable, Lk 16), but also in the express assertion of our Lord (&nbsp;Matthew 8:11; &nbsp;Luke 13:28 ). Incidental historical allusions to the events of Abraham's life are frequent in the New Testament, but do not add anything to this estimate of his religious significance. </p> <p> 3. In Jewish Tradition </p> <p> Outside the [[Scriptures]] we have abundant evidence of the way that Abraham was regarded by his posterity in the Jewish nation. The oldest of these witnesses, Ecclesiasticus, contains none of the accretions of the later Abraham-legends. Its praise of Abraham is confined to the same three great facts that appealed to the canonical writers, namely, his glory as Israel's ancestor, his election to be recipient of the covenant, and his piety (including perhaps a tinge of "nomism") even under severe testing (Ecclesiasticus 44:19-21). The Improbable and often unworthy and even grotesque features of Abraham's career and character in the later rabbinical <i> ''''' midrashim ''''' </i> are of no religious significance, beyond the evidence they afford of the way Abraham's unique position and piety were cherished by the Jews. </p> <p> 4. In the Koran </p> <p> To [[Mohammed]] Abraham is of importance in several ways. He is mentioned in no less than 188 verses of the Koran, more than any other character except Moses. He is one of the series of prophets sent by God. He is the common ancestor of the [[Arab]] and the Jew. He plays the same role of religious reformer over against his idolatrous kinsmen as Mohammed himself played. He builds the first pure temple for God's worship (at Mecca!). As in the Bible so in the Koran Abraham is the recipient of the Divine covenant for himself and for his posterity, and exhibits in his character the appropriate virtues of one so highly favored: faith, righteousness, purity of heart, gratitude, fidelity, compassion. He receives marked tokens of the Divine favor in the shape of deliverance, guidance, visions, angelic messengers (no theophanies for Mohammed!), miracles, assurance of resurrection and entrance into paradise. He is called "Imam of the peoples" (2 118) </p> VII. Interpretations of the Story Other than the Historical <p> There are writers in both ancient and modern times who have, from various standpoints, interpreted the person and career of Abraham otherwise than as what it purports to be, namely, the real experiences of a human person named Abraham. These various views may be classified according to the motive or impulse which they believe to have led to the creation of this story in the mind of its author or authors. </p> <p> 1. The Allegorical Interpretation </p> <p> Philo's tract on Abraham bears as alternative titles, "On the Life of the [[Wise]] Man Made [[Perfect]] by Instruction, or, On the Unwritten Law." Abraham's life is not for him a history that serves to illustrate these things, but an allegory by which these things are embodied. Paul's use of the Sarah-Hagar episode in &nbsp;Galatians 4:21-31 belongs to this type of exposition (compare <i> ''''' allēgoroúmena ''''' </i> , &nbsp;Galatians 4:24 ), of which there are also a few other instances in his epistles; yet to infer from this that Paul shared Philo's general attitude toward the patriarchal narrative would be unwarranted, since his use of this method is incidental, exceptional, and merely corroborative of points already established by sound reason. "Luther compares it to a painting which decorates a house already built" (Schaff, "Galatians," <i> Excursus </i> ). </p> <p> 2. The Personification Theory </p> <p> As to [[Philo]] Abraham is the personification of a certain type of humanity, so to some modern writers he is the personification of the Hebrew nation or of a tribe belonging to the Hebrew group. This view, which is indeed very widely held with respect to the patriarchal figures in general, furnishes so many more difficulties in its specific application to Abraham than to the others, that it has been rejected in Abraham's case even by some who have adopted it for figures like Isaac, Ishmael and Jacob. Thus Meyer ( <i> Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme </i> , 250; compare also note on p. 251), speaking of his earlier opinion, acknowledges that, at the time when he "regarded the assertion of [[Stade]] as proved that Jacob and Isaac were tribes," even then he "still recognized Abraham as a mythical figure and originally a god." A similar differentiation of Abraham from the rest is true of most of the other adherents of the views about to be mentioned. Hence also Wellhausen says ( <i> Prolegomena </i> 6, 317): "Only Abraham is certainly no name of a people, like Isaac and Lot; he is rather ambiguous anyway. We dare not of course on that account hold him in this connection as an historical personage; rather than that he might be a free creation of unconscious fiction. He is probably the youngest figure in this company and appears to have been only at a relatively late date put before his son Isaac." </p> <p> 3. The Mythical Theory </p> <p> [[Urged]] popularly by Nöldeke ( <i> Im neuen [[Reich]] </i> (1871), I, 508ff) and taken up by other scholars, especially in the case of Abraham, the view gained general currency among those who denied the historicity of Gen, that the patriarchs were old deities. From this relatively high estate, it was held, they had fallen to the plane of mere mortals (though with remnants of the hero or even demigod here and there visible) on which they appear in Gen. A new phase of this mythical theory has been developed in the elaboration by Winckler and others of their astral-theology of the Babylonian world, in which the worship of Abraham as the moon-god by the Semites of Palestine plays a part. Abraham's traditional origin connects him with Ur and Haran, leading centers of the moon-cult. Apart from this fact the arguments relied upon to establish this identification of Abraham with [[Sin]] may be judged by the following samples: "When further the consort of Abraham bears the name Sarah, and one of the women among his closest relations the name Milcah, this gives food for thought, since these names correspond precisely with the titles of the female deities worshipped at Haran alongside the moongod Sin. Above all, however, the number 318, that appears in &nbsp; Genesis 14:14 in connection with the figure of Abraham, is convincing because this number, which surely has no historical value, can only be satisfactorily explained from the circle of ideas of the moon-religion, since in the lunar year of 354 days there are just 318 days on which the moon is visible - deducting 36 days, or three for each of the twelve months, on which the moon is invisible" (Baentsch, <i> Monotheismus </i> , 60f). In spite of this assurance, however, nothing could exceed the scorn with which these combinations and conjectures of Winckler, A. [[Jeremias]] and others of this school are received by those who in fact differ from them with respect to Abraham in little save the answer to the question, <i> what </i> deity was Abraham (see e.g. Meyer, op. cit., 252f, 256f). </p> <p> 4. The "Saga" Theory </p> <p> Gunkel ( <i> Genesis </i> , Introduction), in insisting upon the resemblance of the patriarchal narrative to the "sagas" of other primitive peoples, draws attention both to the human traits of figures like Abraham, and to the very early origin of the material embodied in our present book of Genesis. First as stories orally circulated, then as stories committed to writing, and finally as a number of collections or groups of such stories formed into a cycle, the Abraham-narratives, like the Jacob-narratives and the Joseph-narratives , grew through a long and complex literary history. Gressmann (op. cit, 9-34) amends Gunkel's results, in applying to them the principles of primitive literary development laid down by Professor Wundt in his <i> Völkerpsychologie </i> . He holds that the kernel of the Abraham-narratives is a series of fairy-stories, of international diffusion and unknown origin, which have been given "a local habitation and a name" by attaching to them the ( <i> ex hypothesi </i> ) then common name of Abraham (similarly Lot, etc.) and associating them with the country nearest to the wilderness of Judea, the home of their authors, namely, about Hebron and the [[Dead]] Sea. A high antiquity (1300-1100 bc) is asserted for these stories, their astonishing accuracy in details wherever they can be tested by extra-Biblical tradition is conceded, as also the probability that, "though many riddles still remain unsolved, yet many other traditions will be cleared up by new discoveries" of archaeology. </p>