Difference between revisions of "Moses"

<p> <strong> [[Moses]] </strong> </p> <p> 1. Name The [[Hebrew]] narrator regards <em> Môsheh </em> as a participle from the vb. <em> mâshâh </em> , ‘to draw’ [[Ex]] (&nbsp; Exodus 2:10 ). Jos. [Note: Josephus.] and [[Philo]] derive it from the Copt, <em> mo </em> ‘water,’ and <em> ushe </em> ‘saved’; this is implied in their spelling <em> Mouses </em> , also found in LXX [Note: Septuagint.] and NT. It is more plausible to connect the name with the Egyptian <em> mes, mesu </em> , ‘son.’ Perhaps it was originally coupled with the name of an Egyp. deity cf. <em> Ra-mesu, Thoth-mes </em> , and others which was omitted under the influence of Israelite monotheism. </p> <p> <strong> 2. History </strong> </p> <p> (i.) <em> The narrative of J. </em> <em> [Note: . Jahwist.] </em> Moses killed an Egyptian, and rebuked one of two Israelites who were striving together, and then he fled to Midian. There he helped seven daughters of the priest of Midian to water their flocks, dwelt with him, married his daughter Zipporah, and had one son by her, named [[Gershom]] (&nbsp; Exodus 2:11-22 ). The king of Egypt died (&nbsp; Exodus 2:23 a), and at J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’s bidding Moses returned. On the way, J″ [Note: Jahweh.] smote him because he had not been circumcised before marriage; but [[Zipporah]] saved him by circumcising the child, and thus circumcising Moses by proxy (&nbsp; Exodus 4:19; &nbsp; Exodus 4:24-26 . These verses must be put back to this point). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] appeared in the burning bush and spoke to Moses. Moses was to gather the elders, give them J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’s message, and demand permission from Pharaoh to sacrifice in the wilderness. Moses was given two signs to persuade the Israelites, and yet a third if the two were insufficient (&nbsp; Exodus 3:2-4 a, &nbsp; Exodus 3:6-8 a, &nbsp; Exodus 3:16-18 , &nbsp; Exodus 4:1-9 ). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] was angry at his continued diffidence. Moses spoke to the elders and they believed; and then they made their demand to Pharaoh, which led to his increased severity (&nbsp; Exodus 4:10-12; &nbsp; Exodus 4:29-31 , &nbsp; Exodus 5:3; &nbsp; Exodus 5:6; &nbsp; Exodus 5:23 , &nbsp; Exodus 6:1 ). [[Plagues]] were sent, the death of the fish in the river (&nbsp; Exodus 7:14; &nbsp; Exodus 7:16-17 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:21 &nbsp;Exodus 7:21 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:24 f.), frogs (&nbsp; Exodus 8:1-4; &nbsp; Exodus 8:8-15 a), flies (&nbsp; Exodus 8:20-32 ), murrain (&nbsp; Exodus 9:1-7 ), hail (&nbsp; Exodus 9:18; &nbsp; Exodus 9:17 f., &nbsp; Exodus 9:23 b, &nbsp; Exodus 9:24 b, &nbsp; Exodus 9:25-34 ), locusts (&nbsp; Exodus 10:1 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:13 &nbsp;Exodus 10:13 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:14 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:16 a, c, &nbsp; Exodus 10:16-19 ). See Plagues of Egypt. Pharaoh bade Israel go with their families, but refused to allow them animals for sacrifice; so Moses announced the death of the firstborn (&nbsp; Exodus 10:24-26; &nbsp; Exodus 10:28 f., &nbsp; Exodus 11:4-8 ). At a later time Israelite thought connected with the Exodus certain existing institutions. The ordinances relating to them were preserved by J [Note: Jahwist.] , but their present position is due to redaction, and the result is a tangled combination in chs. 12, 13 of ordinance and narrative: the ritual of the [[Passover]] (&nbsp; Exodus 12:21-23; &nbsp; Exodus 12:27 b), the death of the firstborn and the hurried flight of the Israelites (&nbsp; Exodus 12:29-34; &nbsp; Exodus 12:37-39 ), commands concerning the Feast of [[Unleavened]] [[Cakes]] (&nbsp; Exodus 13:3 a, &nbsp; Exodus 13:4 , &nbsp; Exodus 13:6 f., &nbsp; Exodus 13:10 ), and the offering of firstlings (&nbsp; Exodus 13:11-13 ). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] went before the people in a pillar of cloud and fire (&nbsp; Exodus 13:21 f.), the water was crossed (&nbsp; Exodus 14:5 f., &nbsp; Exodus 14:7 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:10 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:18 &nbsp;Exodus 14:18 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:21 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:26 &nbsp;Exodus 14:26 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:27 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:28 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:30 ), (and Moses sang praise (&nbsp; Exodus 15:1 ). Moses made the water at [[Marah]] fresh (&nbsp; Exodus 15:22-25 a), and thence they moved to [[Elim]] (&nbsp; Exodus 15:27 ). [[Fragments]] of J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s story of [[Massah]] are preserved (&nbsp; Exodus 17:3; &nbsp; Exodus 17:2 c, &nbsp; Exodus 17:7 a, c), and parts of the account of the visit of Moses’ father-in-law, which it is difficult to separate from E [Note: Elohist.] (&nbsp; Exodus 18:7-11 ). The narratives attached to the delivery of the laws of Sinai are in an extraordinarily confused state, but with a few exceptions the parts which are due to J [Note: Jahwist.] can be recognized with some confidence. The theophany occurred (&nbsp; Exodus 19:18 ), and Moses was bidden to ascend the mountain, where J″ [Note: Jahweh.] gave him directions respecting precautions to be taken (&nbsp; Exodus 19:20-22; &nbsp; Exodus 19:24; &nbsp; Exodus 19:11-13; &nbsp; Exodus 19:25 ) [&nbsp; Exodus 19:23 is a redactional addition of a remarkable character; due to &nbsp; Exodus 19:11-13 having been misplaced]. Moses stayed forty days and nights on the mountain (&nbsp; Exodus 34:28 a); J″ [Note: Jahweh.] descended, and Moses ‘invoked the name of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’ (6). The laws given to him are fragmentarily preserved (&nbsp; Exodus 34:10-26 ). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] commanded him to write them down (&nbsp; Exodus 34:27 ), and he obeyed (&nbsp; Exodus 34:28 b). </p> <p> The reason for the insertion of the laws so late in the book was that the compiler of JE [Note: [[Jewish]] Encyclopedia.] , finding laws in both J [Note: Jahwist.] and E [Note: Elohist.] , and noticing the strong similarity between them, considered the J [Note: Jahwist.] laws to be the <em> renewal </em> of the covenant broken by the people’s apostasy. Hence the editorial additions in &nbsp; Exodus 34:1 (from ‘like unto the first’) and in &nbsp; Exodus 34:4 (‘like unto the first’). </p> <p> A solemn ceremony sealed the covenant (&nbsp;Exodus 24:1 f., &nbsp; Exodus 24:9-11 ). Something then occurred which roused the wrath of J″ [Note: Jahweh.]; it is doubtful if the original narrative has been preserved; but J [Note: Jahwist.] has inserted a narrative which apparently explains the reason for the choice of [[Levites]] for [[Divine]] service (&nbsp; Exodus 32:25-29 ). Moses interceded for the people (the vv. to he read in the following order, &nbsp; Exodus 33:1-4 a, &nbsp; Exodus 33:12 &nbsp;Exodus 33:12 f., &nbsp; Exodus 33:18-23 , &nbsp; Exodus 34:6-9 , &nbsp; Exodus 33:14-16 ). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] having been propitiated, Israel left the mountain, and Moses asked [[Hobah]] to accompany them (&nbsp; Numbers 10:29-36 ). Being weary of manna, they were given quails, which caused a plague (&nbsp; Numbers 11:4-15; &nbsp; Numbers 11:18-24 a, &nbsp; Numbers 11:31-35 ), [[Dathan]] and [[Ahiram]] rebelled (ascribed by different comm. to J [Note: Jahwist.] and to E [Note: Elohist.] , &nbsp; Numbers 16:1 b, &nbsp; Numbers 16:2 a, &nbsp; Numbers 16:26 &nbsp;Numbers 16:26 f., &nbsp; Numbers 16:27-32 a, &nbsp; Numbers 16:33 f.). Fragments of the [[Meribah]] narrative at [[Kadesh]] appear to belong to J [Note: Jahwist.] (&nbsp; Numbers 20:3 a,&nbsp; Numbers 20:5 , &nbsp; Numbers 20:8 b). Moses sent spies through the S. of [[Palestine]] as far as Hebron. [[Caleb]] alone encouraged the people, and he alone was allowed to enter Canaan (&nbsp; Numbers 13:17 b, &nbsp; Numbers 13:18 b, &nbsp; Numbers 13:27 &nbsp;Numbers 13:27 a, &nbsp; Numbers 13:30-31 &nbsp;Numbers 13:30-31 , &nbsp; Numbers 14:1 b, &nbsp; Numbers 14:8-9; &nbsp; Numbers 14:11-24; &nbsp; Numbers 14:31 ). Moses promised that [[Hebron]] should be Caleb’s possession (&nbsp; Joshua 14:8-14 ). The [[Canaanites]] were defeated at [[Hormah]] (perh. a later stratum of J [Note: Jahwist.] , &nbsp; Numbers 21:1-3 ). Israel marched by [[Edom]] to Moab, and conquered [[Heshbon]] and other cities (&nbsp; Numbers 21:16-20; &nbsp; Numbers 21:24 b, &nbsp; Numbers 21:25; &nbsp; Numbers 21:31-32 ). The story of [[Balaam]] (parts of &nbsp; Numbers 21:22-24 ). Israel sinned with the [[Moabite]] women, and Moses hanged the chiefs (&nbsp; Numbers 25:1 b, &nbsp; Numbers 25:2-3 b, &nbsp; Numbers 25:4 ). Moses viewed the land from the top of Pisgah, and was buried in [[Moab]] (parts of &nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:1-6 ). </p> <p> (ii.) <em> The narrative of E </em> <em> [Note: Elohist.] </em> . The mid wives rescued Israelite [[Infants]] (&nbsp; Exodus 1:15-20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 1:21 ). Moses’ birth; his discovery and adoption by Pharaoh’s daughter (&nbsp; Exodus 2:1-10 ). Moses was feeding Jethro’s sheep in Midian, when God called to him from a bush at Horeb, and told him to deliver Israel. He revealed His name ‘Ehyeh,’ and promised that Israel should triumphantly leave Egypt (&nbsp; Exodus 3:1; &nbsp; Exodus 3:4 b, &nbsp; Exodus 3:9-13 &nbsp;Exodus 3:9-13 f., &nbsp; Exodus 3:21 f.). Moses returned to Egypt, meeting Aaron on the way; they made their demand to Pharaoh, and were refused (&nbsp; Exodus 4:17 f., &nbsp; Exodus 4:20 b, &nbsp; Exodus 4:27 f., &nbsp; Exodus 5:1 f., &nbsp; Exodus 5:4 ). Moses, by means of his Divinely given staff, brought plagues the turning of the river to blood (&nbsp; Exodus 7:16-17 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:20 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:23 ), the hail (&nbsp; Exodus 9:22-23 a, &nbsp; Exodus 9:24 a, &nbsp; Exodus 9:25 a), the locusts (&nbsp; Exodus 10:12-13 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:14 a, &nbsp; Exodus 10:16 b, &nbsp; Exodus 10:20 ), the darkness (&nbsp; Exodus 10:21-23; &nbsp; Exodus 10:27 ). Moses was bidden to advise the Israelites to obtain gold, etc., from the Egyptians (&nbsp; Exodus 11:1-3 ), which they did (&nbsp; Exodus 12:35 f.). They departed, taking with them Joseph’s mummy (&nbsp; Exodus 13:17-19 ). They crossed the water (fragments are preserved from E [Note: Elohist.] ’s account, &nbsp; Exodus 13:7 a, c, &nbsp; Exodus 13:10 b, &nbsp; Exodus 13:16 a, &nbsp; Exodus 13:16 a, &nbsp; Exodus 13:19 a), and Miriam sang praise (&nbsp; Exodus 15:20-21 ). On emerging into the desert, they were given manna; it is possible that E [Note: Elohist.] originally connected this event with the name <em> massah </em> , ‘proving’ (&nbsp; Exodus 15:25 b, &nbsp; Exodus 16:4; &nbsp; Exodus 16:16 ) Then follows E [Note: Elohist.] ’s Meribah narrative, combined with J [Note: Jahwist.] ’s Massah narrative (&nbsp; Exodus 17:1 b, &nbsp; Exodus 17:2 a, &nbsp; Exodus 17:4-7 b). Israel fought with [[Amalek]] under Joshua’s leadership, while Aaron and [[Hur]] held up Moses’ hands with the sacred staff (&nbsp; Exodus 17:8-16 ). Jethro visited the Israelites with Moses’ wife and two sons; he arranged sacrifices, and a sacrificial feast, in which the elders of Israel took part (&nbsp; Exodus 18:1 a, &nbsp; Exodus 18:6 f., &nbsp; Exodus 18:12 ). [[Seeing]] Moses overburdened with the duty of giving decisions, he advised him to delegate smaller matters to inferior officers; and Moses followed his advice. Jethro departed to his own home (&nbsp; Exodus 18:12-27 ). Preparations were made for the theophany (&nbsp; Exodus 19:2 b, &nbsp; Exodus 19:3 a, &nbsp; Exodus 19:8 a, &nbsp; Exodus 19:10-11 a, &nbsp; Exodus 19:14 f.), which then took place (&nbsp; Exodus 19:16 f., &nbsp; Exodus 19:19 , &nbsp; Exodus 20:18-21 ). Laws preserved by E [Note: Elohist.] and later members of his school of thought are grouped together in chs, 20 23 (see Exodus, Law), in the narratives in which the laws are set, two strata, E [Note: Elohist.] and E2, are perceptible, the latter supplying the narrative portions connected with the Ten Words of &nbsp; Exodus 20:1-17 , E [Note: Elohist.] relates the ceremony which sealed the covenant (&nbsp; Exodus 24:3-8 ); the usual practice of Moses with regard to the ‘Tent of Tryst,’ where God used to meet with any one who wished to inquire of Him (&nbsp; Exodus 33:7-11 ); and the people’s act of repentance for some sin which E [Note: Elohist.] has not preserved (&nbsp; Exodus 33:6 ), E2 relates as follows: Moses told the people the Ten Words, and they promised obedience (&nbsp; Exodus 19:7 f.; this must follow &nbsp; Exodus 20:1-17 ), Moses ascended the mountain to receive the written Words, leaving the people in the charge of Aaron and Hur (&nbsp; Exodus 24:13-15 a, &nbsp; Exodus 31:18 b), During his absence Aaron made the golden bull, and Moses, when he saw it, brake the tablets of stone and destroyed the imags; Aaron offered a feeble excuse, and J″ [Note: Jahweh.] smote the people (&nbsp; Exodus 32:1-6; &nbsp; Exodus 32:16 a, &nbsp; Exodus 32:16-24; &nbsp; Exodus 32:35 ), Moses’ intercession has not been preserved in E [Note: Elohist.] , but it is supplied by a late hand in &nbsp; Exodus 32:30-34 . We here resume the narrative of E. [Note: . Elohist.] After the departure from [[Horeb]] a fire from J″ [Note: Jahweh.] punished the people for murmuring (&nbsp; Numbers 11:1-8 ). At the ‘Tent of Tryst’ J″ [Note: Jahweh.] took of Moses’ spirit and put it upon 70 elders who prophesied, including [[Eldad]] and Medad, who did not leave the camp; Joshua objected to the two being thus favoured, but was rebuked by Moses (&nbsp; Numbers 11:18 f., &nbsp; Numbers 11:24-30 ). Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses for having married a foreign woman and then for claiming to have received Divine revelations; Miriam became leprous, but was healed at Moses’ intercession (&nbsp; Numbers 11:12 ). On Dathan and [[Abiram]] (&nbsp; Numbers 11:16 ) see above, under J. Miriam died at Kadesh (&nbsp; Numbers 20:1 ). Twelve spies were sent, who brought back a large cluster of grapes, but said that the natives were numerous and powerful (&nbsp; Numbers 13:13 a, c, &nbsp; Numbers 13:23 &nbsp;Numbers 13:23 f., &nbsp; Numbers 13:26 b, &nbsp; Numbers 13:27 b, &nbsp; Numbers 13:29; &nbsp; Numbers 13:33 ). The people determined to return to Egypt under another captain (&nbsp; Numbers 14:1 b, &nbsp; Numbers 14:8 f.). [Here occurs a lacuna, which is partially supplied by &nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:19-46 , probably based on E. [Note: . Elohist.] ] Against Moses’ wish the people advanced towards Canaan, but were routed by the [[Amalekites]] and other natives (&nbsp; Numbers 14:39-45 ). Edom refused passage through their territory (&nbsp; Numbers 20:14-20 ). Aaron died at Moserah, and was succeeded by [[Eleazar]] (&nbsp; Numbers 10:5 ). [[Serpents]] plagued the people for their murmuring, and Moses made the serpent of bronze (&nbsp; Numbers 21:4-9 ). Israel marched by Edom to Moab, and vanquished [[Sihon]] (&nbsp; Numbers 21:21-24 &nbsp;Numbers 21:21-24 a, &nbsp; Numbers 21:27-30 ); the story of Balaam (part &nbsp; Numbers 21:22-24 ). Israel worshipped Baal-peor, and Moses bade the judges hang the offenders (&nbsp; Numbers 25:1 a, &nbsp; Numbers 25:8 a, &nbsp; Numbers 25:5 ). J″ [Note: Jahweh.] warned Moses that he was about to die, and Moses appointed Joshua to succeed him (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 31:14 f., &nbsp; Deuteronomy 31:23 ). Moses died in Moab, and his tomb was unknown. He was the greatest prophet in Israel (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:5; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:8 b, &nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:10 ). </p> <p> (iii.) <em> The narrative of D </em> <em> [Note: Deuteronomist.] </em> is based upon the earlier sources, which it treats in a hortatory manner, dwelling upon the religious meaning of history, and its bearing upon life and morals, and Israel’s attitude to God. There are a few additional details, such as are suitable to a retrospect ( <em> e.g </em> . &nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:6-8; &nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:16 f., &nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:20 f., &nbsp; Deuteronomy 1:29-31 , &nbsp; Deuteronomy 3:21 f., &nbsp; Deuteronomy 3:23-28 ), and there are certain points on which the tradition differs more or less widely from those of JE [Note: Jewish Encyclopedia.]; see Driver, <em> Deut </em> . p. xxxv f. But D [Note: Deuteronomist.] supplies nothing of importance to our knowledge of Moses’ life and character. </p> <p> (iv.) <em> The narrative of P </em> <em> [Note: Priestly Narrative.] </em> . Israel was made to serve the Egyptians ‘with rigour’ (&nbsp; Exodus 1:7; &nbsp; Exodus 1:16; &nbsp; Exodus 1:14 