Difference between revisions of "Soul"

<p> Like the word ‘spirit’, the word ‘soul’ has a variety of meanings in English. There is some variety also in the usages of the original words from which ‘soul’ has been translated. In the Hebrew of the Old Testament the word is nephesh. In the Greek of the New Testament the word is psyche. </p> <p> '''Old Testament usage''' </p> <p> The writers of the Old Testament did not speak of the soul as something that exists apart from the body. To them, soul (or nephesh) meant life. Both animals and people are nephesh, living creatures. Older English versions of the Bible have created misunderstanding by the translation ‘man became a living soul’ (&nbsp;Genesis 2:7), for the words translated ‘living soul’ are the same words as earlier translated ‘living creatures’ (&nbsp;Genesis 1:21; &nbsp;Genesis 1:24). All animal life is nephesh (or psyche; &nbsp;Revelation 8:9), though human nephesh is of a higher order than the nephesh of other animals (&nbsp;Genesis 2:19-22). </p> <p> From this it is easy to see how nephesh came to refer to the whole person. We should understand a person not as consisting of a combination of a lifeless body and a bodiless soul, but as a perfect unity, a living body. Thus nephesh may be translated ‘person’; even if translated ‘soul’, it may mean no more than ‘person’ or ‘life’ (&nbsp;Exodus 1:5; &nbsp;Numbers 9:13; &nbsp;Ezekiel 18:4; &nbsp;Ezekiel 18:27). A reference to someone’s nephesh may simply be a reference to the person (&nbsp;Psalms 6:3-4; &nbsp;Psalms 35:9; &nbsp;Isaiah 1:14) or the person’s life (&nbsp;Genesis 35:18; &nbsp;1 Kings 17:22; &nbsp;Psalms 33:19). </p> <p> '''New Testament usage''' </p> <p> Similarly in the New Testament psyche can be used to mean no more than ‘person’ (&nbsp;Acts 2:41; &nbsp;Acts 2:43; &nbsp;Acts 7:14; &nbsp;Romans 2:9; &nbsp;Romans 13:1). Again, a reference to someone’s psyche may simply be a reference to the person (&nbsp;Matthew 12:18; &nbsp;Matthew 26:38; &nbsp;Luke 1:46; &nbsp;Luke 12:19; &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 2:8; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:38) or the person’s life (&nbsp;Matthew 16:26; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:45; &nbsp;Philippians 2:30; &nbsp;1 Peter 4:19). Sometimes ‘soul’ appears to be the same as ‘heart’, which in the Bible usually refers to the whole of a person’s inner life (&nbsp;Proverbs 2:10; &nbsp;Acts 4:32; see [[Heart; Humanity, Humankind]] ) </p> <p> A person characterized by psyche is an ordinary person of the world, one who lives solely according to the principles and values of sinful human society – the ‘natural person’, in contrast to the ‘spiritual person’. The latter is one who has new principles and values because of the Spirit of God within (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:12-16; cf. &nbsp;Judges 1:19; see [[Flesh]] ; [[Spirit]] ). </p> <p> '''Human uniqueness''' </p> <p> Both Old and New Testaments teach that when people die they do not cease to exist. The body returns to dust (&nbsp;Genesis 3:19; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 3:20), but the person lives on in a place, or state, of the dead, which the Hebrew calls sheol and the Greek calls hades (&nbsp;Psalms 6:5; &nbsp;Psalms 88:3-5; &nbsp;Luke 16:22-23; see [[Hades]] ; [[Sheol]] ). The Old Testament does not say in what way people live on after death. Certainly, they live on as a conscious personal beings, but that personal being is not complete, for it has no body (&nbsp;Psalms 49:14; &nbsp;Ezekiel 26:20). </p> <p> The New Testament also is unclear on the subject of a person’s existence after death. It speaks of the bodiless person after death sometimes as a soul (&nbsp;Acts 2:27; &nbsp;Revelation 6:9; &nbsp;Revelation 20:4), sometimes as a spirit (&nbsp;Hebrews 12:23; &nbsp;1 Peter 3:18), but again the person, being bodiless, is not complete. Also, this existence as a bodiless person is only temporary, just as the decay of the body