Difference between revisions of "Abraham"

<p> <b> ABRAHAM. </b> —It is noteworthy that while in the Synoptic [[Gospels]] references to the patriarch Abraham are comparatively frequent, and his personality and relation to [[Israel]] form part of the historical background which they presuppose, and of the thoughts and conceptions which are their national inheritance, in the [[Gospel]] of St. John his name does not appear except in ch. 8. In the Synoptists he is the great historical ancestor of the Jews, holding a unique place in their reverence and affections; he is their father, as they are each of them his children (&nbsp;Matthew 3:9 || &nbsp;Luke 3:8, &nbsp;Luke 13:16; &nbsp;Luke 16:24; &nbsp;Luke 16:30; &nbsp;Luke 19:9). To this the introductory title of St. Matthew’s Gospel testifies; it is ‘the book of the generation of Jesus Christ, the son of David, <i> the son of Abraham </i> .’ And in the genealogical record that follows, his name stands at the head (&nbsp;Matthew 1:2), and through equally graduated stages,—epochs marked by the name of Israel’s most famous king, and by the nation’s most bitter humiliation (&nbsp;Matthew 1:17),—the ascent of the Christ is traced to the great fountain and source of all [[Jewish]] privilege and life. It is otherwise in the genealogy of St. Luke; and the difference indicates the different standpoints of Jewish and Gentile thought. Here the historian records no halting-places in his genealogy, but carries it back in an uninterrupted chain, of which the patriarch Abraham forms but one link (&nbsp;Luke 3:34), to its ultimate source in God. See art. Genealogies. </p> <p> Other references in the Synoptists are on the same plane of thought, and presuppose a prevalent and accepted faith, which not only knew Abraham as the forefather and founder of their national life in the far-off ages of the past, but realized that in some sort or other he was still alive; and it was believed that to be with him, to be received into his bosom (&nbsp;Luke 16:22) was the highest felicity that awaited the righteous man after death. Both St. Matthew and St. Mark bear emphatic testimony to this belief, in their narrative of the incident of our Lord’s solution of the dilemma presented by the [[Sadducees]] with their tale of the seven brothers. Jesus quotes &nbsp;Exodus 3:6 in proof of the fact of the patriarchs’ resurrection and continued existence (&nbsp;Matthew 22:32 || &nbsp;Mark 12:26, &nbsp;Luke 20:37), inasmuch as the [[Divine]] sovereignty here asserted over Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob necessarily implies the conscious life of those who are its subjects. In the Songs of Mary and Zacharias, again (&nbsp;Luke 1:46-55; &nbsp;Luke 1:68-79), Abraham is the forefather of the race, the recipient of the Divine promises (confirmed by an oath, &nbsp;Luke 1:73) of mercy and goodwill to himself and his descendants (cf. &nbsp;Galatians 3:16; &nbsp;Galatians 3:18, &nbsp;Hebrews 6:13, &nbsp;Acts 7:17, &nbsp;Romans 4:13); and his name is a pledge that the same mercy will not overlook or cease to care for his children (&nbsp;Luke 1:55). And, finally, to be with Abraham and his great sons, to ‘sit down with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven’ (&nbsp;Matthew 8:11), is the desire and reward of the faithful Israelite. This reward, however, Christ teaches, is not confined to the Jews, the sons of Abraham according to the flesh, still less is it one to which they have any right by virtue of the mere fact of physical descent from him; it is one that will be enjoyed by ‘many’ faithful ones from other lands, even to the exclusion of the ‘sons of the kingdom,’ if they prove themselves, like His present opponents, faithless and unworthy (&nbsp;Luke 13:28). </p> <p> The expression ‘ <b> Abraham’s bosom </b> ’ (&nbsp;Luke 16:22) or ‘bosoms’ (&nbsp;Luke 16:23)* [Note: The plural form is frequently used by the Greek Fathers, e.g. Chrys. Hom. XL in Gen.: τάντες οἱ δικαιοι … εὐχῆς ἔργον ποιοῦνται εἰς τοῦς κόλτους τοῦ τατριἀρχου καταντῆσαι.] is hardly to be understood as conveying the idea of an eminent or unusual degree of happiness. It is practically equivalent to ‘Paradise.’ And the new condition of blessedness in which [[Lazarus]] finds himself is pre-eminent only in the sense that it is so striking a reversal of the relations previously existing between Dives and himself. The parable says nothing of any superior piety or faith exhibited by Lazarus, which might win for him a more exalted position than others. As far as his present and past are concerned, it but sets forth retributive justice redressing for him and Dives alike the unequal balance of earth. ‘Abraham’s bosom,’ like the [[Hades]] in which the rich man lifts up his eyes, is part of the figurative or pictorial setting of the parable, and indicates no more than a haven of repose and felicity, the home and resting-place of the righteous with Abraham, who is the typical example of righteousness. The parable is on the plane of popular belief, and of set purpose employs the imagery which would be most familiar and intelligible to the hearers.† [Note: On the phrase ‘Abraham’s bosom,’ see Trench, Parables13, p. 461 ff., and the references there given; Lightfoot, Horae Heb. et Talm. iii. p. 167 ff.; Stevens, [[Theology]] of the New Testament, p. 82; Meyer, and the commentators, in loc. Cf. also Salmond in Hastings’ DB i. 17b f.] </p> <p> In conformity with the general character of St. John’s Gospel, the references to Abraham there would seem to imply a more mystical, less matter of fact and as it were prosaic manner of regarding the great patriarch. He is spoken of in the 8th chapter alone, in the course of a discussion with [[Jews]] who are said to be believers in Jesus (&nbsp;John 8:31). Here also Abraham is the father of the Jews, and they are his children, his seed (&nbsp;John 8:37; &nbsp;John 8:39; &nbsp;John 8:56); and this position they claim with pride (&nbsp;John 8:33; &nbsp;John 8:39; &nbsp;John 8:53). It is a name and position, however, which Christ declares is belied by their conduct, in that, though nominally Abraham’s seed, they do not Abraham’s works, in particular when they conceive and plot the death of an innocent man (&nbsp;John 8:39-40). To the charge itself they have no answer, except to reassert their sonship, in this instance of God Himself (&nbsp;John 8:41 f.), and to repeat the offensive imputation of demoniacal possession (&nbsp;John 8:42). But with almost startling abruptness, taking advantage of a phrase quietly introduced, which they interpret to imply freedom from physical death for those who accept Christ’s teaching, they interrupt with the assertion that Abraham died ‘and the prophets’ (&nbsp;John 8:52), in apparent contradiction to the tenor and assumption of the language which a moment before they had employed. Probably they meant no more than that he and they, like all other men, had passed through the gate of death which terminates life on earth; and were more intent on gaining a dialectic advantage than on weighing the implications of their own words. But, in spite of them, for the few moments that are left the discourse preserves the high level of other-worldliness, to which Christ’s last words have raised it; and gives occasion for one of the most striking and emphatic assertions in which He is recorded to have passed beyond the boundaries and limitations of mere earthly experience. Abraham has seen His day (&nbsp;John 8:56). And by silence He concedes and affirms the half-indignant, half-contemptuous and protesting question of the Jews; He has seen Abraham, and is greater even than their father (&nbsp;John 8:53; &nbsp;John 8:57). The climax is reached in &nbsp;John 8:58,—in a brief sentence, which, if it did not bear so evidently the stamp of simplicity and truth, would be said to have been constructed with the most consummate skill and the finest touch of artistic feeling and insight. ‘Before Abraham came into being,’—the speaker gathers up and utilizes Jewish belief in its past and reverence for its head,—‘I am.’ Abraham ἐγένετο; Christ <i> is </i> . Thus was conveyed the answer to their question, ‘Art thou greater?’ (&nbsp;John 8:53); and thus was reasserted with emphasis the measureless distance between Himself and the greatest of the Jews, and <i> a fortiori </i> , as it would appear to the company around, of the whole human race. </p> <p> It is remarkable and suggestive that in the only notice of the patriarch Jacob that is contained in the Fourth Gospel, ch. &nbsp;John 4:5 f., &nbsp;John 4:12, the same question is addressed by the woman of [[Samaria]] to Christ: ‘Art thou greater than our father Jacob,’—the Dispenser of the new water with its marvellous properties than the actual giver of the well? It was natural and inevitable that one of the questions that more particularly forced itself upon the attention of His contemporaries should be the relation of the Teacher, who had arisen in their midst and who claimed so great things, not only to the earlier prophets, but to the patriarchs and ancestors of the Jewish nation. See further art. Jacob. </p> <p> The figure of Abraham, therefore, in the Gospels is idealized, and invested with a simple grandeur as the head and founder of the race in the indistinct ages of the past, to whom are owing its present privileges, and around whom gather its future hopes. There is, however, no indication of hero-worship, as in the case of the more or less mythical ancestors of other peoples. This conception, moreover, apart from St. John’s Gospel, is purely patriarchal. The characteristic [[Pauline]] presentation of Abraham as the father of the faithful in a moral and spiritual sense, as the type and pattern of all righteousness and obedience, as it is developed in the [[Epistles]] to the Romans and Galatians, is absent (cf. also &nbsp;Hebrews 11:8 ff., &nbsp;James 2:21; &nbsp;James 2:23). References to the details of his history are not indeed wanting in the remaining books of the New Testament, but they are all, as it were, with a moral and didactic purpose: &nbsp;Galatians 4:22, the two covenants; &nbsp;Hebrews 7:1 ff., Abraham and Melchizedek; &nbsp;Romans 4:18 f. and &nbsp;Hebrews 11:8; &nbsp;Hebrews 11:17, faith exhibited in the abandonment of his fatherland, in the birth and offering up of Isaac; &nbsp;Acts 7:2; &nbsp;Acts 7:16, the same abandonment of his country and the purchase of a tomb from the sons of [[Emmor]] in Sychem; cf. &nbsp;1 Peter 3:6, with a possible reference to &nbsp;Genesis 18:12. </p> <p> Later Hebrew literature discussed especially this aspect of his character, and the historical view was superseded by the ethical or theological. Cf., for example, <i> Pirke Aboth </i> v. 4, of the ten testings or trials (נסיונוח) of Abraham, and Taylor, loc.; ‘Testament of Abraham,’ ed. [[M. R]]  James, and Studies, ii. 2. </p> <p> Literature.—The authorities cited above, with articles on ‘Abraham’ in Bible Dictionaries, and the Commentaries. </p> <p> [[A. S]]  Geden. </p>