b). When the king died, J″ [Note: Jahweh.] heard their sighing, and remembered His covenant (&nbsp; Exodus 2:23-25 ). He revealed to Moses His name Jahweh, and bade him tell the Israelites that they were to be delivered (&nbsp; Exodus 6:2-9 ). Moses being diffident, Aaron his brother was given to be his ‘prophet’ (&nbsp; Exodus 6:10-12 , &nbsp; Exodus 7:1-7 ). [The genealogy of Moses and Aaron is given in a later stratum of P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , &nbsp; Exodus 6:14-25 .] Aaron turned his staff into a ‘reptile’ before Pharaoh (&nbsp; Exodus 7:8-18 ). By Aaron’s instrumentality with Moses plagues were sent all the water in Egypt turned into blood (&nbsp; Exodus 7:19-20 a, &nbsp; Exodus 7:21 b, &nbsp; Exodus 7:22 ); frogs (&nbsp; Exodus 8:5-7; &nbsp; Exodus 8:15 b); gnats or mosquitoes (&nbsp; Exodus 8:16-19 ); boils (&nbsp; Exodus 9:8-12 ). [As in J [Note: Jahwist.] , commands respecting religious institutions are inserted in connexion with the Exodus: Passover (&nbsp; Exodus 12:1-18; &nbsp; Exodus 12:24; &nbsp; Exodus 12:28; &nbsp; Exodus 12:43-50 ), Unleavened cakes (&nbsp; Exodus 12:14-20 ), [[Dedication]] of firstborn (&nbsp; Exodus 13:1 f.).] The Israelites went to [[Etham]] (&nbsp; Exodus 13:20 ) and thence to the Red Sea. The marvel of the crosslng is heightened, the waters standing up in a double wall (&nbsp; Exodus 14:1-4; &nbsp; Exodus 14:8 f., &nbsp; Exodus 14:15 b, &nbsp; Exodus 14:13-18 , &nbsp; Exodus 14:21 a, c,&nbsp; Exodus 14:22 f., &nbsp; Exodus 14:26-27 a, &nbsp; Exodus 14:28 a). in the wilderness of [[Sin]] the people murmured, and manna was sent; embedded in the narrative are fragments of P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] ’s story of the quails (16, exc. &nbsp; Exodus 14:4; &nbsp; Exodus 14:15 ). They moved to [[Rephidim]] (&nbsp; Exodus 17:1 a), and thence to Sinai (&nbsp; Exodus 19:1-2 a). After seven days J″ [Note: Jahweh.] called Moses into the cloud (&nbsp; Exodus 24:15-18 a) and gave him instructions with regard to the [[Tabernacle]] and its worship (&nbsp; Exodus 25:1 to &nbsp; Exodus 31:17 ), and also gave him the [[Tablets]] of the [[Testimony]] (&nbsp; Exodus 31:18 a). [Other laws ascribed to Divine communication with Moses are collected in Lev. and parts of Num.] When Moses descended, his face shone, so that he veiled it when he was not alone in J″ [Note: Jahweh.] ’s presence (&nbsp; Exodus 34:29-35 ). A census was taken of the fighting men preparatory to the march, and the writer takes occasion to enlarge upon the organization of the priestly and [[Levitical]] families (&nbsp; Numbers 1:1-54; &nbsp; Numbers 2:1-34; &nbsp; Numbers 3:1-51; &nbsp; Numbers 4:1-49 ). The cloud which descended upon the Tabernacle was the signal for marching and camping (&nbsp; Numbers 9:15-23 ), and the journey began (&nbsp; Numbers 10:11-28 ). With the story of Dathan and Abiram (see above) there are entwined two versions of a priestly story of rebellion (1) <em> [[Korah]] </em> and 250 princes, all of them laymen, spoke against Moses and Aaron for claiming, in their capacity of Levites, a sanctity superior to that of the rest of the congregation. (2) <em> Korah </em> and the princes were Levites, and they attacked Aaron for exalting priests above Levites (parts of 16). The former version has its sequel in 17; Moses and Aaron were vindicated by the budding of the staff for the tribe of Levi. In the wilderness of [[Zin]] Moses struck the rock, with an angry exclamation to the murmuring people, and water flowed; Moses and Aaron were rebuked for <em> lack of faith </em> [the fragments of the story do not make it clear wherein this consisted], and they were forbidden to enter Canaan (parts of &nbsp; Numbers 20:1-13 ). Joshua, Caleb, and ten other spies were sent from the wilderness of Paran; the two former alone brought a good account of the land, and they alone were permitted to enter Canaan; the other ten died by a plague (parts of 13, 14; see above under J and E). Aaron died at Mt. [[Hor]] (&nbsp; Numbers 20:22-29 ). Israel marched by Edom to Moab (&nbsp; Numbers 20:22 , &nbsp; Numbers 21:4 a, &nbsp; Numbers 21:10-11 a). [[Phinehas]] was promised ‘an everlasting priesthood’ for his zeal in punishing an Israelite who had brought a [[Midianite]] woman into the camp (&nbsp; Numbers 25:6-16 ). All the last generation having died except Joshua and Caleb, a second census was taken by Moses and Eleazar (26). Moses appointed Joshua to succeed hi m (27). T he [[Midianites]] were defeated and Balaam was slain (31). Moses died on Mt. Nebo, aged 120 (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:1 a, &nbsp; Deuteronomy 34:7-9 ). </p> <p> <strong> 3. Historicity </strong> . In the OT, there are presented to us the varying fortunes of a Semitic people who found their way into Palestine, and were strong enough to settle in the country in defiance of the native population. Although the Invaders were greatly in the minority as regards numbers, they were knit together by an <em> esprit de corps </em> which made them formidable. And this was the outcome of a strong religious belief which was common to all the branches of the tribe the belief that every member of the tribe was under the protection of the same God, Jahweh. And when it is asked from what source they gained this united belief, the analogy of other religions suggests that it probably resulted from the influence of some strong personality. <em> The existence and character of the Hebrew race require such a person as Moses to account for them </em> . But while the denial that Moses was a real person is scarcely within the bounds of sober criticism, it does not follow that all the <em> details </em> related of him are literally true to history. What Prof. Driver says of the patriarchs in [[Genesis]] is equally true of Moses in Ex., Nu.: ‘The basis of the narratives in Genesis is in fact <em> popular oral tradition </em> ; and that being so, we may expect them to display the characteristics which popular oral tradition does in other cases. They may well include a substantial historical nucleus; but details may be due to the involuntary action of popular invention or imagination, operating during a long period of time; characteristic anecdotes, reflecting the feelings, and explaining the relations, of a later age may thus have become attached to the patriarchs; phraseology and expression will nearly always be ascribed rightly to the narrators who cast these traditions into their present literary shape’ (art. ‘Jacob’ in <em> DB </em> <em> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] </em> ii. 534 b ). </p> <p> Moses is portrayed under three chief aspects as (i.) a Leader, (ii.) the Promoter of the religion of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] , (iii.) Lawgiver, and ‘Prophet’ or moral teacher. </p> <p> (i.) <em> Moses as Leader </em> . Some writers think that there is evidence which shows that the Israelites who went to Egypt at the time of the famine did not comprise the whole nation. Whether this be so or not, however, there is no sufficient reason for doubting the Hebrew tradition of an emigration to Egypt. Again, if Israelites obtained permission as foreign tribes are known to have done to occupy pasture land within the Egyptian frontier, there could be nothing surprising if some of them were pressed into compulsory building labour; for it was a common practice to employ foreigners and prisoners in this manner. But in order to rouse them, and knit them together, and persuade them to escape, a leader was necessary. If, therefore, it is an historical fact that they were in Egypt, and partially enslaved, it is more likely than not that the account of their deliverance by Moses also has an historical basis. It is impossible, in a short article, to discuss the evidence in detail. It is in the last degree unsafe to dogmatize on the extent to which the narratives of Moses’ life are historically accurate. In each particular the decision resolves itself into a balance of probabilities. But that Moses was not an individual, but stands for a tribe or group of tribes, and that the narratives which centre round him are entirely legendary, are to the present writer pure assumptions, unscientific and uncritical. The minuteness of personal details, the picturesqueness of the scenes described, the true touches of character, and the necessity of accounting for the emergence of Israel from a state of scattered nomads into that of an organized tribal community, are all on the side of those who maintain that <em> in its broad outlines </em> the account of Moses’ leadership is based upon