in the grave is only temporary. That is why the Bible encourages believers to look for their eternal destiny not in the endless existence of some bodiless ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’, but in the resurrection of the body to a new and glorious life (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:42-53; &nbsp;Philippians 3:20-21). </p> <p> Since there is more to a human life than what people experience during their earthly existence, psyche naturally developed a meaning relating to more than normal earthly life. [[Eternal]] destiny also is involved (&nbsp;Matthew 10:28; &nbsp;Matthew 16:26; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:38-39). </p> <p> From this usage, psyche developed an even richer meaning. It became the word most commonly used among [[Christians]] to describe the higher or more spiritual aspect of human life that is popularly called the soul (&nbsp;Hebrews 6:19; &nbsp;Hebrews 13:17; &nbsp;James 1:21; &nbsp;1 Peter 1:9; &nbsp;1 Peter 1:22; &nbsp;1 Peter 2:11; &nbsp;1 Peter 2:25; &nbsp;3 John 1:2). </p>

<div> '''1: '''''Ψυχή''''' ''' (Strong'S #5590 — Noun [[Feminine]] — psuche — psoo-khay' ) </div> <p> denotes "the breath, the breath of life," then "the soul," in its various meanings. The NT uses "may be analyzed approximately as follows: </p> &nbsp;Matthew 2:20&nbsp;Luke 12:22&nbsp;Acts 20:10&nbsp;Revelation 8:9&nbsp;12:11&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11&nbsp;2—Samuel 14:7&nbsp;Esther 8:11&nbsp;Matthew 10:28&nbsp;Acts 2:27&nbsp;1—Kings 17:21&nbsp;2—Corinthians 5:3,4&nbsp;Revelation 6:9&nbsp;Luke 9:24&nbsp;Luke 9:25&nbsp;Hebrews 6:19&nbsp;10:39&nbsp;Isaiah 53:10&nbsp; 1—Timothy 2:6&nbsp;Matthew 11:29&nbsp;Luke 1:46&nbsp;2:35&nbsp;Acts 14:2,22&nbsp;Psalm 84:2&nbsp;139:14&nbsp;Isaiah 26:9&nbsp;Matthew 22:37&nbsp;Acts 4:32&nbsp;Ephesians 6:6&nbsp;Philippians 1:27&nbsp;Hebrews 12:3&nbsp;Numbers 21:4&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:13&nbsp;Revelation 18:14&nbsp;Psalm 107:9&nbsp;Proverbs 6:30&nbsp;Isaiah 5:14&nbsp; Acts 2:41,43&nbsp;Romans 2:9&nbsp;James 5:20&nbsp;1—Peter 3:20&nbsp;2—Peter 2:14&nbsp;Genesis 12:5&nbsp;14:21&nbsp; Leviticus 4:2&nbsp; Ezekiel 27:13&nbsp;Numbers 6:6&nbsp;Leviticus 24:18&nbsp;John 10:24&nbsp; Hebrews 10:38&nbsp;Genesis 12:13&nbsp;Numbers 23:10&nbsp;Judges 16:30&nbsp;Psalm 120:2&nbsp; 2—Corinthians 12:15&nbsp;Hebrews 13:17&nbsp;James 1:21&nbsp;1—Peter 1:9&nbsp;2:25&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11&nbsp;26:15&nbsp;1—Samuel 1:26&nbsp;3&nbsp;1—Peter 4:19&nbsp;2—Peter 2:8&nbsp;Exodus 30:12&nbsp;Job 32:2&nbsp;1—Corinthians 15:45&nbsp;Revelation 16:3&nbsp;Genesis 1:24&nbsp;2:7,19&nbsp;Luke 21:19&nbsp; Matthew 10:39&nbsp;1—Peter 2:11&nbsp;3—John 1:2&nbsp;1—Corinthians 14:7&nbsp;James 1:8&nbsp;4:8&nbsp;1—Thessalonians 5:14&nbsp;Philippians 2:20&nbsp;Philippians 2:2&nbsp;Hebrews 4:12&nbsp;Matthew 6:25&nbsp;10:28&nbsp;Luke 12:20&nbsp;Acts 20:10&nbsp;Luke 8:55&nbsp;1—Corinthians 5:3&nbsp;7:34&nbsp;James 2:26&nbsp;Matthew 26:38&nbsp; John 13:21&nbsp; Psalm 42:11&nbsp; 1—Kings 21:5&nbsp;Psalm 35:9&nbsp; Luke 1:47

<p> (prop. '''''רוּחִ''''' , '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '','' the ''Rational'' spirit; but occasionally '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' , '''''Ψυχή''''' , the [[Animal]] principle of life), that vital, immaterial, active substance, or principles in man whereby he perceives, remembers, reasons, and wills. The rational soul is simple, uncompounded, and immaterial, not composed of matter and form; for matter can never think and move of itself as the soul does. In the fourth volume of the ''Memoirs'' of the Literary and Philosophical Society of [[Manchester]] the reader will find a very valuable paper by Dr. Ferrier, proving, by evidence apparently complete, that every part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of thought. It will be difficult for any man to peruse this without being convinced that the modern theory of the Materialists