Difference between revisions of "Agriculture"

<p> While the patriarchs were in Canaan, they led a pastoral life, and little attended to tillage; Isaac and Jacob indeed tilled at times (&nbsp;Genesis 26:12; &nbsp;Genesis 37:7), but the herdsmen strove with Isaac for his wells not for his crops. The wealth of [[Gerar]] and [[Shechem]] was chiefly pastoral (&nbsp;Genesis 20:14; &nbsp;Genesis 34:28). The recurrence of famines and intercourse with Egypt taught the Canaanites subsequently to attend more to tillage, so that by the time of the spies who brought samples of the land's produce from [[Eshcol]] much progress had been made (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:8; &nbsp;Numbers 13:23). [[Providence]] happily arranged it so that Israel, while yet a family, was kept by the pastoral life from blending with and settling among idolaters around. In Egypt the native prejudice against shepherds kept them separate in [[Goshen]] (&nbsp;Genesis 47:4-6; &nbsp;Genesis 46:34). But there they unlearned the exclusively pastoral life and learned husbandry (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:10), while the deserts beyond supplied pasture for their cattle (&nbsp;1 Chronicles 7:21). </p> <p> On the other hand, when they became a nation, occupying Canaan, their agriculture learned in Egypt made them a self subsisting nation, independent of external supplies, and so less open to external corrupting influences. Agriculture was the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth; it checked the tendency to the roving habits of nomad tribes, gave each man a stake in the soil by the law of inalienable inheritances, and made a numerous offspring profitable as to the culture of the land. God claimed the lordship of the soil (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:23), so that each held by a divine tenure; subject to the tithe, a quit rent to the theocratic head landlord, also subject to the sabbatical year. Accumulation of debt was obviated by prohibiting interest on principal lent to fellow citizens (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:8-16; &nbsp;Leviticus 25:28-87). Every seventh, sabbatic year, or the year of Jubilee, every 50th year, lands alienated for a time reverted to the original owner. </p> <p> Compare Isaiah's "woe" to them who "add field to field," clearing away families (1 Kings 21) to absorb all, as [[Ahab]] did to Naboth. [[Houses]] in towns, if not redeemed in a year, were alienated for ever; thus land property had an advantage over city property, an inducement to cultivate and reside on one's own land. The husband of an heiress passed by adoption into the family into which he married, so as not to alienate the land. The condition of military service was attached to the land, but with merciful qualifications (Deuteronomy 20); thus a national yeomanry of infantry, officered by its own hereditary chiefs, was secured. [[Horses]] were forbidden to be multiplied (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 17:16). Purificatory rites for a day after warfare were required (&nbsp;Numbers 19:16; &nbsp;Numbers 31:19). These regulations, and that of attendance thrice a year at Jerusalem for the great feasts, discouraged the appetite for war. The soil is fertile still, wherever industry is secure. The [[Hauran]] (Peraea) is highly reputed for productiveness. </p> <p> The soil of [[Gaza]] is dark and rich, though light, and retains rain; olives abound in it. The [[Israelites]] cleared away most of the wood which they found in [[Canaan]] (&nbsp;Joshua 17:18), and seem to have had a scanty supply, as they imported but little; compare such extreme expedients for getting wood for sacrifice as in &nbsp;1 Samuel 6:14; &nbsp;2 Samuel 24:22; &nbsp;1 Kings 19:21; dung and hay fuel heated their ovens (&nbsp;Ezekiel 4:12; &nbsp;Ezekiel 4:15; &nbsp;Matthew 6:30). The water supply was from rain, and rills from the hills, and the river Jordan, whereas Egypt depended solely on the Nile overflow. [[Irrigation]] was effected by ducts from cisterns in the rocky sub-surface. The country had thus expansive resources for an enlarging population. When the people were few, as they are now, the valleys sufficed to until for food; when many, the more difficult culture of the hills was resorted to and yielded abundance. </p> <p> The rich red loam of the valleys placed on the sides of the hills would form fertile terraces sufficient for a large population, if only there were good government. The lightness of husbandry work in the plains set them free for watering the soil, and terracing the hills by low stone walls across their face, one above another, arresting the soil washed down by the rams, and affording a series of levels for the husbandman. The rain is chiefly in the autumn and winter, November and December, rare after March, almost never as late as May. It often is partial. A drought earlier or later is not so bad, but just three months before harvest is fatal (&nbsp;Amos 4:7-8). The crop depended for its amount on timely rain. The "early" rain (&nbsp;Proverbs 16:15; &nbsp;James 5:7) fell from about the September equinox to sowing time in November or December, to revive the parched soil that the seed might germinate. The "latter rain" in February and March ripened the crop for harvest. </p> <p> A typical pledge that, as there has been the early outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost, so there shall be a latter outpouring previous to the great harvest of Israel and the [[Gentile]] nations (&nbsp;Zechariah 12:10; &nbsp;Joel 2:23; &nbsp;Joel 2:28-32). Wheat, barley, and rye (and millet rarely) were their cereals. The barley harvest was earlier than the wheat. With the undesigned propriety that marks truth, &nbsp;Exodus 9:31-32 records that by the plague of hail "the flax and the barley were smitten, for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled ''I.E. In Blossom'' , but the wheat and the rye were not smitten, for they were not grown up." Accordingly, at the [[Passover]] (just after the time of the hail) the barley was just fit for the sickle, and the wave sheaf was offered; and not until [[Pentecost]] feast, 50 days after, the wheat was ripe for cutting, and the firstfruit loaves were offered. The vine, olive, and fig abounded; and traces everywhere remain of former wine and olive presses. </p> <p> [[Cummin]] (including the black "fitches," &nbsp;Isaiah 28:27), peas, beans, lentils, lettuce, endive, leek, garlic, onion, melon, cucumber, and cabbage also were cultivated. The Passover in the month [[Nisan]] answered to the green stage of produce; the feast of weeks in [[Sivan]] to the ripe; and the feast of tabernacles in [[Tisri]] to the harvest home or ingathered. A month (Veader) was often intercalated before Nisan, to obviate the inaccuracy of their non-astronomical reckoning. Thus the six months from Tisri to Nisan was occupied with cultivation, the six months from Nisan to Tisri with gathering fruits. The season of rains from Tisri equinox to Nisan is pretty continuous, but is more decidedly marked at the beginning (the early rain) and the end (the latter rain). [[Rain]] in harvest was unknown (&nbsp;Proverbs 26:1). </p> <p> The plow was light, and drawn by one yoke. Fallows were cleared of stones and thorns early in the year (&nbsp;Jeremiah 4:3; &nbsp;Hosea 10:12; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:2). To sow among thorns was deemed bad husbandry (&nbsp;Job 5:5; &nbsp;Proverbs 24:30-31). Seed was scattered broadcast, as in the parable of the sower (&nbsp;Matthew 13:3-8), and plowed in afterward, the stubble of the previous crop becoming manure by decay. The seed was trodden in by cattle in irrigated lands (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 32:20). Hoeing and weeding were seldom needed in their fine tilth. Seventy days sufficed between sowing barley and the wave sheaf offering from the ripe grain at Passover. Oxen were urged on with a spearlike goad (&nbsp;Judges 3:31). [[Boaz]] slept on the threshingfloor, a circular high spot, of hard ground, 80 or 90 feet in diameter, exposed to the wind for winnowing, (&nbsp;2 Samuel 24:16-18) to watch against depredations (&nbsp;Ruth 3:4-7). [[Sowing]] divers seed in a field was forbidden (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 22:9), to mark God is not the author of confusion, there is no transmutation of species, such as modern skeptical naturalists imagine. Oxen unmuzzled (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 25:4) five abreast trod out the grain on the floor, to separate the grain from chaff and straw; flails were used for small quantities and lighter grain (&nbsp;Isaiah 28:27). </p> <p> A threshing sledge (moreg ), &nbsp;Isaiah 41:15) was also employed, probably like the [[Egyptian]] still in use, a stage with three rollers ridged with iron, which cut the straw for fodder, while crushing out the grain. The shovel and fan winnowed the grain afterward by help of the evening breeze (&nbsp;Ruth 3:2; &nbsp;Isaiah 30:24); lastly, it was shaken in a sieve. &nbsp;Amos 9:9; &nbsp;Psalms 83:10, and &nbsp;2 Kings 9:37 prove the use of animal manure. The poor man's claim was remembered, the self sown produce of the seventh year being his perquisite (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:1-7): hereby the Israelites' faith was tested; national apostasy produced gradual neglect of this compassionate law, and was punished by retribution in kind (&nbsp;Leviticus 26:34-35); after the captivity it was revived. The gleanings, the grainers of the field, and the forgotten sheaf and remaining grapes and olives, were also the poor man's right; and perhaps a second tithe every third year (&nbsp;Leviticus 19:9-10; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 14:28; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 26:12; &nbsp;Amos 4:4). The fruit of newly planted trees was not to be eaten for the first three years, in the fourth it was holy as firstfruits, and on the fifth eaten commonly. </p>