fact. </p> <p> (ii.) <em> Moses as the Promoter of the religion of [[Jahweh]] </em> . Throughout the OT, with the exception of &nbsp; Ezekiel 40:1-49; &nbsp; Ezekiel 41:1-26; &nbsp; Ezekiel 42:1-20; &nbsp; Ezekiel 43:1-27; &nbsp; Ezekiel 44:1-31; &nbsp; Ezekiel 45:1-25; &nbsp; Ezekiel 46:1-24; &nbsp; Ezekiel 47:1-23; &nbsp; Ezekiel 48:1-35 , the forms and ceremonies of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] worship observed in every age are attributed to the teaching of Moses. It is to be noticed that the earliest writer (J [Note: Jahwist.] ) uses the name ‘Jahweh’ from his very first sentence (&nbsp; Genesis 2:4 b) and onwards, and assumes that J″ [Note: Jahweh.] was known and worshipped by the ancestors of the race; and in Ex. he frequently employs the expression ‘J″ [Note: Jahweh.] the God of the Hebrews’ (&nbsp; Genesis 3:18 , &nbsp; Genesis 5:3 , &nbsp; Genesis 7:16 , &nbsp; Genesis 9:1; &nbsp; Genesis 9:13 , &nbsp; Genesis 10:3 ). But, in agreement with E [Note: Elohist.] and P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] , he ascribes to Moses a new departure in J″ [Note: Jahweh.] worship inaugurated at Sinai. E [Note: Elohist.] and P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] relate that the Name was a new revelation to Moses when he was exiled in Midian, and that he taught it to the Israelites in Egypt. And yet in &nbsp; Genesis 3:6 E [Note: Elohist.] represents J″ [Note: Jahweh.] as saying to Moses, ‘I am the God of thy father’ [the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob (unless this clause is a later insertion, as in &nbsp; Genesis 3:15 f., &nbsp; Genesis 4:5 )]. And in &nbsp; Genesis 6:3 P [Note: Priestly Narrative.] states categorically that God appeared unto Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, but He was not known to them by His name ‘Jahweh.’ All the sources, therefore, imply that Moses did not teach a totally new religion; but he put before the Israelites a new aspect of their religion; he defined more clearly the relation in which they were to stand to God: they were to think of Him in a peculiar sense as <em> their </em> God. When we go further and inquire whence Moses derived the name ‘ <strong> Jahweh </strong> ,’ we are landed in the region of conjectures. Two points, however, are clear: (1) that the God whose name was ‘Jahweh’ had, before Moses’ time, been conceived of as dwelling on the sacred mountain Horeb or Sinai (&nbsp; Genesis 3:1-5; &nbsp; Genesis 3:12; &nbsp; Genesis 19:4 ); (2) that He was worshipped by a branch of the Midianites named [[Kenites]] (&nbsp; Judges 1:16; &nbsp; Judges 4:11 ), of whom Jethro was a priest (&nbsp; Exodus 3:1; &nbsp; Exodus 18:1 ). From these facts two conjectures have been made. Some have supposed that Moses learned the name ‘Jahweh’ from the Midianites; that He was therefore a foreign God as far as the Israelites were concerned; and that, after hearing His name for the first time from Moses in Egypt, they journeyed to the sacred mountain and were there admitted by Jethro into the [[Kenite]] worship by a sacrificial feast at which Jethro officiated. But it is hardly likely that the Israelites, enslaved in Egypt, could have been so rapidly roused and convinced by Moses’ proclamation of an entirely new and foreign deity. The action taken by Jethro in organizing the sacrifice might easily arise from the fact that he was in his own territory, and naturally acted as host towards the strangers. The other conjecture, which can claim a certain plausibility, is that J″ [Note: Jahweh.] was a God recognized by Moses’ own tribe of Levi. From &nbsp; Exodus 4:24; &nbsp; Exodus 4:27 it is possible to suppose that Aaron was not in Egypt, but in the vicinity of Horeb, which he already knew as the ‘mountain of God.’ If Moses’ family, or the tribe of Levi, and perhaps (as some conjecture) the Rachel tribes, together with the Midianite branch of Semites, were already worshippers of J″ [Note: Jahweh.] , Moses’ work would consist in proclaiming as the God of the whole body of Israelites Him whose help and guidance a small portion of them had already experienced. If either of these conjectures is valid, it only puts back a stage the question as to the ultimate origin of the name ‘Jahweh.’ But whatever the origin may have been, it is difficult to deny to Moses the glory of having united the whole body of Israelites in the single cult which excluded all other deities. </p> <p> (iii.) <em> Moses as [[Prophet]] and [[Lawgiver]] </em> . If Moses taught the Israelites to worship J″ [Note: Jahweh.] , it may safely be assumed that he laid down some rules as to the method and ritual of His worship. But there is abundant justification for the belief that he also gave them injunctions which were not merely ritual. It is quite arbitrary to assume that the prophets of the 8th cent. and onwards, who preached an ethical standard of religion, preached something entirely new, though it is probable enough that their own ethical feeling was purer and deeper than any to which the nation had hitherto attained. The prophets always held up a lofty ideal as something which the nation had <em> failed to reach </em> , and proclaimed that for this failure the sinful people were answerable to a holy God. And since human nature is alike in all ages, there must have been at least isolated individuals, more high-souled than the masses around them, who strove to live up to the light they possessed. And as the national history of Israel postulates a leader, and their religion postulates a great personality who drew them, as a body, into the acceptance of it, so the ethical morality which appears in the laws of Exodus, and in a deeper and intenser form in the prophets, postulates a teacher who instilled into the nucleus of the nation the germs of social justice, purity, and honour. Moses would have been below the standard of an ordinary sheik if he had not given decisions on social matters, and &nbsp; Exodus 18:1-27 pictures him as so doing, and &nbsp; Exodus 33:7-11 shows that it was usual for the people to go to him for oracular answers from God. It is in itself probable that the man who founded the nation and taught them their religion, would plant in them the seeds of social morality. But the question whether any of the codified laws, as we have them, were directly due to Moses is quite another matter. In the life of a nomad tribe the controlling factor is not a <em> corpus </em> of specific prescriptions, but the power of custom. An immoral act is condemned because ‘it is not wont so to be done’ (&nbsp; Genesis 34:7 , &nbsp; 2 Samuel 13:12 ). The stereotyping of custom in written codes is the product of a comparatively late stage in national life. And a study of the history and development of the Hebrew laws leads unavoidably to the conclusion that while some few elements in them are very ancient, it is impossible to say of any particular detail that it is certainly derived from Moses himself; and it is further clear that many are certainly later than his time. </p> <p> <strong> 4. Moses in the NT </strong> . (i.) All [[Jews]] and [[Christians]] in [[Apostolic]] times (including our Lord Himself) held that Moses was the <em> author </em> of the Pentateuch. Besides such expressions as ‘The law of Moses’ (&nbsp; Luke 2:22 ), ‘Moses enjoined’ (&nbsp; Matthew 8:4 ), ‘Moses commanded’ (&nbsp; Matthew 19:7 ), ‘Moses wrote’ (&nbsp; Mark 12:19 ), ‘Moses said’ (&nbsp; Mark 7:10 ), and so on, his name could be used alone as synonymous with that which he wrote (&nbsp; Luke 16:20; &nbsp; Luke 16:31; &nbsp; Luke 24:27 ). </p> <p> (ii.) But because Moses was the representative of the Old Dispensation, Jesus and the NT writers thought of him as something more. He was an historical personage of such unique prominence in Israel’s history, that his whole career appeared to them to afford parallels to spiritual factors in the New Covenant. The following form an interesting study, as illustrating points which cover a wide range of [[Christian]] truth: The ‘glory’ on Moses’ face (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:7-18 ), the brazen serpent (&nbsp; John 3:14 ), the Passover (&nbsp; John 19:36 , Heb 11:28 , &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 5:7 f.), the covenant sacrifice at Horeb (&nbsp; Matthew 26:28 , &nbsp; Mark 14:24 , &nbsp; Luke 22:20 , &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 11:25; see also &nbsp; Hebrews 9:18-20 , &nbsp; 1 Peter 1:2 with Hort’s note), the terrors of the Sinai covenant (&nbsp; Hebrews 12:18-24 ), the crossing of the sea (&nbsp; 1 Corinthians 10:2 ), the manna (&nbsp; John 6:30-35; &nbsp; John 6:41-58 ), the water from the rock (&nbsp; 1 Corinthians 10:3-4 ), Moses as a prophet (&nbsp; Acts 3:22; &nbsp; Acts 7:37 , &nbsp; John 1:21-23; and see &nbsp; John 6:14; &nbsp; John 7:40 [&nbsp; Luke 7:39 ]), the magicians of Egypt (&nbsp; 2 Timothy 3:8 ), the plagues (&nbsp; Revelation 8:5; &nbsp; Revelation 8:7-8; &nbsp; Revelation 9:2-4; &nbsp; Revelation 15:6-8; &nbsp; Revelation 16:2-4; &nbsp; Revelation 16:10; &nbsp; Revelation 16:13; &nbsp; Revelation 16:18; &nbsp; Revelation 16:21 ), and ‘the song of Moses the servant of God’ (&nbsp; Revelation 15:3 ). </p> <p> A. H. M‘Neile. </p>