<p> <i> The Old [[Testament]] </i> . This man, whose name may mean "the father is exalted, " was the first of the great patriarchs of Israel. In the ancient Near East a patriarch was the leader or ancestor of a family, but Abraham exceeded this status by becoming the progenitor of one specific nation, the Hebrews, as well as of other peoples. The story of his life (&nbsp;Genesis 11:27b-25:12 ) appears to comprise one of eleven Mesopotamian tablets underlying Genesis, and in typical fashion probably had a title ("Abram, Nahor and Haran, 11:27b) and a concluding colophon "these are the generations of" (KJV), that is, "family histories of" (25:12). The material was apparently compiled in the time of Isaac at Beer Lahai Roi (&nbsp;Genesis 25:11 ), the finished unit probably comprising a group of smaller tablets linked in a series. </p> <p> The date of Abraham's birth in Ur "of the Chaldees" (i.e., southern Ur) is not known, but can be computed roughly from archeological evidence at Bab-edh-Dhra, near Sodom. The latter was destroyed about 1900 b.c. No monuments to him have survived, but discoveries at Mari, Nuzi, and elsewhere have shown that his activities were consistent with Middle [[Bronze]] Age Mesopotamian life (ca. 2000-1500 b.c.). As such, Abraham emerged from a background of high culture, and was not the illiterate shepherd envisaged by some nineteenth-century literary critics. </p> <p> Abraham is of profound religious significance because he was the historic ancestor of the twelve tribes, the "seed of Abraham, " who regularly described their God as "the God of Abraham." By virtue of being children of divine promise (&nbsp;Genesis 12:2 ), the [[Israelites]] were living proof of God's existence and power in human society. This general promise was made specific by means of a covenant between God and Abraham (&nbsp;Genesis 15:8-18; &nbsp;17:1-14 ), which provided the offspring of the patriarch with a large tract of territory. Abraham was to father many nations (&nbsp;Genesis 17:5 ), and the covenant that was to be established with him and his seed was to be perpetual in nature. </p> <p> The idea of a covenant, or binding agreement between two parties, was already familiar in the early Middle Bronze Age, and by mutual agreement involved penalties if one of the participants defaulted. It was normally marked by some form of ritual (&nbsp;Genesis 15:9-17 ), which emphasized the solemnity and significance of the occasion. Abraham was instructed to keep the covenant obligations, and as a material token the institution of circumcision was imposed upon him and his descendants. When performed, this procedure constituted formal indication of membership within the Israelite community. </p> <p> Although coming from a background of polytheism and idolatry at Ur, Abraham had been reared in the faith of the one true God by his father Terah. But when he received the Lord's call at a mature stage of his life, he recognized that he had been chosen to implement a specific part of God's plan for human destiny. He was not to fulfill it alone, because the Lord undertook to go with him (&nbsp;Genesis 12:4 ). He was required to be consistently obedient to God's will, however difficult that might be, and to trust without question the guidance he would receive against the background of the covenant framework. It should be noted that Abraham was not asked to be obedient as a condition of the covenant. Rather, his response in faith was based upon what he already knew about the God of his ancestors, and was thus a matter of free choice. The importance of strict obedience to the Lord's injunctions assumes early prominence in Old Testament theology. Put simply, without unquestioning submission to God's stipulations there could be neither fellowship with the Lord nor blessings poured out upon the covenant people. </p> <p> The continuing faith Abraham had can be illustrated by reference to four specific occasions in his life. The first was God's command to leave both family and homeland and migrate to a strange country (&nbsp;Genesis 12:1 ). The severing of emotional ties was bound to be costly, yet Abraham went forward without once questioning God's directives, believing instead in God's power to fulfill his promises. </p> <p> The second occasion actually completed the first, consisting of Abraham's parting company with his nephew Lot (&nbsp;Genesis 13:1-16 ) because of friction between their herdsmen. Although doubtless distressed at withdrawing from a relative, Abraham behaved generously in allowing Lot to choose the territory that he preferred (&nbsp;Genesis 13:8-11 ), whereupon God renewed his promises of land and offspring to the childless Abraham. </p> <p> The third was yet another occasion when the covenant was confirmed, this time in greater detail (&nbsp;Genesis 17:1-27 ). God promised Abraham a son who would be named Isaac (&nbsp;Genesis 17:16 ), and who would be the inheritor of the everlasting covenant (&nbsp;Genesis 17:19,21 ). It seems that Abraham assumed that Ishmael was to function in that capacity, but when this was denied he acknowledged the Lord's will obediently, and awaited in faith the fulfillment of the promise that all the nations of the earth would be blessed in him (&nbsp;Genesis 18:18 ). </p> <p> Perhaps the most serious test of Abraham's obedience and faith came when God ordered him to offer up in sacrifice the very one through whom the covenant was to be perpetuated: his son Isaac (&nbsp;Genesis 22:1-2 ). Dutifully and without questioning, Abraham followed the ritual procedure, and at the climactic moment God intervened on behalf of Isaac (&nbsp;Genesis 22:11 ), stating that Abraham had passed the divinely imposed test of submission and faith (&nbsp;Genesis 22:12 ). For such implicit obedience Abraham was to become an example of covenant fidelity. In &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7 (cf. &nbsp; James 2:23 ) Abraham is described as the "friends" of God. As late as New Testament times, he and Sarah were lauded as people who lived and died in an attitude of faith (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:8-18 ). </p> <p> <i> The New Testament </i> If God's plan for human salvation was to be implemented, the Lord had to be able to trust those whom he called and empowered for this task. Only after testing under difficult conditions did the relative trustworthiness of the servant become apparent. In Abraham's case, his unwavering faith accomplished the fulfillment of the covenant promises in terms of a great nation that would honor him through the centuries as "their father" (&nbsp; John 8:39; &nbsp;Romans 4:16 ). This privilege, however, was not to be restricted to the Jews, but was also shared by adherents to the world religions of [[Christianity]] and Islam. </p> <p> The prophecy whereby all human families would be blessed (or "bless themselves") came to fruition in the work of Jesus Christ, the [[Messiah]] of God, who was the long-promised descendant of Abraham (&nbsp;Matthew 1:1; &nbsp;Galatians 3:16 ). His atoning death broke the power of sin over human beings and enabled them to be reconciled to God through penitence and faith. The saving work of Christ ushered in the new covenant prophesied by Jeremiah (31:31) and was given definitive shape in the [[Christian]] church, a body of believers committed to serve Jesus as king and lord through Acts of obedience and faith. This privileged group is blessed by the assurance of God's love and his saving power that sustain all who trust in him. But while being a recipient of blessing, the Christian church is commanded to fulfill covenant responsibilities (&nbsp;Matthew 28:14 ) in a manner unknown to the covenant people of Old Testament times. It is by this means, however, that the Abrahamic blessings come into effect when both Jewish and Gentile sinners find forgiveness and spiritual rebirth in Christ through the proclamation of the gospel. </p> <p> The Christian faith thus stands in an unbroken chain of spirituality that has come down through the ages. The new covenant on which the Christian church is founded is based upon an individual's relationship with God in Christ, and not upon the response of a group such as a tribe to the Lord's commands. The atoning work of Christ on Calvary, achieved by a man as fully obedient to God's commands (&nbsp;Philippians 2:8 ) as Abraham ever was, has released a flood of divine grace upon an undeserving world, and has brought the blessed fruit of the Spirit (&nbsp;Galatians 5:22-23 ) into the believer's life. </p> <p> Paul stressed that the children of God by faith in Jesus were in fact members of Abraham's offspring, and thus heirs according to the promise (&nbsp;Galatians 3:26-29 ). Thus [[Christians]] can speak confidently of Abraham as "the father of the faithful, " and praise a merciful God because it was through his fidelity in remote ages that our eternal salvation has become an actuality. Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, and others are no longer shadowy images which, in an earlier age of biblical criticism, were often dismissed as legendary or even mythological. Instead, the participants in the Abrahamic covenant are seen as real persons with whom modern Christians are privileged to join in witness to God's power and his plan of salvation through Christ. While Christians can rejoice in the realization that the blessings of Abraham's covenant have become their very own, it is important for them to remember that, as Jesus taught, the true children of Abraham perform the deeds of Abraham (&nbsp;John 8:39 ). </p> <p> Dynamic though Abraham's covenant was, sheer physical descent from the revered patriarch did not of itself guarantee an individual's salvation, as John the [[Baptist]] pointed out (&nbsp;Matthew 3:9 ). Nor did it imply that there were no unbelievers in ancient Israel (&nbsp;Romans 9:6 ). Only those members whose lives manifested the obedience and trust of the patriarch would participate in covenant blessings. The man who for Paul was the exemplar of faith (&nbsp;Romans 4:16-22; &nbsp;Galatians 3:6-12 ) was understood by James to demonstrate that justification by faith is proved in works that issue from such a faith (&nbsp;James 2:20-24 ). The emphasis, however, is upon the genuine nature of the faith rather than such deeds as may result. </p> <p> [[R. K]]  Harrison </p> <p> <i> See also </i> Israel </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . G. Bush, <i> Notes on [[Genesis]] </i> ; D. Kidner, <i> Genesis </i> ; [[K. A]]  Kitchen, <i> [[Ancient]] Orient and Old Testament </i> ; [[F. B]]  Meyer, <i> Abraham: The [[Obedience]] of Faith </i> ; [[C. F]]  Pfeiffer, <i> The Patriarchal Age </i> ; [[A. R]]  Millard and [[D. J]]  Wiseman, <i> Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives </i> . </p>

<p> Son of Terah and grandson of Nahor, the seventh descendant from Shem. His name was at first ABRAM, 'father of elevation;' but was altered by God into ABRAHAM, 'father of a multitude.' In this name (Abraham) the blessing of the [[Gentiles]] is secured by God. The family dwelt in Ur of the Chaldees, and were idolaters. &nbsp;Joshua 24:2 . Abraham was the first to receive a definite <i> call </i> from God to leave not only the idolatrous nation to which his ancestors belonged, but to leave his kindred and his father's house and to go into a land that God would show him. God would bless him and make him a blessing, and bless all who blessed him and would curse all who cursed him. &nbsp; Genesis 12:1-3 . He thus became the depositary of God's promise and blessing. Abraham at first only partially obeyed the call: he left Ur and went to dwell at Haran, in [[Mesopotamia]] (Charran in &nbsp;Acts 7:4 ), but <i> with </i> his father and kindred; and did not enter Canaan until the death of his father. When in the land God promised that unto his seed He would give the land. Abraham built an altar, and called upon the name of Jehovah. A famine occurring in the land Abraham went to sojourn in Egypt, and for want of faith he called Saraihis sister and she was taken into the house of Pharaoh, but the Lord protected her, and Abraham with his wife was sent away with a rebuke. When near Bethel he could again call on the name of the Lord. He had now become so rich in cattle that disputes arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot, and Abraham asked Lot to choose where he would sojourn, if he went to the right Abraham would go to the left; and they separated. Again Jehovah declared that as far as Abraham's eye could reach in all directions the land should belong to his seed. The next recorded event is that Lot was taken prisoner and carried to the north. Abraham pursued the enemy and recovered all. He refused to take even a thread of the spoil from the king of Sodom: he would not be made rich from such a source; but he was blessed by Melchisedec, king of Salem, the priest of the most high God, who brought forth bread and wine: to whom Abraham gave tenths of all. See MELCHISEDEC. God now revealed Himself to Abraham as His shield and exceeding great reward. </p> <p> When Abraham lamented to God that he had no son, God declared that he should have a son, and that his seed should be as the stars of the heaven for multitude. <i> Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him for righteousness. </i> This is the first time that faith is spoken of. Still he asked whereby should he know that his seed should possess the land, and was told to take a heifer, a she goat, and a ram, all of three years old, a turtle dove and a young pigeon. These he divided in the midst, except the birds, and laid them one against another. When the sun went down a smoking furnace and a burning lamp passed between the pieces: type of the fire that consumes the dross, and a light for the path. The same day God made a <i> covenant </i> with Abraham that to his seed should the land be given from the river of Egypt to the great river [[Euphrates]] : cf. &nbsp;Jeremiah 34:18,19 : it had been ratified in death, a type of Christ. When Abraham had fallen into a deep sleep, he was informed that his seed should be in a strange land, and be afflicted 400 years. &nbsp;Genesis 15 See [[Israel In Egypt]]  </p> <p> Abraham had believed that God would give him a son, but now he waits not God's time, and at Sarai's suggestion he associates with Hagar, a bondmaid, and Ishmael is born, &nbsp;Genesis 16 . — a figure of the law, that is, man's attempt to possess the blessing by his own effort. </p> <p> God now reveals Himself to Abraham as 'the almighty God,' a name which signifies that all resource is in God Himself. 'God talked with him,' and made a covenant with him according to that name. It is now that his name is changed from Abram, because he was to be a father of many nations. Abraham was to walk before the [[Almighty]] God and be perfect, and was to keep the covenant by having all the males circumcised (a figure of no confidence in the flesh), which he at once put into practice. Sarai's s name was altered to Sarah, for she was to be a <i> princess </i> and should have a son. </p> <p> Abraham entertained three visitors: on two leaving him the third is spoken of as the Lord who asks, "shall I hide from Abraham the thing which I do?" According to &nbsp;John 15:14,15 , this gives the key to Abraham being called "the friend of God." &nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8; &nbsp;James 2:23 . God opened His mind to him, and Abraham was emboldened to plead for the righteous in Sodom. </p> <p> Abraham's faith again fails him and at Gerar he once more calls Sarah his sister, which might have led to sin had not God protected her, and Abraham is again rebuked. </p> <p> Isaac is born, and conflict ensues between that which is a type of the flesh and the Spirit: Hagar and her son Ishmael are cast out. &nbsp;Genesis 21 : cf. &nbsp;Galatians 4:22-31 . God then tried the faith of Abraham by telling him to offer up his son Isaac for a burnt offering. Abraham obeyed, and, but for the intervention of the angel of the Lord, would have killed his son, believing "that God was able to raise him up even from the dead." After the death and resurrection in figure of Isaac, the unconditional promise is confirmed to Abraham that in his seed — which is Christ — should all the nations of the earth be blessed. &nbsp;Genesis 22:18; &nbsp;Galatians 3:14-18 . If any are Christ's, they are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to promise. &nbsp;Galatians 3:29 . The promise is sure to all the seed, "not only to that which is of the law, but to that also which is of the faith of Abraham, who is the father of us all." &nbsp;Romans 4:16 . </p> <p> Abraham was by faith so much a stranger (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:9 ) that, on the death of Sarah, he had to buy a piece of ground of the children of Heth, to secure a sepulchre in the land. &nbsp;Genesis 23 . He was so careful that Isaac should not marry one of the daughters of the Canaanites that he sent his servant (Eliezer perhaps) to his own kindred to seek a bride for Isaac, being convinced that God would send His angel and prosper the mission, which resulted in [[Rebecca]] being the wife of Isaac. &nbsp;Genesis 24 . </p> <p> Abraham had another wife, Keturah, and concubines by whom he had sons; but to these he gave gifts and sent them eastward, so that Isaac and his seed might peacefully dwell in the promised land. Abraham died at the age of 175, and was buried with Sarah. </p> <p> The history of Abraham in Genesis divides itself into three parts. <i> a. </i> &nbsp; Genesis 12 - 14., his public walk and testimony as called of God. <i> b. </i> &nbsp; Genesis 15 - 21., his private and domestic history with God, illustrating the growth of soul, etc. <i> c. </i> &nbsp;Genesis 22 - 25. give in type a prophetical outline of events: namely, the sacrifice of Christ; the setting aside of Israel for a time; the call of the bride; and the final settlement of the nations in blessing in the end of the days. </p> <p> The nation of Israel was descended from Abraham, and we know how zealously they contended for the relationship, though alas, they had not and have not the same faith. Still the land was given to them, and when God's set time comes they will surely be brought back to their 'fatherland' and after trial and discipline will be blessed therein. </p> <p> Abraham being the father of Ishmael and the other sons sent into the East it is not to be wondered at that he is a personage of universal fame in that immense quarter of the world, and that there are numerous traditions concerning him. It can hardly be doubted that their relationship to Abraham will yet be found in their favour during the millennium when the promise that his seed should be 'as the sand of the sea shore' will have its fulfilment. </p> <p> To the Christian the life of this patriarch is worthy of the deepest attention, in view of the varied manifestations whereby God revealed Himself to him, whether in the formation of his character under those manifestations, or in the Christian's connections with him in the way of faith, or with respect to the unconditional promises made to him as to the possession of the land of Palestine both in the past and in the future. </p>

