Difference between revisions of "Physician"

<div> '''1: ἰατρός ''' (Strong'S #2395 — Noun Masculine — iatros — ee-at-ros' ) </div> <p> akin to iaomai, "to heal," "a physician," occurs in &nbsp;Matthew 9:12; &nbsp;Mark 2:17; &nbsp;5:26; &nbsp;Luke 4:23; &nbsp;5:31 (in some mss., 8:43); &nbsp; Colossians 4:14 . </p>

<p> (וֹפֵא, ''Rophe, A Curer; Ἰατρός).'' Among the Hebrews, as among the ancients generally, medical remedies (&nbsp;Exodus 21:19) were early (comp. Pliny, 29:5) dispensed by a special class, who probably derived their skill from the [[Egyptians]] (&nbsp;Genesis 1:1; comp. Herod. 2:84; 3:1, 129; Diod. Sic. 1:82; Diog. Laert. 3:8; Pliiy, 26:3; 29:30: see Sprengel, ''Geschichte,'' 1:62; Wilkinson, 3:390), who were famous for their medicines (Odyss. 4:229). Their aid was at first made use of, as among common people at all times, for surgery and in extraordinary cases, and medicines (&nbsp;Exodus 1:15 : the "stools," אָבְנִיַם ''',''' there spoken of were, according to Gesenius, Thes. Heb. page 17, benches or seats on which the parturient females were seated; but the word, see Studien u. Krit. 1834, pages 81, 626, 641; 1842, page 1048, will scarcely bear this signification, see Ewald, Gesch. Isr. 1:481, and Lengerke; Keizma, page 387) were regularly employed (see Kall, De obstetricib. matrum Hebr. in XEg. Hamb. 1746). In later times [[Hebrew]] prescriptions obtained, which the prophets sometimes applied (&nbsp;2 Kings 4:21; &nbsp;2 Kings 5:10; &nbsp;2 Kings 8:7; &nbsp;2 Kings 20:7; Isaiah 38; which cases, although miraculous, evince the custom of seeking relief from that class of persons); mostly for ''External'' injuries or complaints (&nbsp;Isaiah 1:6 : &nbsp;Ezekiel 30:21; &nbsp;2 Kings 8:29; &nbsp;2 Kings 9:15), but sometimes for internal maladies (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 16:12), and even for mental diseases (&nbsp;1 Samuel 16:16; comp. Josephus, ''Ant.'' 8:2, 5); but these never reached any extensive degree of science (see Buxtorf, ''Lex. Chald.'' s.v. רפא ). The resort to physicians was very general before and especially after the exile (&nbsp;2 Chronicles 16:12; &nbsp;Jeremiah 8:22; &nbsp;Sirach 38:1; &nbsp;Mark 5:26; comp. &nbsp;Luke 4:23; &nbsp;Luke 5:31; &nbsp;Luke 8:43; see Josephus, ''War,'' 2:8, 6; Doughtaei ''Analect.'' 2:35), and eventually medical practitioners could be foumd even in the smaller cities of the land (Josephus, ''Life,'' 72; comp. ''Ant.'' 14:13, 10). Their remedies consisted mostly in salves (especially ''Balsam,'' &nbsp;Jeremiah 8:22; &nbsp;Jeremiah 46:11; &nbsp;Jeremiah 51:8; comp. Prosp. Alpin. ''Med. Aeg.'' 118 sq.; or ''Oil,'' &nbsp;Luke 10:34; Mishna, ''Sabb.'' 14:4; including the oilbath, Josephus, War, 1:33, 5; Mishna, Berachoth, 1:2), leaves (&nbsp;Ezekiel 47:12), plasters (e.g. ''Of Fig,'' &nbsp;2 Kings 20:7; comp. Pliny, 23:63; Strabo, 15:713), and bathing in mineral springs (Josephus, ''Ant.'' 17:6, 5; ''Life,'' 16; ''War,'' 1:33, 5; 2:21, 6; comp. &nbsp;John 5:2), or in flowing streams (&nbsp;2 Kings 5:10). ''Internal'' nostrums are again and again recommended in the [[Talmud]] (see the Mishna, ''Sabb.'' 14:3; 22:6; ''Joma,'' 8:6); in the Old Test. honey only is mentioned (&nbsp;Proverbs 16:24), which still holds a conspicuous place among medical compounds in the East. Specimens of the [[Jewish]] prescriptions may be seen in Lightfoot on &nbsp;Mark 5:26 (the formula or ''"Recipe"'' is לייתי ). Surgical operations are mentioned in the [[Mishna]] (Sabb. 22:6; Chelim, 12:4; comp. Sabb. 6:5). Great curative virtue was attributed to amulets (Mishna, Sabb. 6:2, 10), incantations, charms, the touch of certain individuals, and other superstitions of a like character (&nbsp;2 Kings 5:11 [comp. Rosenmuller, ''Morgenl.'' 