<p> Just as, in the Synagogue, the Law (the Torah), was accounted the most important division of the Canon, and as Holy Scripture in its entirety might thus <i> a parte potiori </i> be designated the ‘Law’ (ὁ νόμος, the <i> tôrâh </i> ), so in the primitive Church Moses was regarded as the supreme figure of the OT. </p> <p> <b> 1. Moses as the author of the Pentateuch. </b> -Moses was honoured as the author of the ‘Law,’ <i> i.e. </i> the Pentateuch: &nbsp;Romans 10:5 (‘Moses writeth’); cf. &nbsp;Acts 3:22; &nbsp;Acts 7:37. His name had become so closely identified with the books of the [[Torah]] that we even find it said, ‘Moses is read’ (&nbsp;Acts 15:21, &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:15 [cf. &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:14]). The Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch was an assumption of Jewish tradition and, as such, seems to have been taken over by Jesus and His apostles without criticism of any sort. It is to be noted, however, that they attached no special importance to the belief that Moses himself wrote the Pentateuch. This is in no sense the point of the above references, as the name ‘Moses’ is used either metonymically for the Law (‘the Old Covenant’) as in &nbsp;Acts 15:21 and &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:15 (cf. &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:14), or as a designation of the correlative, <i> i.e. </i> the first, portion of Holy Scripture or Divine revelation; cf. <i> e.g. </i> &nbsp;Romans 10:19 (where Moses is referred to only as the mouth-piece of God, exactly like ‘Isaiah’ in the next verse). Occasionally, however, special emphasis is laid upon the fact that Moses, as a prophet, gave utterance to certain sayings, since, as the recognized representative of Judaism, he forms in some sense a contrast to Jesus; cf. &nbsp;Acts 7:37; &nbsp;Acts 3:22 (‘Moses said’) with &nbsp;John 5:46 (&nbsp;Romans 10:5). </p> <p> <b> 2. Moses as a prophet. </b> -Among the early Christians generally Moses was honoured as preeminently a prophet. While the religion of the OT revolved around the two foci, Law and Promise, primitive Christianity-in contrast to later Judaism-laid the chief emphasis upon the Promise; and, if the Jews exploited Moses in their controversies with the Christians, the latter could always appeal to his Messianic prediction; cf. &nbsp;Acts 3:22; &nbsp;Acts 7:37; &nbsp;Acts 26:22; &nbsp;Acts 28:23, &nbsp;Luke 24:27; &nbsp;Luke 24:44, &nbsp;John 5:45-47 (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 18:15 : ‘The Lord thy God will raise up unto thee a prophet from the midst of thee, of thy brethren, like unto me’). More especially in the speech of Stephen a strong emphasis is laid upon the prophetic character of Moses (&nbsp;Acts 7:37); here, moreover, Moses does not merely foretell the coming of Christ, but in his calling, and even in his experiences, he is also, as indicated in the passage cited from Dt., a prototype of Christ, having been first of all disowned by his people (&nbsp;Acts 7:23-29), then exalted by God to be their leader and deliverer (&nbsp;Acts 7:35), and at length once more rejected by them (&nbsp;Acts 7:39-41). St. Paul, too, uses the figure of Moses as a type of Christ: the Israelites in their exodus from Egypt ‘were all baptized unto Moses’ in the Red Sea (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:2); and in &nbsp;Hebrews 3:2 Moses is spoken of as typifying Christ’s faithfulness in the service of God’s house. That Christ is called the [[Mediator]] of the New [[Covenant]] (&nbsp;Hebrews 8:6; &nbsp;Hebrews 12:24) doubtless presupposes that Moses was the mediator of the Old (cf. &nbsp;Acts 7:38, &nbsp;Galatians 3:19). In the speech of Stephen the life of Moses is sketched at some length, and is furnished with certain particulars which were derived from the oral tradition of the [[Synagogue]] (the Haggâdâ), as <i> e.g. </i> in &nbsp;Acts 7:22 (‘instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians’)-just as the names of the Egyptian magicians, Jannes and Jambres, are given by St. Paul (&nbsp;2 Timothy 3:8). Further, among the heroes of the faith enumerated in Hebrews 11, Moses wins more than a passing reference as a pattern of faith (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:24-26). </p> <p> High as Moses stands in the Old Covenant, however, his glory pales before that of Christ, as the transient and the material gives place to the permanent and the spiritual (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:7-18, &nbsp;Hebrews 3:3-5). Moses was but the servant of God, while Jesus Christ is God’s Son, who not merely superintends, but actually governs God’s house, and was in fact its builder (&nbsp;Hebrews 3:3-5). In the fading away of the dazzling glory on the face of Moses (&nbsp;Exodus 34:33-35) St. Paul finds a symbol of the transient glory of the Old Covenant mediated by Moses, while the glory of the Lord ( <i> i.e. </i> Christ), and thus also of the New Covenant, is imperishable (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:12-18; cf. &nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:7-11). </p> <p> <b> 3. Moses as the law-giver. </b> -This brings us to the function of Moses as the law-giver. As [[Judaism]] became more and more definitely legalistic, an ever higher position was assigned to the great intermediary of the Law. He towered above every other character in the OT, and Judaism became neither more nor less than Mosaism. To impugn the Law in any way was to speak blasphemy, not only against Moses, but even against God (cf. the charge against Stephen, &nbsp;Acts 6:11). The primitive Church, on the other hand-as was said above-laid great stress upon the prophetic and prototypic character of Moses, as also upon his subordinate position in relation to Christ. But as long as Moses remained the great canonical standard, the Church could not renounce his legislative authority. Even the Lord Jesus Himself had sanctioned the Law of Moses, and co-ordinated it with the Prophets (&nbsp;Matthew 5:17-20, &nbsp;Luke 16:17; cf. &nbsp;Luke 16:29-31), and the primitive community in Jerusalem could never have entertained the thought of disparaging the authority of Moses for Christians as well as Jews. Still, the relation of the disciples of Jesus to the Mosaic Law could not permanently remain the same as that of the unbelieving Jews; the differentiating factor of belief in Jesus was felt more and more to be paramount, and at length it was fully realized that salvation could be secured not by the Law but by faith, or grace, and that it came not from Moses, but from Jesus Christ. </p> <p> Thus too had come the time when the believing [[Gentiles]] must be fully recognized as brethren, and received into the Church without circumcision.*[Note: A detailed explanation of this development is given in the art. Law.]Yet this does not in any sense imply that the mother church in Jerusalem and the rest of the Jewish Christians believed themselves to be exempt from the obligation of the Law. On the contrary, we are told in Acts that the many thousands of Jewish Christians continued to be ‘zealous for the law’ (&nbsp;Acts 21:20), and in a continuation of the passage we are shown that the rumour of St. Paul’s having taught the Jewish Christians in his churches to forsake Moses was without foundation (&nbsp;Acts 21:21-26), while we learn from St. Paul’s own letters that within certain limits he desired the distinction made by Moses between Jew and [[Gentile]] to be maintained in his churches (cf. &nbsp;1 Corinthians 7:18, &nbsp;Galatians 5:3; see also articleLaw, p. 690). Furthermore, even as regards a Gentile Christian community, the [[Apostle]] could appeal to particular regulations of the Mosaic Law as expressions of the Divine will in contrast to the dictates of human reason (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 9:8 f.; cf. &nbsp;1 Timothy 5:18, where the same OT passage-&nbsp;Deuteronomy 25:4 -is placed side by side with a saying of Jesus)-just as elsewhere he frequently refers to special provisions of the Law, or to the Law as a whole. Yet this in no way detracts from the validity of the principle that all things are spiritually judged (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 2:14 f.), and that nothing is to be enforced according to the letter which killeth (&nbsp;2 Corinthians 3:5), the regulative canon being that the external statutes, ‘the commandments in ordinances’ (&nbsp;Ephesians 2:15), are merely the shadow of things to come, while the body is Christ’s (&nbsp;Colossians 2:17)-whence it follows that the outward regulations of the Law are to be applied in a typological (or allegorical) way. A further result was a certain relaxation of the Mosaic ordinances relating to practical life, enabling the Jewish Christians to live in brotherly intercourse with the believing Gentiles. </p> <p> In this connexion, however, certain difficulties arose which seemed actually to necessitate some limitation of Gentile Christian liberty, and it was this state of things that led the primitive Church to promulgate the ‘Apostolic Decree.’ According to &nbsp;Acts 15:19-21, St. James, the brother of the Lord, justified his proposal regarding the [[Decree]] by the circumstance that ‘Moses from generations of old hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every sabbath.’ The point of this statement is much debated. Does St. James mean thereby that the apostles do not need to trouble regarding the dissemination of the Mosaic legislation, and that they should therefore lay upon the Gentile Christians nothing beyond the four prohibitions specified by him, since Moses had from of old been sufficiently represented throughout the [[Diaspora]] (so <i> e.g. </i> Zahn)? If this be the true interpretation, the statement of St. James fails to explain why these particular prohibitions were fixed upon. We must thus rather look for an interpretation according to which &nbsp;Acts 15:21 provides a reason why precisely these four injunctions were laid upon the Gentile churches. Such a reading of the passage would be as follows: Since, not only in the Holy Land, but also in heathen lands, the doctrines of Moses are every Sabbath inculcated upon those who attend the Synagogue, it is necessary that the believing Gentiles-like the so-called ‘God-fearing’ (οἱσεβόμενοιτὸν θεόν)-should give some consideration to the Mosaic Law, and should at least abstain from taking part in those heathen practices which were most revolting to the Jewish mind. The prohibitions of the Apostolic Decree, which resemble those imposed upon Jewish proselytes, were probably framed in conformity with Leviticus 17, 18, which contain, <i> inter alia </i> , laws to be observed by aliens resident in the land of Israel. They seem at first sight to be a strange mingling of moral and purely ritual laws, the prohibition of sexual immorality being conjoined with three interdicts about food (cf. &nbsp;Acts 15:29). But while this collocation has certainly an appearance of arbitrariness, a glance at &nbsp;Revelation 2:20-24 (where we undoubtedly hear an echo of the Apostolic Decree), as also a comparison with &nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:7 f., shows us that abstinence from idolatrous sacrifices and abstinence from sexual immorality are closely related, and that πορνεία here refers not merely to the forbidden degrees of marriage but also to ceremonial prostitution; the Gentile Christians must abstain both from taking part in the sacrificial meals of the heathen world and from the immoralities connected therewith, <i> i.e. </i> from practices regarded among the heathen as <i> adiaphora </i> (cf. &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:12). As regards the other two restrictions, it is clear that they converge upon a single point-the supreme necessity of maintaining the sacredness of blood in every form, as already recognized in the so-called Noachian dispensation: the believing Gentiles must no longer partake of blood either in the flesh or by itself ( <i> e.g. </i> mixed with wine, as drunk by the heathen in their sacrificial feasts); in other words, only the flesh of ritually slaughtered animals may be eaten. </p> <p> The essential equivalence of these two prohibitions might also explain the uncertainty attaching to the reading πνικτοῦ in the textual tradition. Here, however, another consideration arises. In the Western text, which omits καὶ πνικτοῦ (πνικτῶν), we find an addition which points to an entirely different conception of the Apostolic Decree, viz. καὶ ὅσα μὴ θέλουσιν ἑαυτοῖς γίνεσθαι ἑτέροις μὴ ποιεῖν (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:20; so D, Iren., Tert., Cypr., some Minuscules, and the Sahidic). The ‘golden rule’ being thus added to the prohibitions of idolatrous sacrifices, fornication, and blood, the Decree is transformed into a short moral catechism, in which are forbidden the three cardinal vices-idolatry, fornication, and murder (αἶμα = ‘shedding of blood’). But although the genuineness of this form of the text is defended by able scholars, such as Blass and Harnack, it should in all probability be rejected as of secondary origin. For not only is the golden rule introduced most inaptly in a formal respect, but the purely ethical character of the decree as thus transformed presupposes the conditions of a later time-a time when the Church was no longer concerned with the specific problem that had called for the attention of the Apostolic Council; in the West, where the ‘ethical’ form of the Decree took its rise, Jewish Christianity was a relatively insignificant force, and what was wanted there was a brief compendium of the anti-heathen morality of Christianity. At the same time, however, the altered form of the Decree shows that the Church never regarded it as an inviolable law, but thought of it simply as a provisional arrangement which might be varied to suit local and temporary circumstances. </p> <p> In Revelation 2 the prohibitions of idolatrous sacrifices and (ritual) immorality are once more brought to view, while in &nbsp;1 Corinthians 6:8-10 St. Paul urges the same restrictions, though without appealing to the Apostolic Decree. Nor, strangely enough, does he mention the Decree in &nbsp;Galatians 2:1-10; this, however, would be sufficiently explained on the ground that the Apostle had emphasized its provisions (which, be it remembered, were not new, but had already found a regular place in the Jewish propaganda) in his missionary labours in the [[Galatian]] region (&nbsp;Acts 16:6). In that case it was not necessary that he should complicate the deliverance of the [[Council]] as to the recognition of his gospel and his apostolic status by mentioning the Decree, and all the less so because the account in Acts 15 does not imply that St. Paul himself was charged with the duty of enforcing its provisions in his missionary sphere. </p> <p> We may sum up the whole by saying that while primitive Christianity originally set Moses and Jesus side by side, it came at length, in the process of development, to contrast them with each other, and St. John, in the [[Prologue]] to his Gospel, gives expression to this result in his great saying: ‘The law was given by Moses; grace and truth came by Jesus Christ’ (1:17). </p> <p> Literature.-H. H. Wendt, <i> Apostelgeschichte </i> 8, in Meyer’s <i> Kommentar </i> , 1899; G. Hoennicke, <i> Apostelgeschichte </i> , Leipzig, 1913; text-books of <i> NT [[Theology]] </i> , by B. Weiss (Eng. translation, 1882-83), H. J. Holtzmann (21911), P. Feine (1910), G. B. Stevens (1899); E. B. Reuss, <i> Hist. of Christian Theology in the Apostolic Age </i> , Eng. translation, 1872-74, i. 139, 205, etc.; J. R. Cohu, <i> St. Paul </i> , 1911, p. 40 ff.; A. E. Garvie, <i> Studies of Paul and his Gospel </i> , 1911, p. 192 ff. </p> <p> Olaf Moe. </p>