is shaken from its very foundation. (See Materialism). </p> <p> The soul is rather to be described as to its operation than to be defined as to its essence. Various, indeed, have been the opinions of philosophers concerning its substance. In the second book of his treatise '''''Περὶ''''' '''''Ψυχῆς''''' , [[Aristotle]] has given two definitions of it. In the first of these he calls it "the [[Entelechy]] ( '''''Ε᾿Ντελέχεια''''' ) '','' or first form of an organized body which has potential life." The Epicureans thought it a subtle air, composed of atoms, or primitive corpuscles. The Stoics maintained it was a flame, or portion of heavenly light. The Cartesians make thinking the essence of the soul. Critics, a Sophist, regarded the blood as the seat and substratum of the soul. According to Plato, "The first or invisible element of the soul in man is the instrument of rational cognition, the other element is the organ of perception and representation. With this soul, having its seat in the head, are combined the courageous and the appetitive souls, the whole resembling the composite force of a driver and two steeds." Aristotle distinguished several forms of soul, viz. the ''Rational,'' which is purely spiritual; and infused by the immediate inspiration of God; the ''Appetitice,'' which was the source of desire and will '''''—''''' the [[Motive]] of locomotion; the ''Sensitive,'' which, being common to man and brutes, is supposed to be formed of the element, and is the cause of sensation and feeling and, lastly, the ''Vegetative'' soul, or principle of growth and nutrition, as the first is of understanding, and the second of animal life. </p> <p> Modern philosophy has made many attempts to define the soul, of which we give the following resume. "It is not I that thinks, but it thinks in me; and it is not I that am, but it is something in me" (Baggesen, Zeitschr. von Fichte, 34, 153). "Spirit is a substance, immediately immanent in thinking, or of which thinking is immediately the form of activity. Spirit is thinking substance, the soul is dynamically present in the entire organism" (Chalybais, ibid. 20, 69). "We are compelled to suppose that there must be a real essence as the substantial bearer of all psychical conditions. This essence is the soul. It must stand with other real essences in causal relation, in order to the generation in it of manifold internal conditions. In brief, the soul needs the body, the body needs the soul" (Cornelius, Zeitschr. fir exacte Philosophie, 4, 99-102). "In the organism formed of atoms, which are spiritual essences, one unfolds its spiritual force to the point of self- consciousness; this atom, which as gas form atom interpenetrates the entire organism and occupies space as a center, is the soul" (Drossbach, Harmonie der Ergebnisse d. Naturforschung, p. 101-129, 229). "The phenomena of body and soul hang together as internal and external phenomena of the same essence. This primary essence is, however, nothing more than the conjunction of phenomena themselves in the unitv of the general consciousness. The soul becomes aware only of its own proper phenomena, the body becomes aware only through that which appears of it to the soul itself. It is a common essence which appears externally as body, internally as soul" (Fechner, Physical. und philosoph. Atonzenlehre, 2d ed. p. 258, 259). "The soul is no more than nature; it is a phenomenon of the internal sense" (J.G. Fichte, Grundlage d. ges. Wissenschaftslehre, 1794, 1802). "The fact of self consciousness can only be explained on the supposition that the soul is a real essence, distinct from the organism, capable of reflection upon itself, that is, of consciousness. "Soul and body are diverse substances, but in the most intimate union and mutual interpenetration. It is the idea of its body." "Every soul acquires for itself an organic body. </p> <p> The external material body is but the changing image of the internal process of soul and life" (I.H. Fichte, Zeitschr. 