<p> Father of a multitude, &nbsp;Genesis 17:4,5; the great founder of the Jewish nation. He was a son of Terah, a descendant of Shem, and born in Ur, a city of Chaldea, A.M. 2008, [[B. C]]  1996, &nbsp;Genesis 11:27,28 . Here he lived seventy years, when at the call of God he left his idolatrous kindred, and removed to Haran, in Mesopotamia, &nbsp;Acts 7:2-4 , accompanied by his father, his wife Sarai, his brother Nahor, and his nephew Lot. A few years after, having buried his father, he again removed at the call of God, with his wife and nephew, and entered the land of promise as a nomad or wandering shepherd. [[Sojourning]] for a time at Shechem, he built here, as was his custom, an alter to the Lord, who appeared to him, and promised that land to his seed. [[Removing]] from place to place for convenience of water and pasturage, he was at length driven by a famine into Egypt, where he dissembled in calling his wife his sister, &nbsp;Genesis 12:1 - &nbsp;20 . Returning to Canaan rich in flocks and herds, he left Lot to dwell in the fertile valley of the lower Jordan, and pitched his own tents in Mamre, &nbsp;Genesis 13:1-18 . A few years after, he rescued Lot and his friends from captivity, and received the blessing of Melchizedek, &nbsp;Genesis 14:1-24 . Again God appeared to him, promised that his seed should be like the stars for number, and foretold their oppression in Egypt 400 years, and their return to possess the promised land, &nbsp;Genesis 15:1-21 . But the promise of a son being yet unfulfilled, Sarai gave him Hagar her maid for a secondary wife, of whom Ishmael was born, &nbsp;Genesis 16:1-16 . After thirteen years, God again appeared to him, and assured him that the heir of the promise should yet be born of his wife, whose name was then changed to Sarah. He established also the covenant of circumcision, &nbsp;Genesis 17:1-27 . Here, too, occurred the visit of the three angels, and the memorable intercession with the Angel-Jehovah for the inhabitants of Sodom, &nbsp;Genesis 18:1-33 . After this, Abraham journeyed south to Gerah, where he again called Sarah his sister. In this region Isaac was born; and soon after, Hagar and Ishmael were driven out to seek a new home, &nbsp;Genesis 21:1-34 . About twenty-five years after, God put to trial the faith of Abraham, by commanding him to sacrifice Isaac, his son and the heir of the promise, upon Mount Moriah, &nbsp;Genesis 22:1-24 . Twelve years after, Sarah died, and the cave of Machpelag was bought for a burial- place, &nbsp;Genesis 23:1-20 . Abraham sent his steward, and obtained a wife for Isaac from his pious kindred in Mesopotamia, &nbsp;Genesis 24:1-67 . He himself also married Keturah, and had six sons, each one the founder of a distinct people in Arabia. At the age of 175, full of years and honors, he died, and was buried by his sons in the same tomb with Sarah, &nbsp;Genesis 25:1-34 . </p> <p> The character of Abraham is one of the most remarkable in Scripture. He was a genuine oriental patriarch, a prince in the land; his property was large, his retinue very numerous, and he commanded the respect of the neighboring people: and yet he was truly a stranger and a pilgrim, the only land he possessed being the burial-place he had purchased. Distinguished by his integrity, generosity, and hospitality, he was most of all remarkable for his simple and unwavering faith, a faith that obeyed without hesitation or delay, and recoiled not from the most fearful trial ever imposed upon man, so that he is justly styled "the father of the faithful," that is, of believers. No name in history is venerated by so large a portion of the human race, Mohammedans as well as Jews and Christians. As the ancestor of Christ, in whom all the nations are blessed, and as the father of all believers, the covenant is abundantly fulfilled to him: his seed are as the stars of heaven and with them he shall inherit the heavenly Canaan. </p>

&nbsp;Genesis 11:27&nbsp;Genesis 17:5 <p> Terah, his father, moved to Haran with the family (&nbsp;Genesis 11:31 ) and after some years died there. God called Abram to migrate to Canaan, assuring him that he would father a vast nation. At different times he lived in Shechem, Bethel, Hebron, and Beer-sheba. His wife Sarai's beauty attracted the pharaoh when they moved to Egypt during a famine (&nbsp;Genesis 12:10 ), but God intervened to save her. The trouble arose partly because Abram had claimed her as his sister rather than his wife, and in fact she was his half-sister (&nbsp;Genesis 20:12 ). After returning to Palestine, Abram received further covenantal assurances from God (&nbsp;Genesis 15:1 ). He decided he could produce offspring by taking Sarai's handmaid Hagar as a concubine. Though the union produced a son, Ishmael, he was not destined to become Abram's promised heir. Even after another covenantal assurance (&nbsp;Genesis 17:1-21 ) in which the rite of circumcision was made a covenantal sign, Abram and Sarai still questioned God's promise of an heir. </p> <p> Then Sarai, whose name had been changed to Sarah (“princess”), had her long-promised son, Isaac (“laughter”), when Abraham was 100 years old. Ishmael's presence caused trouble in the family, and he was expelled with his mother Hagar to the wilderness of Paran. Abraham's faith and obedience were tested by God in Moriah when he was commanded to sacrifice Isaac. God provided an alternative sacrifice, however, saving the boy's life. As a reward for Abraham's faithfulness, God renewed the covenant promises of great blessing and the growth of a mighty nation to father and son. </p> <p> Subsequently, Sarah died and was buried in the cave of Machpelah (&nbsp;Genesis 23:19 ), after which Abraham sought a bride for Isaac. A woman named Rebekah was obtained from Abraham's relatives in Mesopotamia, and Isaac married her gladly (&nbsp;Genesis 24:67 ). In old age Abraham remarried and had further children, finally dying aged 175 years. Abraham recognized God as the almighty Lord of all and the Author of a covenant by which the Hebrews would become a mighty nation. God Himself was known subsequently as the God of Abraham (&nbsp;Exodus 3:6 ). Through him God had revealed His plan for human salvation (&nbsp;Exodus 2:24 ). The promises to Abraham became assurance for future generations (&nbsp;Exodus 32:13; &nbsp;Exodus 33:1 ). Abraham became known as “God's friend forever” (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7 ). </p> <p> John showed that descent from Abraham did not guarantee salvation (&nbsp;Matthew 3:9 ). See &nbsp;Romans 9:1 . Indeed, foreigners would join him in the kingdom (&nbsp;Matthew 8:11 ). Compare &nbsp;Luke 16:23-30 . Lost sons of Abraham, Jesus invited to salvation (&nbsp;Luke 19:9 ). True children of Abraham do the works of Abraham (&nbsp;John 8:39 ). </p> <p> For Paul Abraham was the great example of faith (&nbsp;Romans 4:1; &nbsp;Galatians 3:1 ). In Hebrews Abraham provided the model for tithing (&nbsp;Hebrews 7:1 ) and played a prominent role in the roll call of faith (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:1 ). James used Abraham to show that justification by faith is proved in works (&nbsp;James 3:21-24 ). </p> <p> [[R. K]]  Harrison </p>

<p> &nbsp;Genesis 24:2 (c) In this passage Abraham is a type of the Father who sent His servant (the Spirit) to obtain a bride (Rebecca) for his son Isaac. The servant represents the [[Holy]] Spirit, and Isaac represents the Lord [[Jesus Christ]]  Of course, Abraham represents GOD the Father. Rebecca. represents the Church. The Holy Spirit knocks at the heart's door, tells of the loveliness, the riches and the glory of the Son of GOD, and thus wins the stranger and makes him willing to leave his old haunts and companions to live for and with [[Jesus Christ]]  the Son. </p> <p> &nbsp;Romans 4:3 (c) He is a type of the true believer from the standpoint of "faith." </p> <ul> <li> He was called out of idolatry by GOD, and so are we. </li> <li> He took the path of separation, and so should we. </li> <li> He obeyed GOD, and walked in a path of obedience, as we should do. </li> <li> He believed GOD about the "seed" (CHRIST), so do we. </li> <li> He was made righteous through believing in CHRIST. So are we. </li> </ul> <p> GOD revealed His secrets to Abraham, the man of faith, and so He does today to those who believe His Word. </p> <p> Abraham was the father of the faithful, and we too who believe GOD should have spiritual children who have faith as we have. </p>