<p> This godly man towers above all other persons in the Old Testament period because he was God's instrument for the introduction of covenant law in Israel. In his long life he also acted on behalf of God to bring into being an enduring nation, while functioning as a prophet, judge, recorder of God's pronouncements, intercessor, military leader, worker of miracles, and tireless shepherd of the unruly Israelite tribes. By the time of his death he had welded his people into a highly efficient military force that would occupy the land promised by God to [[Abraham]] (&nbsp;Genesis 12:7 ). </p> <p> All that is known about Moses is found in the Bible. There are no surviving monuments to him, although some may have existed prior to his abrupt departure from Egypt (&nbsp;Exodus 2:15 ). It is therefore impossible to prove that he ever lived, as far as evidence from statues and inscriptions is concerned. But his existence cannot be disproved, either, since other prominent Old Testament figures have neither names nor monuments, as, for example, the Pharaoh with whom Moses contended, and the Egyptian princess who rescued the infant Moses from the Nile. </p> <p> Moses is so strongly interwoven with the religious tradition involving God's plan for human salvation through Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and ultimately the Davidic Messiah, and attested to as an authoritative figure for Hebrew culture even in the New Testament period, that he could not possibly have been an invention or a fictional character used as an object of religious or social propaganda. Unquestionably he stood head and shoulders above all other Hebrews, and was for the Old Testament period what Paul was for the New. </p> <p> Perhaps out of deference to his stature there was nobody else in the Old Testament named Moses. There has been some debate about the meaning of his name, with some scholars relating it to a root "to bear, " and found in such Egyptian names as Ahmose and Thutmose. In &nbsp;Exodus 2:10 , the name given to him by the princess is connected with a Hebrew verb meaning "to draw out" (cf. &nbsp;2 Samuel 22:17 ), but it could also have come from an Egyptian term meaning "son." </p> <p> The Book of Exodus divides Moses' life into three periods of forty years each. The first of these deals with his birth in Egypt and his education as a prince of the royal harem (cf. &nbsp;Acts 7:21-22 ). The second phase occurs in Midian, where he fled for refuge after murdering an Egyptian (&nbsp;Exodus 2:15 ). The final stage involves him liberating the enslaved Hebrews, establishing God's covenant with them in the Sinai desert and leading them to the borders of the promised land. The [[Scriptures]] indicate that two-thirds of Moses' life served as a preparation for the crucial final third, which was so important for the divine plan of salvation. Accordingly we will focus on Moses' ministry as a mediator and teacher of God's revealed Word, since theology was henceforth to be the basis of Israelite life (&nbsp;Exodus 19:6 ). </p> <p> While Moses may have learned about his ancestral God from Jethro, his father-in-law, the "priest of Midian" (&nbsp;Exodus 3:1 ), his first encounter with the Lord is at Mount Horeb, where he observes a bush burning with fire, and hears God's announcement that he is the God of Moses' ancestors. Moses is given a commission to return to Egypt and lead out the captive Hebrew people. God reveals to him the new name by which God will become known: "I am who I am." Moses is to say to the Hebrews that "I am" had sent him, and this name is to empower all subsequent pronouncements. Not surprisingly it has also been a matter of debate, and many explanations of its meaning have been advanced. It certainly points to God's eternal existence, self-sufficiency, and continued activity in human history. Intensely dynamic in nature, it transcends and fulfills all other forms of being. </p> <p> This description of the divine name is supplemented by an additional revelation of his name as Yahweh (&nbsp;Exodus 6:3 ). So sacred is this designation that its pronunciation has not survived; the Hebrew consonants have been vocalized from another word, "lord, " to produce the classic "Jehovah." Modern attempts to vocalize the original consonants are uncertain at best. Nevertheless, this mysterious Name and its power sustain Moses as he struggles with Pharaoh for the liberation of the Hebrew slaves. The conflict ends with the first Passover celebration, which coincides with the death of Egypt's firstborn (&nbsp;Exodus 12:29 ). </p> <p> Dramatic though the crossing of the Re(e)d Sea is for the destiny of the Hebrews, the peak of Moses' career is attained on Mount Sinai, when God appears to him and delivers the celebrated Ten [[Commandments]] as the basis of Israel's covenant law. In conjunction with this revelation, God enters into a binding agreement with the twelve tribes that in effect welds them into one nation. God promises to provide for all their needs and give them the land promised long ago to Abraham if they, for their part, worship him as their one and only true God. </p> <p> God's purpose for his newly created nation is that the Israelites should be visible among their contemporaries as a priestly kingdom and a holy people (&nbsp;Exodus 19:6; &nbsp;Leviticus 11:44 ). Every man in Israel is to live as though he has been consecrated to the high and sacred office of a priest in God's service, and be holy and pure in all his doings. He is to abstain from the iniquitous ways of pagan neighboring nations, and be to them an example of what God himself is by nature (&nbsp;Exodus 34:6-7 ). Moses Acts on behalf of God at the covenant ratification ceremony (&nbsp;Exodus 24:6-8 ) and thereafter is the recipient of instructions concerning the building of a sacred national shrine known as the tabernacle. </p> <p> Of high theological significance for the Israelites, this structure was rectangular in shape and contained a tent where the cultic structure known as the covenant ark was housed. God's presence rested upon the ark, which was so sacred that the Israelites were prohibited from even seeing it. When the Israelite tribes were camped in order around the tabernacle, God's presence was indeed in their midst. </p> <p> During the wilderness period Moses receives from God other laws dealing with sacrifices and offerings, rules governing social behavior, prohibitions against idolatry and immorality, and positive promises of God's blessings upon the Israelites, provided always that they keep the covenant obligations that they had assumed under oath. </p> <p> From what has been said already it will be clear that Israelite life under Moses and his successors was grounded upon divine revelation and its accompanying theology. Distinctiveness in society as God's people, strictness of living in obedience to his laws, and unswerving trust in his power to save and keep were to be the hallmarks of Hebrew life. God's people were to be holy as he is holy (&nbsp;Leviticus 11:44 ), and any deviations from these requirements would result in severe punishment. In mediating this theology and setting an example of it in his own life of dedication to God and fellowship with him, Moses serves as the exemplar of spirituality for all Israel to observe. </p> <p> In dealing with the chosen people, Moses periodically Acts as an intercessor with God, so as to avert divine displeasure with Israel (&nbsp;Exodus 33:12-16; &nbsp;Numbers 12:13 ). The call that he had received from God involves his acting in the capacity of prophet to the nation, wherein he serves as God's spokesperson to Israel. So effective is he in this function that God promises to raise up other prophets after his death who will also serve as spokespersons (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 18:15-18 ), thus indicating that God regards Moses as the standard by which his successors will be judged. </p> <p> Yet despite his deeply spiritual life and his sense of commitment to covenantal ideals, Moses is still a human being. The task of organizing community living among people of a seminomadic disposition is formidable. In the wilderness he bears the brunt of complaints (&nbsp;Numbers 11:1-25 ) and feels the crushing weight of his responsibilities (&nbsp;Numbers 11:14 ). When he is overwhelmed by the numbers of people coming to him for legal decisions (&nbsp;Exodus 18:13 ), he willingly follows the advice of Jethro as to how he should conduct his judicial responsibilities (&nbsp;Exodus 18:24-26 ). Under obvious stress he goes beyond God's instructions in dealing with the complaining Israelites (&nbsp;Numbers 20:10-12 ), and is forbidden to lead the conquering Israelites into the promised land. Yet he is recognized as being "a very humble man, more humble than anyone else on the face of the earth" (&nbsp;Numbers 12:3 ), which has been urged commonly as a testimony to his humility in the service of Israel's most holy God. It is probable, however, that the term rendered "meek" actually means "more long-suffering than, " "more tolerant than, " which places a rather different construction upon the explanatory phrase. </p> <p> In New Testament times the law of Moses constituted the standard of faith and conduct for the Christian church, which was commanded to observe Old Testament obligations of holiness (&nbsp;1 Peter 1:16 ). At the transfiguration of Christ, Moses appears with Elijah and converses with Jesus, signifying the harmony of law, prophecy, and the gospel (&nbsp;Mark 9:4 ). The sermon of Stephen before the [[Sanhedrin]] quotes Moses several times (&nbsp;Acts 7:20-44 ). Moses is referred to authoritatively in the Epistles, and is celebrated as a man who lived by faith (&nbsp;Hebrews 11:23-29 ). In Revelation, the victorious saints chant the song of Moses (&nbsp;Exodus 15:1-19 ). </p> <p> R. K. Harrison </p> <p> <i> See also </i> [[Theology Of Exodus]]; Israel </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . O. T. Allis, <i> God [[Spake]] by Moses </i> ; M. Buber, <i> Moses </i> ; R. A. Cole, <i> Exodus </i> ; R. K. Harrison, <i> Numbers </i> ; F. B. Meyer, <i> Moses the [[Servant]] of God </i> . </p>