12, 246; 25, 176-178). "Spirit is but a higher potency, a mere continuation of development of the animal soul, and the animal soul itself is a mere exaltation of the vital force of the plant. These three principles are in man, in virtue of his self consciousness, comprehended in one and the same Ego" (Fischer, Metaphysik, p. 36-38; Sitz der Seele, p. 8, 16). "The soul is a substantial essence. The inmost essence, the Ego, is unattainable to our cognition" (Frohschammer, Athehaumn, 2, 116, 119). "The body is the same life as the soul, and yet they may be spoken of as lying asunder. A soul without body would be nothing living, and the converse is true. The soul posits and produces itself; it has a body in itself, not without which it composes one total and actual, and in which it is omnipresent" (Hegel, Wereke, 5, 16; 8, 22, 23; 15, 339; 18, 29, 93). "We have no cognition of what is strictly the essence of our soul. We cannot reach the [[Ego]] itself with our consciousness; we can only reach it in the constantly shifting modifications, as it thinks, feels, wills, especially as it possesses the power of representation." "The soul is a simple essence without parts, and without plurality in its quality, whose intellectual manifoldness is conditioned by a varied concurrence with other and yet real essences" (Herbart, Werke, 1, 193, etc.). "The Ego is an absolute unity, and, as it is no object of outward sense, is immaterial; and though it is present in space, and operates in it, occupies no space and has no special place in the body. The body is, rather, but the form of the soul; and birth, life; and death are but the diverse conditions of the soul. The conception of soul can only be reached by deductions" (Kant, Vorlesungen uber Metaphysik, p. 133-254; ''Werke,'' 7, 60-78). "The what of the soul, its nature, comes as little into view as does the essential nature of things in general; the essential nature of the soul in itself remains unknown to us before it comes into a situation within which alone its life unfolds itself. </p> <p> The soul is also the focus into which flow together the movements of the bodily life that play hither and thither. The. soul neither arises from the body nor from nothing, but goes forth from the substance of the infinite with the same substantiality which pertains to all the actual in nature that has sprung from the same infinite source. Our personality is not composed of body and soul; rather does our true essence lie exclusively in the soul. The spirit is something higher than the soul. In the spirit is the unity of our being, our true Ego. The soul is but an element in its service. At death the soul passes away, the spirit ripens to a new existence" (Lotze, Mlikrokosmus; Sfreitschriften, 1, 138). "The soul, the consciousness a posteriori, is nothing but the individual being, so far as it is conscious, and can neither be, nor be thought of, apart from that individual being" (Schellwien, Seyn und Bewusstseyn, p. 117, 122). "The Ego which now apprehends itself as sentient or percipient, now as putting forth effort, willing, etc., knows itself at the same time as one and the same, the same abiding self. It is but an expression of this consciousness of unity when we speak of our own soul, and impute to it this or that predicate; that is, when we distinguish our own soul, with its manifold characteristics, from ourselves, and in this act implicitly contrast ourselves as unity with the mutation and manifoldness of our intellectual life" (Ulrici, Glauben und Wissen, p. 64-66; Zeitschr. von Fichte, 36, 232; Gott u. die Natur, p. 414-417). </p> <p> Modern philosophers in [[Germany]] thus make a distinction between '''''Ψυχή''''' ( ''Seele'' ) and '''''Πνεῦμα''''' ( ''Geist'' ) '','' or spirit and soul; but they reverse the relative significance of these terms. Prof. G.H. Schubert says that the [[Soul]] is the inferior part of our intellectual nature, while the [[Spirit]] is that part of our nature which tends to