<p> ''''' a´bra ''''' - ''''' ham ''''' : </p> <p> I. Name </p> <p> 1. Various Forms </p> <p> 2. Etymology </p> <p> 3. Association </p> <p> II. [[Kindred]] </p> <p> III. Career </p> <p> 1. Period of [[Wandering]] </p> <p> 2. Period of [[Residence]] at Hebron </p> <p> 3. Period of Residence in the Negeb </p> <p> IV. [[Conditions]] of Life </p> <p> 1. Economic Conditions </p> <p> 2. Social Conditions </p> <p> 3. Political Conditions </p> <p> 4. Cultural Conditions </p> <p> V. Character </p> <p> 1. [[Religious]] Beliefs </p> <p> 2. [[Morality]] </p> <p> 3. Personal Traits </p> <p> VI. Significance in the History of [[Religion]] </p> <p> 1. In the Old Testament </p> <p> 2. In the New Testament </p> <p> 3. In Jewish Tradition </p> <p> 4. In the Koran </p> <p> VII. Interpretations of the Story Other Than [[Historical]] </p> <p> 1. The Allegorical [[Interpretation]] </p> <p> 2. The Personification Theory </p> <p> 3. The Mythical Theory </p> <p> 4. The "Saga" Theory </p> I. Name <p> 1. Various Forms </p> <p> In the Old Testament, when applied, to the patriarch, the name appears as אברם , <i> ''''' 'abhrām ''''' </i> , up to &nbsp;Genesis 17:5; thereafter always as אברהם , <i> ''''' 'abhrāhām ''''' </i> ̌ . Two other persons are named אבירם , <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄rām ''''' </i> ̌ . The identity of this name with <i> ''''' 'abhrām ''''' </i> cannot be doubted in view of the variation between <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄nēr ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'abhnēr ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' 'ăbhı̄shālōm ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'abhshālōm ''''' </i> , etc. Abraham also appears in the list at Karnak of places conquered by Sheshonk I: <i> ''''' 'brm ''''' </i> (no. 72) represents ברם ), with which Spiegelberg ( <i> Aegypt. Randglossen zum Altes Testament </i> , 14) proposes to connect the preceding name (so that the whole would read "the field of Abram." Outside of Palestine this name ( <i> ''''' Abirāmu ''''' </i> ) has come to light just where from the Biblical tradition we should expect to find it, namely, in [[Babylonia]] (e.g. in a contract of the reign of Apil-Sin, second predecessor of ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' ; also for the aunt (!) of [[Esarhaddon]] 680-669 bc). Ungnad has recently found it, among documents from Dilbat dating from the ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' dynasty, in the forms <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> , <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' am ''''' </i> , as well as <i> ''''' A ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ba ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ra ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' ma ''''' </i> . </p> <p> 2. Etymology </p> <p> Until this latest discovery of the apparently full, historical form of the Babylonian equivalent, the best that could be done with the etymology was to make the first constituent "father of" (construct <i> -i </i> rather than suffix <i> -i </i> ), and the second constituent "Ram," a proper name or an abbreviation of a name. (Yet observe above its use in [[Assyria]] for a woman; compare [[Abishag]]; [[Abigail]] ). Some were inclined rather to concede that the second element was a mystery, like the second element in the majority of names beginning with <i> ''''' 'ābh ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' 'aḥ ''''' </i> , "father" and "brother." But the full cuneiform writing of the name, with the case-ending am, indicates that the noun "father" is in the accusative, governed by the verb which furnishes the second component, and that this verb therefore is probably <i> ''''' rāmu ''''' </i> (= Hebrew רחם , <i> ''''' rāḥam ''''' </i> ) "to love," etc.; so that the name would mean something like "he loves the (his) father." (So Ungnad, also Ranke in Gressmann's article "Sage und Geschichte in den Patriarchenerzahlungen," <i> ZATW </i> (1910), 3.) [[Analogy]] proves that this is in the Babylonian fashion of the period, and that judging from the various writings of this and similar names, its pronunciation was not far from <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rām ''''' </i> ̌ . </p> <p> 3. Association </p> <p> While the name is thus not "Hebrew" in origin, it made itself thoroughly at home among the Hebrews, and to their ears conveyed associations quite different from its etymological signification. "Popular etymology" here as so often doubtless led the Hebrew to hear in <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rām ''''' </i> , "exalted father," a designation consonant with the patriarch's national and religious significance. In the form <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rāhām ''''' </i> his ear caught the echo of some root (perhaps <i> r-h-m </i> ; compare Arabic <i> ''''' ruhām ''''' </i> , "multitude") still more suggestive of the patriarch's extensive progeny, the reason ("for") that accompanies the change of name &nbsp;Genesis 17:5 being intended only as a verbal echo of the sense in the sound. This longer and commoner form is possibly a dialectical variation of the shorter form, a variation for which there are analogies in comparative Semitic grammar. It is, however, possible also that the two forms are different names, and that <i> ''''' 'abh ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' rāhām ''''' </i> is etymologically, and not merely by association of sound, "father of a multitude" (as above). (Another theory, based on South-Arabic orthography, in Hommel, <i> Altisraelitische Ueberlieferung </i> , 177.) </p> II. Kindred <p> &nbsp;Genesis 11:27 , which introduces Abraham, contains the heading, "These are the generations of Terah." All the story of Abraham is contained within the section of Genesis so entitled. Through Terah Abraham's ancestry is traced back to Shem, and he is thus related to Mesopotamian and Arabian families that belonged to the "Semitic" race. He is further connected with this race geographically by his birthplace, which is given as <i> ''''' 'ūr ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' kasdı̄m ''''' </i> (see UR), and by the place of his pre-Canaanitish residence, Haran in the [[Aramean]] region. The purely Semitic ancestry of his descendants through Isaac is indicated by his marriage with his own half-sister (&nbsp;Genesis 20:12 ), and still further emphasized by the choice for his daughter-in-law of Rebekah, descended from both of his brothers, Nahor and Haran (&nbsp;Genesis 11:29; &nbsp;Genesis 22:22 ). Both the beginning and the end of the residence in Haran are left chronologically undetermined, for the new beginning of the narrative at &nbsp;Genesis 12:1 is not intended by the writer to indicate chronological sequence, though it has been so understood, e.g. by [[Stephen]] (&nbsp; Acts 7:4 ). All that is definite in point of time is that an Aramean period of residence intervened between the Babylonian origin and the Palestinian career of Abraham. It is left to a comparison of the Biblical data with one another and with the data of archaeology, to fix the opening of Abraham's career in Palestine not far from the middle of the 20th century bc. </p> III. Career <p> Briefiy summed up, that career was as follows. </p> <p> 1. Period of Wandering </p> <p> Abraham, endowed with Yahweh's promise of limitless blessing, leaves Haran with Lot his nephew and all their establishment, and enters Canaan. Successive stages of the slow journey southward are indicated by the mention of Shechem, Bethel and the Negeb (South-country). Driven by famine into Egypt, Abraham finds hospitable reception, though at the price of his wife's honor, whom the Pharaoh treats in a manner characteristic of an Egyptian monarch. (Gressmann, op. cit., quotes from Meyer, <i> Geschichte des Alterthums </i> , 12, 142, the passage from a magic formula in the pyramid of Unas, a Pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty: "Then he (namely, the Pharaoh) takes away the wives from their husbands whither he will if desire seize his heart.") Retracing the path to Canaan with an augmented train, at Bethel Abraham and Lot find it necessary to part company. Lot and his dependents choose for residence the great Jordan Depression; Abraham follows the backbone of the land southward to Hebron, where he settles, not in the city, but before its gates "by the great trees" (Septuagint sing., "oak") of Mamre. </p> <p> 2. Period of Residence at Hebron </p> <p> [[Affiliation]] between Abraham and the local chieftains is strengthened by a brief campaign, in which all unite their available forces for the rescue of Lot from an [[Elamite]] king and his confederates from Babylonia. The pursuit leads them as far as the [[Lebanon]] region. On the return they are met by Melchizedek, king of Salem, priest of <i> ''''' 'ēl ‛elyōn ''''' </i> , and blessed by him in his priestly capacity, which Abraham recognizes by presenting him with a tithe of the spoils. Abraham's anxiety for a son to be the bearer of the divine promises conferred upon a "seed" yet unborn should have been relieved by the solemn renewal thereof in a formal covenant, with precise specifications of God's gracious purpose. But human desire cannot wait upon divine wisdom, and the