<p> The name of the illustrious prophet and legislator of the Hebrews, who led them from Egypt to the Promised Land. Having been originally imposed by a native Egyptian princess, the word is no doubt Egyptian in its origin, and Josephus gives its true derivationfrom the two Egyptian words, MO, water, and USE, saved. With this accords the Septuagint form, MOUSES. The Hebrews by a slight change accommodated it to their own language, as they did also in the case of some other foreign words; calling it MOSHIE, from the verb MASHA, to draw. See &nbsp;Exodus 2:10 . Moses was born about 15.71 B. C., the son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, and the younger brother of Miriam and Aaron. His history is too extensive to permit insertion here, and in general too well known to need it. It is enough simply to remark, that it is divided into three periods, each of forty years. The first extends from his infancy, when he was exposed in the Nile, and found and adopted y the daughter of Pharaoh, to his flight to Midian. </p> <p> During this time he lived at the Egyptian court, and "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was nightly in words and in deeds," &nbsp;Acts 7:22 . This is no unmeaning praise; the "wisdom" of the Egyptians, and especially of their priests, was then the profoundest in the world. The second period was from his flight till his return to Egypt, &nbsp;Acts 7:30 , during the whole of which interval he appears to have lived in Midian, it may be much after the manner of the Bedaween sheikhs of the present day. Here he married Zipporah, daughter of the wise and pious Jethro, and became familiar with life in the desert. What a contrast between the former period, spent amid the splendors and learning of a court, and this lonely nomadic life. Still it was in this way that God prepared him to be the instrument of deliverance to His people during the third period of his life, which extends from the exodus out of Egypt to his death on mount Nebo. In this interval how much did he accomplish, as the immediate agent of the Most High. </p> <p> The life and institutions of Moses present one of the finest subjects for the pen of a Christian historian, who is at the same time a competent biblical antiquary. His institutions breathe a spirit of freedom, purity, intelligence, justice, and humanity, elsewhere unknown; and above all, of supreme love, honor, and obedience to God. </p> <p> They molded the character of the Hebrews, and transformed them from a nation of shepherds into a people of fixed residence and agricultural habits. Through that people, and through the Bible, the influence of these institutions has been extended over the world; and often where the letter has not been observed, the spirit of them has been adopted. Thus it was in the laws established by the pilgrim fathers of New England; and no small part of what is of most value in the institutions which they founded, is to be ascribed to the influence of the Hebrew legislator. </p> <p> The name of this servant of God occurs repeatedly in Greek and Latin writings, and still more frequently in those of the Arabs and the rabbinical Jews. Many of their statements, however, are mere legends without foundation, or else distortions of the Scripture narrative. By the Jews he has always been especially honored, as the most illustrious personage in all their annals, and as the founder of their whole system of laws and institutions. Numerous passages both in the Old and New Testament show how exalted a position they gave him, &nbsp;Psalm 103:7 &nbsp; 105:26 &nbsp; 106:16 &nbsp; Isaiah 63:12 &nbsp; Jeremiah 15:1 &nbsp; Daniel 9:11 &nbsp; Matthew 8:4 &nbsp; John 5:45 &nbsp; 9:28 &nbsp; Acts 7:20,37 &nbsp; Romans 10:5,19 &nbsp; Hebrews 3:1-19 &nbsp; 11:23 . </p> <p> In all that he wrought and taught, he was but the agent of the Most High; and yet in all his own character stands honorably revealed. Though naturally liable to anger and impatience, he so far subdued himself as to be termed the meekest of men, &nbsp;Numbers 12:3; and his piety, humility, and forbearance, the wisdom and vigor of his administration, his unfailing zeal and faith in God, and his disinterested patriotism are worthy of all imitation. Many features of his character and life furnish admirable illustrations of the work of Christas the deliver, ruler, and guide of his people, bearing them on his heart, interceding for them, rescuing, teaching, and nourishing them even to the promised land. All the religious institutions of Moses pointed to Christ; and he himself, on the mount, two thousand years after his death, paid his homage to the Prophet he had foretold, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 18:15-19 , beheld "that goodly mountain and Lebanon," &nbsp;Deuteronomy 3:25 , and was admitted to commune with the [[Savior]] on the most glorious of themes, the death He should accomplish at Jerusalem, &nbsp;Luke 9:31 . </p> <p> Moses was the author of the Pentateuch, as it is called, or the first five books of the Bible. In the composition of them he was probably assisted by Aaron, who kept a register of public transactions, &nbsp;Exodus 17:14 &nbsp; 24:4,7 &nbsp; 34:27 &nbsp; Numbers 33:1,2 &nbsp; Deuteronomy 31:24 , etc. Some things were added by a later inspired hand; as for example, &nbsp;Deuteronomy 34:1-12 &nbsp; Psalm 90:1-17 also is ascribed to him; and its noble and devout sentiments acquire a new significance, if received as from his pen near the close of his pilgrimage. </p>

<p> [[Moses]] (''Mo'Zez'' ), ''From The Water,'' i.e., ''Drawn From The Water.'' The prophet and legislator of the Hebrews and the son of Amram and Jochebed, and of the tribe of Levi, the son of Jacob. &nbsp;Exodus 2:1; &nbsp;Exodus 2:10; &nbsp;Exodus 6:16-20; &nbsp;Joshua 1:1-2; &nbsp;Joshua 1:15; &nbsp;1 Kings 8:53; &nbsp;1 Kings 8:56; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 1:3; &nbsp;Daniel 9:11; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 34:5; &nbsp;Psalms 90:1-17 : title; &nbsp;Ezra 3:2. He was born in Egypt, about b.c. 1571. In his infancy, because of the cruel edict of Pharaoh, he was hid in a boat-cradle in the Nile; but was found and adopted by the daughter of Pharaoh. He was educated at the Egyptian court, and "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds." &nbsp;Exodus 2:1-10; &nbsp;Acts 7:20-22. When Moses had grown up, he resolved to deliver his people. Having slain an Egyptian, however, he fled into the land of Midian, where he was a shepherd chief. Among the Midians, the Minni, who we now know were a cultured and literary people, God further prepared him to be the deliverer of his chosen people. By a succession of miracles, which God wrought by his hand, Moses brought the Hebrews out of Egypt, and through the wilderness, unto the borders of Canaan. See Sinai. He was only allowed to behold, not to enter the Promised Land. Having accomplished his mission and attained to the age of 120 years, with the faculties of mind and body unimpaired, the legislator transferred his authority to Joshua; and, ascending the summit of Pisgah, he gazed on the magnificent prospect of the "goodly Land." There he died, and "the Lord buried him in a valley in the land of Moab, over against Beth-peor; but no man knoweth of Ms sepulchre unto this day." &nbsp;Deuteronomy 34:1-7. God buried Moses. It was fitting, therefore, that he too should write his epitaph. "And there arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, in all the signs and the wonders which the Lord sent him to do in the land of Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his land, and in all that mighty land, and in all the great terror which Moses showed in the sight of all Israel." &nbsp;Deuteronomy 34:10-12. </p>