the purely rational, the lofty and divine. The doctrine of the [[Natural]] and the [[Spiritual]] (q.v.) man, which we find in the writings of Paul, may, it has been thought, have formed the basis upon which this mental dualism has been founded. The plainest and most common distinction taken in the use of the words soul and mind is, that in speaking of the [[Mind]] of man we refer more to the various powers which it possesses, or the various operations which it performs; and in speaking of the soul of man we refer rather to the nature and destiny of the human being. The following distinguishing features of spirit, mind, and soul have been given: "The first denotes the animating faculty, the breath of intelligence, the inspiring principle, the spring of energy, and the prompter of exertion; the second is the recording power, the preserver of impressions, the storer of deductions, the nurse of knowledge, and the parent of thought; the last is the disembodied, ethereal, self conscious being, concentrating in itself all the purest and most refined of human excellences, every generous affection, every benevolent disposition, every intellectual attainment, every ennobling virtue, and every exalting aspiration" (The Purpose of Existence [1850, 12mo], p. 79). '''''Ψυχή''''' , spirit, when considered separately signifies the principle of [[Life]] ; '''''Νοῦς''''' , mind, the principle ''Of Intelligence.'' According to Plutarch, [[Spirit]] is the cause and beginning of motion, and [[Mind]] of order and harmony with respect to motion. [[Together]] they signify an intelligent soul. Thus we say the "immortality" of the ''Soul,'' and the "powers" of the [[Mind]] (Fleming, ''Vocabulary Of Science,'' s.v.). (See Mind). </p> <p> In the [[Holy]] [[Scriptures]] three principles are recognized (see especially &nbsp;1 Thessalonians 5:23) as essential components of man '''''—''''' the soul ( '''''רוּחִ''''' '', '''''Πνεῦμα''''' '' ) '','' the [[Spirit]] ( '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' , '''''Ψυχή''''' ) '','' and the [[Body]] ( '''''בָּשָׂר''''' , '''''Σάρξ''''' '','' or '''''Σῶμα''''' ); but these are not accurately, much less scientifically, defined. The first and the last of these elements clearly correspond to the material or physical and the immaterial or spiritual parts of man's nature, i.e. the soul and the body, as ordinarily defined by modern philosophers and scientists; but the middle term, the "spirit," is hard to be distinguished. Yet in all earthly creatures, even in the lowest forms of animals, there is clearly observable a principle, inherent indeed in the body, and yet distinct from the rational faculty of man or the instinctive intelligence of brutes. This is usually styled "the animate principle," or briefly life. It is this which molds the whole physical organism, and for this end controls, and to a large degree overrides, mere chemical and inorganic laws, producing combinations and results impossible to unvitalized substance. This power or essence '''''—''''' for it has not yet been determined whether it be distinct from or a mere result of the combination of soul and body '''''—''''' has hitherto eluded the analysis of scientific and philosophical research, and it will probably remain an inscrutable secret; but it is a sufficiently separate element of human and animal nature to warrant the distinctive use of a special term for it by the Biblical writers (which is carefully observed by them in the original, although frequently obscured in the English version). Thus spirit ( '''''נֶפֶשׁ''''' , '''''Ψυχή''''' ) is never applied to God or to angelic beings, who are incorporeal; nor, on the other hand, is soul ( '''''רוּח''''' , '''''Πνεῦμα''''' ) ever used of beasts (except in &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 3:19; &nbsp;Ecclesiastes 3:21, where it is evidently employed out of its proper sense for the sake of uniformity). Yet [[Life]] ( '''''חִיָּה''''' ) is ascribed equally to all these classes of ''Existence,'' although those only who have bodies are endowed with the organic locomotive principle (&nbsp;Genesis 1:20; &nbsp;Genesis 2:7). (See [[Psychology]]). </p> <p> On the general subject, see Baxter, On the Soul; Drew, Immateriality and Immortality of the Soul; Doddridge; Lectures, p. 92-97; Flavel, On the Soul; Locke, On the Understanding; oore, Immortality of the Soul; Ueberweg, Hist. of Philosophy. (See Spirit). </p>