Egyptian woman Hagar bears to Abraham a son, Ishmael, whose existence from its inception proves a source of moral evil within the patriarchal household. The sign of circumcision and the change of names are given in confirmation of the covenant still unrealized, together with specification of the time and the person that should begin its realization. The theophany that symbolized outwardly this climax of the Divine favor serves also for an intercessory colloquy, in which Abraham is granted the deliverance of Lot in the impending overthrow of Sodom. Lot and his family, saved thus by human fidelity and Divine clemency, exhibit in the moral traits shown in their escape and subsequent life the degeneration naturally to be expected from their corrupt environment. [[Moabites]] and [[Ammonites]] are traced in their origin to these cousins of Jacob and Esau. </p> <p> 3. Period of Residence in the Negeb </p> <p> Removal to the South-country did not mean permanent residence in a single spot, but rather a succession of more or less temporary resting-places. The first of these was in the district of Gerar, with whose king, Abimelech, Abraham and his wife had an experience similar to the earlier one with the Pharaoh. The birth of Isaac was followed by the expulsion of Ishmael and his mother, and the sealing of peaceful relations with the neighbors by covenant at Beersheba. Even the birth of Isaac, however, did not end the discipline of Abraham's faith in the promise, for a Divine command to sacrifice the life of this son was accepted <i> bona fide </i> , and only the sudden interposition of a Divine prohibition prevented its obedient execution. The death of Sarah became the occasion for Abraham's acquisition of the first permanent holding of Palestine soil, the nucleus of his promised inheritance, and at the same time suggested the probable approach of his own death. This thought led to immediate provision for a future seed to inherit through Isaac, a provision realized in Isaac's marriage with Rebekah, grand-daughter of Abraham's brother Nahor and of Milcah the sister of Lot. But a numerous progeny not associated with the promise grew up in Abraham's household, children of Keturah, a woman who appears to have had the rank of wife after Sarah's death, and of other women unnamed, who were his concubines. Though this last period was passed in the Negeb, Abraham was interred at Hebron in his purchased possession, the spot with which Semitic tradition has continued to associate him to this day. </p> IV. Conditions of Life <p> The life of Abraham in its outward features may be considered under the following topics: economic, social, political and cultural conditions. </p> <p> 1. Economic Conditions </p> <p> Abraham's manner of life may best be described by the adjective "semi-nomadic," and illustrated by the somewhat similar conditions prevailing today in those border-communities of the East that fringe the [[Syrian]] and Arabian deserts. Residence is in tents, wealth consists of flocks, herds and slaves, and there is no ownership of ground, only at most a proprietorship in well or tomb. All this in common with the nomad. But there is a relative, or rather, intermittent fixity of habitation, unlike the pure Bedouin, a limited amount of agriculture, and finally a sense of divergence from the Ishmael type - all of which tend to assimilate the seminomadic Abraham to the fixed Canaanitish population about him. As might naturally be expected, such a condition is an unstable equilibrium, which tends, in the family of Abraham as in the history of all border-tribes of the desert, to settle back one way or the other, now into the city-life of Lot, now into the desert-life of Ishmael. </p> <p> 2. Social Conditions </p> <p> The head of a family, under these conditions, becomes at the same time the chief of a tribe, that live together under patriarchal rule though they by no means share without exception the tie of kinship. The family relations depicted in Gen conform to and are illuminated by the social features of <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> . (See [[K. D]]  Macmillan, article "Marriage among the Early [[Babylonians]] and Hebrews," <i> [[Princeton]] Theological Review </i> , April, 1908.) There is one legal wife, Sarah, who, because persistently childless, obtains the coveted offspring by giving her own maid to Abraham for that purpose (compare <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , sections 144, 146). The son thus borne, Ishmael, is Abraham's legal son and heir. When Isaac is later borne by Sarah, the elder son is disinherited by divine command (&nbsp;Genesis 21:10-12 ) against Abraham's wish which represented the prevailing law and custom ( <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , sections 168f). The "maid-servants" mentioned in the inventories of Abraham's wealth (&nbsp;Genesis 12:16; &nbsp;Genesis 24:35 ) doubtless furnished the "concubines" mentioned in &nbsp;Genesis 25:6 as having borne sons to him. Both mothers and children were slaves, but had the right to freedom, though not to inheritance, on the death of the father ( <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> , section 171). After Sarah's death another woman seems to have succeeded to the position of legal wife, though if so the sons she bore were disinherited like Ishmael (&nbsp;Genesis 25:5 ). In addition to the children so begotten by Abraham the "men of his house" (&nbsp;Genesis 17:27 ) consisted of two classes, the "home-born" slaves (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14; &nbsp;Genesis 17:12 , &nbsp;Genesis 17:23 , &nbsp;Genesis 17:27 ) and the "purchased" slaves (ibid.). The extent of the patriarchal tribe may be surmised from the number (318) of men among them capable of bearing arms, near the beginning of Abraham's career, yet after his separation from Lot, and recruited seemingly from the "home-born" class exclusively (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14 ). Over this entire establishment Abraham ruled with a power more, rather than less, absolute than that exhibited in detail in the <i> Code of </i> <i> ''''' H̬ammurabi ''''' </i> : more absolute, because Abraham was independent of any permanent superior authority, and so combined in his own person the powers of the Babylonian <i> paterfamilias </i> and of the Canaanite city-king. Social relations outside of the family-tribe may best be considered under the next heading. </p> <p> 3. Political Conditions </p> <p> It is natural that the chieftain of so considerable an organism should appear an attractive ally and a formidable foe to any of the smaller political units of his environment. That Canaan was at the time composed of just such inconsiderable units, namely, city-states with petty kings, and scattered fragments of older populations, is abundantly clear from the Biblical tradition and verified from other sources. Egypt was the only great power with which Abraham came into political contact after leaving the East. In the section of Genesis which describes this contact with the Pharaoh Abraham is suitably represented as playing no political role, but as profiting by his stay in Egypt only through an incidental social relation: when this terminates he is promptly ejected. The role of conqueror of Chedorlaomer, the Elamite invader, would be quite out of keeping with Abraham's political status elsewhere, if we were compelled by the narrative in Gen 14 to suppose a pitched battle between the forces of Abraham and those of the united Babylonian armies. What that chapter requires is in fact no more than a midnight surprise, by Abraham's band (including the forces of confederate chieftains), of a rear-guard or baggage-train of the Babylonians inadequately manned and picketed ("Slaughter" is quite too strong a rendering of the original <i> ''''' hakkōth ''''' </i> , "smiting," &nbsp;Genesis 14:17 ) [[Respect]] shown Abraham by the kings of Salem (&nbsp;Genesis 14:18 ), of Sodom (&nbsp;Genesis 14:21 ) and of Gerar (&nbsp;Genesis 20:14-16 ) was no more than might be expected from their relative degrees of political importance, although a moral precedence, assumed in the tradition, may well have contributed to this respect. </p> <p> 4. Cultural Conditions </p> <p> Recent archaeological research has revolutionized our conception of the degree of culture which Abraham could have possessed and therefore presumably did possess. The high plane which literature had attained in both Babylonia and Egypt by 2000 bc is sufficient witness to the opportunities open to the man of birth and wealth in that day for the interchange of lofty thought. And, without having recourse to Abraham's youth in Babylonia, we may assert even for the scenes of Abraham's maturer life the presence of the same culture, on the basis of a variety of facts, the testimony of which converges in this point, that Canaan in the second millennium bc was at the center of the intellectual life of the East and cannot have failed to afford, to such of its inhabitants as chose to avail themselves of it, every opportunity for enjoying the fruits of others' culture and for recording the substance of their own thoughts, emotions and activities </p> V. Character <p> Abraham's inward life may be considered under the rubrics of religion, ethics and personal traits. </p> <p> 1. Religious Beliefs </p> <p> The religion of Abraham centered in his faith in one God, who, because believed by him to be possessor of heaven and earth (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22; &nbsp;Genesis 24:3 ), sovereign judge of the nations (&nbsp;Genesis 15:14 ) of all the earth (&nbsp;Genesis 18:25 ), disposer of the forces of Nature (&nbsp;Genesis 18:14; &nbsp;Genesis 19:24; &nbsp;Genesis 20:17 ), exalted (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22 ) and eternal (&nbsp;Genesis 21:33 ), was for Abraham at least the only God. So far as the Biblical tradition goes, Abraham's monotheism was not aggressive (otherwise in later Jewish tradition), and it is theoretically possible to attribute to him a merely "monarchical" or "henotheistic" type of monotheism, which would admit the coexistence with his deity, say, of the "gods which (his) fathers served" (&nbsp;Joshua 24:14 ), or the identity with his deity of the supreme god of some Canaanite neighbor (&nbsp;Genesis 14:18 ). Yet this distinction of types of monotheism does not really belong to the sphere of religion as such, but rather to that of speculative philosophical thought. As religion, monotheism is just monotheism, and it asserts itself in corollaries drawn by the intellect only so far as the scope of the monotheist's intellectual life applies it. For Abraham [[Yahweh]] not only was alone God; He was also his personal God in a closeness of fellowship (&nbsp;Genesis 24:40; &nbsp;Genesis 48:15 ) that has made him for three religions the type of the pious man (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8 , &nbsp;James 2:23 , note the Arabic name of Hebron <i> ''''' [[El]] ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' Khalı̄l ''''' </i> , i.e. the friend (viz of God)) To Yahweh Abraham attributed the moral attributes of [[Justice]] (&nbsp;Genesis 18:25 ), righteousness (&nbsp;Genesis 18:19 ), faithfulness (&nbsp;Genesis 24:27 ), wisdom (&nbsp;Genesis 20:6 ), goodness (&nbsp;Genesis 19:19 ), mercy (&nbsp;Genesis 20:6 ). These qualities were expected of men, and their contraries in men were punished by Yahweh (&nbsp;Genesis 18:19; &nbsp;Genesis 20:11 ). He manifested Himself in dreams (&nbsp;Genesis 20:3 ), visions (&nbsp;Genesis 15:1 ) and theophanies (&nbsp;Genesis 18:1 ), including the voice or apparition of the Divine <i> ''''' mal'ākh ''''' </i> or messenger ("angel") (&nbsp;Genesis 16:7; &nbsp;Genesis 22:11 ) On man's part, in addition to obedience to Yahweh's moral requirements and special commands, the expression of his religious nature was expected in sacrifice. This bringing of offerings to the deity was diligently practiced by Abraham, as indicated by the mention of his erection of an altar at each successive residence. Alongside of this act of sacrifice there is sometimes mention of a "calling upon the name" of Yahweh (compare &nbsp;1 Kings 18:24; &nbsp;Psalm 116:13 ). This publication of his faith, doubtless in the presence of Canaanites, had its counterpart also in the public regard in which he was held as a "prophet" or spokesman for God (&nbsp;Genesis 20:7 ). His mediation showed itself also in intercessory prayer (&nbsp;Genesis 17:20 for Ishmael; &nbsp; Genesis 18:23-32; compare &nbsp;Genesis 19:29 for Lot; &nbsp; Genesis 20:17 for Abimelech), which was but a phase of his general practice of prayer. The usual accompaniment of sacrifice, a professional priesthood, does not occur in Abraham's family, yet he recognizes priestly prerogative in the person of Melchizedek, priest-king of Salem (&nbsp; Genesis 14:20 ). Religious sanction of course surrounds the taking of oaths (&nbsp;Genesis 14:22; &nbsp;Genesis 24:3 ) and the sealing of covenants (&nbsp;Genesis 21:23 ). Other customs associated with religion are circumcision (&nbsp;Genesis 17:10-14 ), given to Abraham as the sign of the perpetual covenant; tithing (&nbsp;Genesis 14:20 ), recognized as the priest's due; and child-sacrifice (&nbsp;Genesis 22:2 , &nbsp;Genesis 22:12 ), enjoined upon Abraham only to be expressly forbidden, approved for its spirit but interdicted in its practice. </p> <p> 2. Morality </p> <p> As already indicated, the ethical attributes of God were regarded by Abraham as the ethical requirement of man. This in theory. In the sphere of applied ethics and casuistry Abraham's practice, at least, fell short of this ideal, even in the few incidents of his life preserved to us. It is clear that these lapses from virtue were offensive to the moral sense of Abraham's biographer, but we are left in the dark as to Abraham's sense of moral obliquity. (The "dust and ashes" of &nbsp;Genesis 18:27 has no moral implication.) The demands of candor and honor are not satisfactorily met, certainly not in the matter of Sarah's relationship to him (&nbsp; Genesis 12:11-13; &nbsp;Genesis 20:2; compare &nbsp;Genesis 12:11-13 ), perhaps not in the matter of Isaac's intended sacrifice (&nbsp;Genesis 22:5 , &nbsp;Genesis 22:8 ). To impose our own monogamous standard of marriage upon the patriarch would be unfair, in view of the different standard of his age and land. It is to his credit that no such scandals are recorded in his life and family as blacken the record of Lot (&nbsp;Genesis 19:30-38 ), [[Reuben]] (&nbsp;Genesis 35:22 ) and Judah (&nbsp;Genesis 38:15-18 ). Similarly, Abraham's story shows only regard for life and property, both in respecting the rights of others and in expecting the same from them - the antipodes of Ishmael's character (&nbsp;Genesis 16:12 ). </p> <p> 3. Personal Traits </p> <p> Outside, the bounds of strictly ethical requirement, Abraham's personality displayed certain characteristics that not only mark him out distinctly among the figures of history, but do him great credit as a singularly symmetrical and attractive character. Of his trust and reverence enough has been said under the head of religion. But this love that is "the fulfilling of the law," manifested in such piety toward God, showed itself toward men in exceptional generosity (&nbsp;Genesis 13:9; &nbsp;Genesis 14:23; &nbsp;Genesis 23:9 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:13; &nbsp;Genesis 24:10; &nbsp;Genesis 25:6 ), fidelity (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14 , &nbsp;Genesis 14:24; &nbsp;Genesis 17:18; &nbsp;Genesis 18:23-32; &nbsp;Genesis 19:27; &nbsp;Genesis 21:11; &nbsp;Genesis 23:2 ), hospitality (&nbsp;Genesis 18:2-8; &nbsp;Genesis 21:8 ) and compassion (&nbsp;Genesis 16:6 and &nbsp; Genesis 21:14 when rightly understood, &nbsp; Genesis 18:23-32 ). A solid self-respect (&nbsp;Genesis 14:23; &nbsp;Genesis 16:6; &nbsp;Genesis 21:25; &nbsp;Genesis 23:9 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:13 , &nbsp;Genesis 23:16; &nbsp;Genesis 24:4 ) and real courage (&nbsp;Genesis 14:14-16 ) were, however, marred by the cowardice that sacrificed Sarah to purchase personal safety where he had reason to regard life as insecure (&nbsp;Genesis 20:11 ). </p> VI. Significance in the History of Religion <p> Abraham is a significant figure throughout the Bible, and plays an important role in extra-Biblical Jewish tradition and in the Mohammedan religion. </p> <p> 1. In the Old Testament </p> <p> It is naturally as progenitor of the people of Israel, "the seed of Abraham," as they are often termed, that Abraham stands out most prominently in the Old Testament books. Sometimes the contrast between him as an individual and his numerous progeny serves to point a lesson (&nbsp;Isaiah 51:2; &nbsp;Ezekiel 33:24; perhaps &nbsp;Malachi 2:10; compare &nbsp;Malachi 2:15 ). "The God of Abraham" serves as a designation of Yahweh from the time of Isaac to the latest period; it is by this title that Moses identifies the God who has sent him with the ancestral deity of the children of Israel (&nbsp;Exodus 3:15 ). Men remembered in those later times that this God appeared to Abraham in theophany (&nbsp;Exodus 6:3 ), and, when he was still among his people who worshipped other gods (&nbsp;Joshua 24:3 ) chose him (&nbsp;Nehemiah 9:7 ), led him, redeemed him (&nbsp;Isaiah 29:22 ) and made him the recipient of those special blessings (&nbsp;Micah 7:20 ) which were pledged by covenant and oath (so every larger historical book, also the historical &nbsp;Psalm 105:9 ), notably the inheritance of the land of Canaan (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 6:10 ) Nor was Abraham's religious personality forgotten by his posterity: he was remembered by them as God's friend (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 20:7; &nbsp;Isaiah 41:8 ), His servant, the very recollection of whom by God would offset the horror with which the sins of his descendants inspired Yahweh (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 9:27 ). </p> <p> 2. In the New Testament </p> <p> When we pass to the New Testament we are astonished at the wealth and variety of allusion to Abraham. As in the Old Testament, his position of ancestor lends him much of his significance, not only as ancestor of Israel (&nbsp;Acts 13:26 ), but specifically as ancestor, now of the [[Levitical]] priesthood (&nbsp;Hebrews 7:5 ), now of the Messiah (&nbsp;Matthew 1:1 ), now, by the peculiarly Christian doctrine of the unity of believers in Christ, of Christian believers (&nbsp;Galatians 3:16 , &nbsp;Galatians 3:29 ). All that Abraham the ancestor received through Divine election, by the covenant made with him, is inherited by his seed and passes under the collective names of the promise (&nbsp;Romans 4:13 ), the blessing (&nbsp;Galatians 3:14 ), mercy (&nbsp;Luke 1:54 ), the oath (&nbsp;Luke 1:73 ), the covenant (&nbsp;Acts 3:25 ). The way in which Abraham responded to this peculiar goodness of God makes him the type of the Christian believer. Though so far in the past that he was used as a measure of antiquity (&nbsp;John 8:58 ), he is declared to have "seen" Messiah's "day" (&nbsp;John 8:56 ). It is his faith in the