3:227]; Josephus, ''Ant.'' 8:5); especially in cases of hypochondria or supposed daemoniacal possession. (See [[Amulet]]); (See [[Daemoniac]]). </p> <p> The priests (&nbsp;Luke 17:14) were appointed by the law (Leviticus 12-15) the civil health-wardens, not so much for the cure as for the inspection of the sick, or of persons suspected of certain maladies, and the instructions given to them, especially respecting endemic diseases, exhibit a very careful observation, and afford apt and accurate symptoms. (See [[Leprosy]]); (See [[Plague]]). For the priests themselves, who, in consequence of being obliged to perform their services barefoot, were often liable to catch cold (see Kall, De morbis sacerdotum V.T. Hafn. 1745), a special physician (medicus viscerum) was (in later times) appointed at the [[Temple]] (Lightfoot, page 781). The priests must have obtained considerable anatomical knowledge (comp. the Talmudic abstract on osteology in the Mishna, Oholoth, 1:8) from the daily slaughter of the animal sacrifices. On the subject generally, see Borner, Diss. de statu medicinae ap. vet. Ebr. (Viteb. 1755) Lindlinger, De. Hebr. vet. arte medica (1774); Sprengel, De medicina Ebraeor. diss. (Hal. 1789); comp. Schmidt's Bibl. Medicus (Till. 1743); also Norberg, De medicina Arabum (in his Opusc. acad. 3:404 sq.); Wunderbar, Biblisch-talmudische Medicin (Riga, 1859). (See Medicine). </p> <p> The superstitious credulity of modern Orientals as to curative means is proverbial, and has been noticed by all travellers. The Arabs are ready to put faith in almost any Frank as a professional "medicine man" or hakim (literally "wise man"), as they term all physicians. Prescriptions of all sorts are at once taken by them, however absurd; but they are generally unwilling to exercise the patience, care, self-restraint, and especially the cleanliness necessary to a real cure. They expect sudden and immediate restoration, and invariably prefer extraordinary to simple remedies. All this is in keeping with the supernatural character of the nostrums ordinarily employed by them. Indeed, fatalism being the basis of Mohammedanism, a resort to direct divine power might naturally be expected. (See [[Superstition]]). </p> <p> "It is a very prevalent notion among the [[Christians]] of Europe that the Muslims are enemies to almost every branch of knowledge. This is an erroneous idea; but it is true that their studies, in the present age, are confined within very narrow limits. Very few of them study medicine, chemistry (for our first knowledge of which we are indebted to the Arabs), the mathematics, or astronomy. The Egyptian medical and surgical practitioners are mostly barbers, miserably ignorant of the sciences which they profess, and unskilful in their practice; partly in consequence of their- beiig prohibited by their religion from availing themselves of the advantage of dissecting human bodies. But a number of young men, natives of Egypt, are now receiving European instruction in medicine, anatomy, surgery, and other sciences, for the service of the government. Many of the Egyptians, in illness, neglect medical aid, placing their whole reliance on [[Providence]] or charms. [[Alchemy]] is more studied in this country than pure chemistry, and astrology more than astronomy" (Lane, Mod. Egypt. 1:239). </p>

<p> ''''' fi ''''' - ''''' zish´an ''''' ( רפא , <i> ''''' rōphı̄' ''''' </i> ; ἰατρός , <i> ''''' iatrós ''''' </i> ): To the pious Jew at all times God was the healer (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 32:39 ): "It was neither herb nor mollifying plaister that cured them, but thy word, [[O]] L ord, which healeth all things" (The Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 16:12). The first physicians mentioned in [[Scripture]] are those of Egypt. Long before the sojourn of the Hebrews in that land, Egypt had a priestly class of physicians ( <i> '''''snu''''' </i> ) and a god of healing ( <i> '''''Imḥtp''''' </i> ). From the ancient medical papyri which have been preserved, the largest of which is the [[Papyrus]] Ebers, we know that the medical knowledge of these physicians was purely empirical, largely magical and wholly unscientific. In spite of their ample opportunities they knew next to nothing of human anatomy, their descriptions of diseases are hopelessly crude, and three-fourths of the hundreds of prescriptions in the papyri are wholly inert. Even their art of embalming was so imperfect that few of their mummies would have remained in any other climate than that of Egypt. Physicians of this kind who were Joseph's servants embalmed Jacob (&nbsp;Genesis 50:2 ) and Joseph (&nbsp;Genesis 50:26 ). It was not until the foundation of the School of Alexandria, which was purely Greek, that