<p> ''''' sōl ''''' ( נפשׁ , <i> ''''' nephesh ''''' </i> ; ψυχή , <i> ''''' psuchḗ ''''' </i> ; Latin <i> anima </i> ): </p> 1. Shades of Meaning in the Old Testament: <p> (1) Soul, like spirit, has various shades of meaning in the Old Testament, which may be summarized as follows: "Soul," "living being," "life," "self," "person," "desire," "appetite," "emotion" and "passion" ( <i> Bdb </i> under the word). In the first instance it meant that which breathes, and as such is distinguished from <i> ''''' bāsār ''''' </i> , "flesh" (&nbsp; Isaiah 10:18; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:23 ); from <i> ''''' she'ēr ''''' </i> , "the inner flesh," next the bones (&nbsp;Proverbs 11:17 , "his own flesh"); from <i> ''''' beṭen ''''' </i> , "belly" (&nbsp;Psalm 31:10 , "My soul and my belly are consumed with grief"), etc. </p> <p> (2) As the <i> life-breath </i> , it departs at death (&nbsp; Genesis 35:18; &nbsp;Jeremiah 15:2 ). Hence, the desire among Old Testament saints to be delivered from Sheol (&nbsp;Psalm 16:10 , "Thou wilt not leave my soul to Sheol") and from shachath, "the pit" (&nbsp;Job 33:18 , "He keepeth back his soul from the pit"; &nbsp;Isaiah 38:17 , "Thou hast ... delivered it (my soul) from the pit of corruption"). </p> <p> (3) By an easy transition the word comes to stand for the <i> individual </i> , <i> personal life </i> , the <i> person </i> , with two distinct shades of meaning which might best be indicated by the Latin <i> anima </i> and <i> animus </i> . As <i> anima </i> , "soul," the life inherent in the body, the animating principle in the blood is denoted (compare &nbsp; Deuteronomy 12:23 , &nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:24 , 'Only be sure that thou eat not the blood: for the blood is the soul; and thou shalt not eat the soul with the flesh'). As <i> animus </i> , "mind," the center of our mental activities and passivities is indicated. Thus we read of 'a hungry soul' (&nbsp;Psalm 107:9 ), 'a weary soul' (&nbsp;Jeremiah 31:25 ), 'a loathing soul' (&nbsp;Leviticus 26:11 ), 'a thirsty soul' (&nbsp;Psalm 42:2 ), 'a grieved soul' (&nbsp;Job 30:25 ), 'a loving soul' (&nbsp;Song of Solomon 1:7 ), and many kindred expressions. Cremer has characterized this use of the word in a sentence: " <i> ''''' Nephesh ''''' </i> (soul) in man is the subject of personal life, whereof <i> ''''' pneúma ''''' </i> or <i> ''''' rūaḥ ''''' </i> (spirit) is the principle" ( <i> Lexicon </i> , under the word, 795). </p> <p> (4) This individuality of man, however, may be denoted by <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> as well, but with a distinction. <i> ''''' Nephesh ''''' </i> or "soul" can only denote the individual life with a material organization or body. <i> ''''' Pneuma ''''' </i> or "spirit" is not so restricted. Scripture speaks of "spirits of just men made perfect" (&nbsp; Hebrews 12:23 ), where there can be no thought of a material or physical or corporeal organization. They are "spiritual beings freed from the assaults and defilements of the flesh" (Delitzsch, in the place cited.). For an exceptional use of <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> in the same sense see &nbsp;Revelation 6:9; &nbsp;Revelation 20:4 , and (irrespective of the meaning of &nbsp;Psalm 16:10 ) &nbsp;Acts 2:27 . </p> 2. New Testament Distinctions: <p> (1) In the New Testament <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> appears under more or less similar conditions as in the Old Testament. The contrast here is as carefully maintained as