Divine promise, which, just because it was for him peculiarly unsupported by any evidence of the senses, becomes the type of the faith that leads to justification (&nbsp;Romans 4:3 ), and therefore in this sense again he is the "father" of Christians, as believers (&nbsp;Romans 4:11 ). For that promise to Abraham was, after all, a "preaching beforehand" of the Christian gospel, in that it embraced "all the families of the earth" (&nbsp;Galatians 3:8 ). Of this exalted honor, James reminds us, Abraham proved himself worthy, not by an inoperative faith, but by "works" that evidenced his righteousness (&nbsp;James 2:21; compare &nbsp;John 8:39 ). The obedience that faith wrought in him is what is especially praised by the author of Hebrews (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:8 , &nbsp;Hebrews 11:17 ). In accordance with this high estimate of the patriarch's piety, we read of his eternal felicity, not only in the current conceptions of the Jews (parable, Lk 16), but also in the express assertion of our Lord (&nbsp;Matthew 8:11; &nbsp;Luke 13:28 ). Incidental historical allusions to the events of Abraham's life are frequent in the New Testament, but do not add anything to this estimate of his religious significance. </p> <p> 3. In Jewish Tradition </p> <p> Outside the [[Scriptures]] we have abundant evidence of the way that Abraham was regarded by his posterity in the Jewish nation. The oldest of these witnesses, Ecclesiasticus, contains none of the accretions of the later Abraham-legends. Its praise of Abraham is confined to the same three great facts that appealed to the canonical writers, namely, his glory as Israel's ancestor, his election to be recipient of the covenant, and his piety (including perhaps a tinge of "nomism") even under severe testing (Ecclesiasticus 44:19-21). The Improbable and often unworthy and even grotesque features of Abraham's career and character in the later rabbinical <i> ''''' midrashim ''''' </i> are of no religious significance, beyond the evidence they afford of the way Abraham's unique position and piety were cherished by the Jews. </p> <p> 4. In the Koran </p> <p> To [[Mohammed]] Abraham is of importance in several ways. He is mentioned in no less than 188 verses of the Koran, more than any other character except Moses. He is one of the series of prophets sent by God. He is the common ancestor of the [[Arab]] and the Jew. He plays the same role of religious reformer over against his idolatrous kinsmen as Mohammed himself played. He builds the first pure temple for God's worship (at Mecca!). As in the Bible so in the Koran Abraham is the recipient of the Divine covenant for himself and for his posterity, and exhibits in his character the appropriate virtues of one so highly favored: faith, righteousness, purity of heart, gratitude, fidelity, compassion. He receives marked tokens of the Divine favor in the shape of deliverance, guidance, visions, angelic messengers (no theophanies for Mohammed!), miracles, assurance of resurrection and entrance into paradise. He is called "Imam of the peoples" (2 118) </p> VII. Interpretations of the Story Other than the Historical <p> There are writers in both ancient and modern times who have, from various standpoints, interpreted the person and career of Abraham otherwise than as what it purports to be, namely, the real experiences of a human person named Abraham. These various views may be classified according to the motive or impulse which they believe to have led to the creation of this story in the mind of its author or authors. </p> <p> 1. The Allegorical Interpretation </p> <p> Philo's tract on Abraham bears as alternative titles, "On the Life of the [[Wise]] Man Made [[Perfect]] by Instruction, or, On the Unwritten Law." Abraham's life is not for him a history that serves to illustrate these things, but an allegory by which these things are embodied. Paul's use of the Sarah-Hagar episode in &nbsp;Galatians 4:21-31 belongs to this type of exposition (compare <i> ''''' allēgoroúmena ''''' </i> , &nbsp;Galatians 4:24 ), of which there are also a few other instances in his epistles; yet to infer from this that Paul shared Philo's general attitude toward the patriarchal narrative would be unwarranted, since his use of this method is incidental, exceptional, and merely corroborative of points already established by sound reason. "Luther compares it to a painting which decorates a house already built" (Schaff, "Galatians," <i> Excursus </i> ). </p> <p> 2. The Personification Theory </p> <p> As to [[Philo]] Abraham is the personification of a certain type of humanity, so to some modern writers he is the personification of the Hebrew nation or of a tribe belonging to the Hebrew group. This view, which is indeed very widely held with respect to the patriarchal figures in general, furnishes so many more difficulties in its specific application to Abraham than to the others, that it has been rejected in Abraham's case even by some who have adopted it for figures like Isaac, Ishmael and Jacob. Thus Meyer ( <i> Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme </i> , 250; compare also note on p. 251), speaking of his earlier opinion, acknowledges that, at the time when he "regarded the assertion of [[Stade]] as proved that Jacob and Isaac were tribes," even then he "still recognized Abraham as a mythical figure and originally a god." A similar differentiation of Abraham from the rest is true of most of the other adherents of the views about to be mentioned. Hence also Wellhausen says ( <i> Prolegomena </i> 6, 317): "Only Abraham is certainly no name of a people, like Isaac and Lot; he is rather ambiguous anyway. We dare not of course on that account hold him in this connection as an historical personage; rather than that he might be a free creation of unconscious fiction. He is probably the youngest figure in this company and appears to have been only at a relatively late date put before his son Isaac." </p> <p> 3. The Mythical Theory </p> <p> [[Urged]] popularly by Nöldeke ( <i> Im neuen [[Reich]] </i> (1871), I, 508ff) and taken up by other scholars, especially in the case of Abraham, the view gained general currency among those who denied the historicity of Gen, that the patriarchs were old deities. From this relatively high estate, it was held, they had fallen to the plane of mere mortals (though with remnants of the hero or even demigod here and there visible) on which they appear in Gen. A new phase of this mythical theory has been developed in the elaboration by Winckler and others of their astral-theology of the Babylonian world, in which the worship of Abraham as the moon-god by the Semites of Palestine plays a part. Abraham's traditional origin connects him with Ur and Haran, leading centers of the moon-cult. Apart from this fact the arguments relied upon to establish this identification of Abraham with [[Sin]] may be judged by the following samples: "When further the consort of Abraham bears the name Sarah, and one of the women among his closest relations the name Milcah, this gives food for thought, since these names correspond precisely with the titles of the female deities worshipped at Haran alongside the moongod Sin. Above all, however, the number 318, that appears in &nbsp; Genesis 14:14 in connection with the figure of Abraham, is convincing because this number, which surely has no historical value, can only be satisfactorily explained from the circle of ideas of the moon-religion, since in the lunar year of 354 days there are just 318 days on which the moon is visible - deducting 36 days, or three for each of the twelve months, on which the moon is invisible" (Baentsch, <i> Monotheismus </i> , 60f). In spite of this assurance, however, nothing could exceed the scorn with which these combinations and conjectures of Winckler, A. [[Jeremias]] and others of this school are received by those who in fact differ from them with respect to Abraham in little save the answer to the question, <i> what </i> deity was Abraham (see e.g. Meyer, op. cit., 252f, 256f). </p> <p> 4. The "Saga" Theory </p> <p> Gunkel ( <i> Genesis </i> , Introduction), in insisting upon the resemblance of the patriarchal narrative to the "sagas" of other primitive peoples, draws attention both to the human traits of figures like Abraham, and to the very early origin of the material embodied in our present book of Genesis. First as stories orally circulated, then as stories committed to writing, and finally as a number of collections or groups of such stories formed into a cycle, the Abraham-narratives, like the Jacob-narratives and the Joseph-narratives , grew through a long and complex literary history. Gressmann (op. cit, 9-34) amends Gunkel's results, in applying to them the principles of primitive literary development laid down by Professor Wundt in his <i> Völkerpsychologie </i> . He holds that the kernel of the Abraham-narratives is a series of fairy-stories, of international diffusion and unknown origin, which have been given "a local habitation and a name" by attaching to them the ( <i> ex hypothesi </i> ) then common name of Abraham (similarly Lot, etc.) and associating them with the country nearest to the wilderness of Judea, the home of their authors, namely, about Hebron and the [[Dead]] Sea. A high antiquity (1300-1100 bc) is asserted for these stories, their astonishing accuracy in details wherever they can be tested by extra-Biblical tradition is conceded, as also the probability that, "though many riddles still remain unsolved, yet many other traditions will be cleared up by new discoveries" of archaeology. </p>