Egypt became a place of medical education and research. </p> <p> There is no evidence that at any time the priests of [[Israel]] were reputed to be the possessors of medical knowledge or tradition. In the ceremonial law they had explicit instructions as to the isolation of those suffering from skin eruptions, so that they might recognize certain obstinate and infectious forms which caused ceremonial uncleanness, but with this duty as sanitary police their function ended and they used no means to cure these diseases. There is, as far as I know, no record or tradition of a priest-physician in Bible times. The records of cure by the prophets, especially Elisha, are mostly recorded as miracles, not as cures by treatment. The salt which cured the noxious water at [[Jericho]] and the meal by which the poisonous gourds were rendered innoxious, like the manipulation of the Shunammite's son, can scarcely be regarded as adequate remedies. There is an implied reference to a healer of wounds in &nbsp;Exodus 21:19 , as also in &nbsp;Isaiah 3:7 , and it is recorded in <i> '''''Peṣāḥı̄m''''' </i> , iv. 9 that there was in existence in the time of the monarchy a book of cures, <i> '''''ṣēpher''''' </i> <i> '''''rephū'ōth''''' </i> , supposed to have been written by Solomon, but withdrawn from public use by Hezekiah. The first specific mention of Hebrew physicians is &nbsp;2 Chronicles 16:12 , but Asa is obviously regarded by the Chronicler as reprehensible in trusting to their skill. In &nbsp;2 Kings 8:29 Joram, king of Israel, is said to have gone to [[Jezreel]] to be healed. Not far from this, across the Jordan, was Gilead, which possibly may also have been a place resorted to by those needing medical treatment, as indicated by Jeremiah's query: "Is there no balm in Gilead? is there no physician there?" (&nbsp; Jeremiah 8:22 ). Job, irritated by the platitudes of his friends, calls them physicians of no value (&nbsp;Job 13:4 ). </p> <p> In the New [[Testament]] our Lord's saying, "They that are whole have no need of a physician," etc., shows that there were physicians in [[Galilee]] (&nbsp;Matthew 9:12; &nbsp;Mark 2:17; &nbsp;Luke 5:31 ), and in [[Nazareth]] He quotes what seems to have been a proverb: "Physician, heal thyself" (&nbsp;Luke 4:23 ). There were physicians in Galilee who received fees from the woman of Caesarca [[Philippi]] who had the issue of blood (&nbsp;Mark 5:26; &nbsp;Luke 8:43 ). Of her there is a curious story told in [[Eusebius]] (VII, 18). </p> <p> There are several Talmudic references to physicians; in <i> ''''' Sheḳālı̄m ''''' </i> 2 1, it is said that there was a physician at the temple to attend to the priests. A physician was appointed in every city ( <i> ''''' Giṭṭı̄n ''''' </i> 12b) who was required to have a license from the local authorities ( <i> ''''' Bābhā' ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Bathrā' ''''' </i> 21a). The familiar passage in &nbsp; [[Sirach]] 38:1-15 the Revised Version (British and American) in praise of the physician gives him but limited credit for his skill: "There is a time when in their very hands is the issue for good," and later, "He that sinneth before his Maker, Let him fall into the hands of the physician." </p> <p> Luke, called "the beloved physician" in &nbsp;Colossians 4:14 , is said by Eusebius to have been a native of Antioch and a physician by profession. According to [[Origen]] he was the unnamed "brother whose praise in the gospel is spread through all the churches" (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 8:18 ). There are evidences of his professional studies in the language of his writings, though of this probably more has been made by [[Hobart]] and others than it really merits. Had we not known of his profession it is doubtful whether it could have been conjectured from his choice of words. Sir W. Ramsay calls attention to the two words used of the healings at [[Melita]] in &nbsp;Acts 28:8-10 : for the cure of Publius' father the word used is <i> '''''iásato''''' </i> , but for the healing of those who came later it is <i> '''''etherapeúonto''''' </i> , which he renders "received medical treatment." From this he infers that Luke helped Paul with these (Ramsay, <i> Luke the Physician </i> , 1908). </p>