there. It is used where <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> would be out of place; and yet it seems at times to be employed where <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> might have been substituted. Thus in &nbsp; John 19:30 we read: "Jesus gave up his <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> " to the Father, and, in the same [[Gospel]] (&nbsp;John 10:15 ), Jesus gave up His " <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> for the sheep," and in &nbsp;Matthew 20:28 He gave His <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> (not His <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> ) as a ransom - a difference which is characteristic. For the <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> stands in quite a different relation to God from the <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> . The "spirit" ( <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> ) is the outbreathing of God into the creature, the life-principle derived from God. The "soul" ( <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> ) is man's individual possession, that which distinguishes one man from another and from inanimate nature. The <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> of Christ was surrendered to the Father in death; His <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> was surrendered, His individual life was given "a ransom for many." His life "was given for the sheep" </p> <p> (2) This explains those expressions in the New Testament which bear on the salvation of the soul and its preservation in the regions of the dead. "Thou wilt not leave my soul unto Hades" (the world of shades) (&nbsp;Acts 2:27 ); "Tribulation and anguish, upon every soul of man that worketh evil" (&nbsp;Romans 2:9 ); "We are ... of them that have faith unto the saving of the soul" (&nbsp;Hebrews 10:39 ); "Receive ... the implanted word, which is able to save your souls" (&nbsp;James 1:21 ). </p> <p> The same or similar expressions may be met with in the Old Testament in reference to the soul. Thus in &nbsp;Psalm 49:8 , the King James Version "The redemption of their soul is precious" and again: "God will redeem my soul from the power of Sheol" (&nbsp;Psalm 49:15 ). Perhaps this may explain - at least this is Wendt's explanation - why even a corpse is called <i> ''''' nephesh ''''' </i> or soul in the Old Testament, because, in the region of the dead, the individuality is retained and, in a measure, separated from God (compare &nbsp;Haggai 2:13; &nbsp;Leviticus 21:11 ). </p> 3. Oehler on Soul and Spirit: <p> The distinction between <i> ''''' psuchē ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' pneuma ''''' </i> , or <i> ''''' nephesh ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' rūaḥ ''''' </i> , to which reference has been made, may best be described in the words of Oehler ( <i> Old Testament Theology </i> , I, 217): "Man is not spirit, but has it: he is <i> soul </i> .... In the soul, which sprang from the spirit, and exists continually through it, lies the individuality - in the case of man, his personality, his self, his <i> ego </i> ." He draws attention to the words of [[Elihu]] in Job (&nbsp; Job 33:4 ): 'God's <i> spirit </i> made me,' the soul called into being; 'and the <i> breath </i> of the [[Almighty]] animates me,' the soul kept in energy and strength, in continued existence, by the Almighty, into whose hands the inbreathed <i> spirit </i> is surrendered, when the <i> soul </i> departs or is taken from us (&nbsp; 1 Kings 19:4 ). Hence, according to Oehler the phrases <i> ''''' naphshı̄ ''''' </i> ("my soul"), <i> ''''' naphshekhā ''''' </i> ("thy soul") may be rendered in Latin <i> egomet </i> , <i> tu ipse </i> ; but not <i> ''''' rūḥı̄ ''''' </i> ("my spirit"), <i> ''''' ruḥăkhā ''''' </i> ("thy spirit") - soul standing for the whole person, as in &nbsp;Genesis 12:5; &nbsp;Genesis 17:14; &nbsp;Ezekiel 18:4 , etc. See Psychology . </p>