&nbsp;Genesis 2:15&nbsp;4:2,3,12 <p> The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural periods: </p> <ol> <li> SOWING TIME - Tisri, latter half (beginning about the autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early rain due = first showers of autumn. </li> <li> [[Unripe]] TIME - Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former half. </li> <li> COLD [[Season]] - Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.] Nisan, former half. [[Latter]] rain due (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:14; &nbsp;Jeremiah 5:24; &nbsp;Hosea 6:3; &nbsp;Zechariah 10:1; &nbsp;James 5:7; &nbsp;Job 29:23 ). </li> <li> HARVEST TIME - Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan, former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost. </li> <li> [[Summer]] (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half. Tammuz. Ab, former half. </li> <li> SULTRY SEASON - Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former half., [[Ingathering]] of fruits. </li> </ol> &nbsp; Psalm 1:3&nbsp;65:10&nbsp;Proverbs 21:1&nbsp;Isaiah 30:25&nbsp;32:2,20&nbsp;Hosea 12:11&nbsp;Ezekiel 27:17&nbsp;Genesis 26:12&nbsp;Matthew 13:23&nbsp;Numbers 13:23&nbsp;Deuteronomy 33:24 <p> [[Lest]] the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:1-7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:1-10 ). </p> <p> It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 22:9 ). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 23:24,25; &nbsp;Matthew 12:1 ). The poor were permitted to claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the poor. (See &nbsp;Leviticus 19:9,10; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 24:19 .) </p> <p> <b> Agricultural implements and operations. </b> </p> <p> The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and [[Assyria]] throw much light on this subject, and on the general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple construction were known in the time of Moses (&nbsp; Deuteronomy 22:10; Compare &nbsp;Job 1:14 ). They were very light, and required great attention to keep them in the ground (&nbsp;Luke 9:62 ). They were drawn by oxen (&nbsp;Job 1:14 ), cows (1Samuel 6:7), and asses (&nbsp;Isaiah 30:24 ); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked together in the same plough (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 22:10 ). Men sometimes followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (&nbsp;Isaiah 28:24 ). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it could be used as a spear also (&nbsp;Judges 3:31; 1Samuel 13:21). </p> <p> When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast over the field (&nbsp;Matthew 13:3-8 ). The "harrow" mentioned in &nbsp;Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by cattle (&nbsp; Isaiah 32:20 ); but doubtless there was some kind of harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the furrows of the field. </p> <p> The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle, according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally put up in sheaves (&nbsp;Genesis 37:7; &nbsp;Leviticus 23:10-15; &nbsp;Ruth 2:7,15; &nbsp;Job 24:10; &nbsp;Jeremiah 9:22; &nbsp;Micah 4:12 ), which were afterwards gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (&nbsp;Matthew 6:26 ). </p> <p> The process of threshing was performed generally by spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 25:4; &nbsp;Isaiah 28:28 ). On occasions flails or sticks were used for this purpose (&nbsp;Ruth 2:17; &nbsp;Isaiah 28:27 ). There was also a "threshing instrument" (&nbsp;Isaiah 41:15; &nbsp;Amos 1:3 ) which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2Samuel 24:22; 1Chronicles 21:23; &nbsp;Isaiah 3:15 ). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum, or threshing instrument. </p> <p> When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being thrown up against the wind (&nbsp;Jeremiah 4:11 ), and afterwards tossed with wooden scoops (&nbsp;Isaiah 30:24 ). The shovel and the fan for winnowing are mentioned in &nbsp;Psalm 35:5 , &nbsp;Job 21:18 , &nbsp;Isaiah 17:13 . The refuse of straw and chaff was burned (&nbsp;Isaiah 5:24 ). [[Freed]] from impurities, the grain was then laid up in granaries till used (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 28:8; &nbsp;Proverbs 3:10; &nbsp;Matthew 6:26; &nbsp;13:30; &nbsp;Luke 12:18 ). </p>

<p> the art or profession of cultivating the soil. (See [[Farm]]); (See [[Tillage]]). </p> <p> '''I.''' ''History. —'' The antiquity of agriculture is indicated in the brief history of Cain and Abel, when it tells us that the former was a "tiller of the ground," and brought some of the fruits of his labor as an offering to God (&nbsp;Genesis 4:2-3), and that part of the ultimate curse upon him was, "When thou tillest the ground, it shall not henceforth yield to thee her strength" (&nbsp;Genesis 4:12). Of the actual state of agriculture before the [[Deluge]] we know nothing. (See [[Antediluvians]]). </p> <p> Whatever knowledge was possessed by the Old World was doubtless transmitted to the New by Noah and his sons; and that this knowledge was considerable is implied in the fact that one of the operations of Noah, when he "began to be a husbandman," was to plant a vineyard, and to make wine with the fruit (&nbsp;Genesis 9:2). There are few agricultural notices belonging to the patriarchal period, but they suffice to show that the land of Canaan was in a state of cultivation, and that the inhabitants possessed what were at a later date the principal products of the soil in the same country. It is reasonable, therefore, to conclude that the modes of operation were then similar to those which we afterward find among the Jews in the same country, and concerning which our information is more exact. (See [[Arabia]]). </p> <p> Agriculture was little cared for by the patriarchs; more so, however, by Isaac and Jacob than by Abraham (&nbsp;Genesis 26:12; &nbsp;Genesis 37:7), in whose time probably, if we except the lower Jordan valley (&nbsp;Genesis 13:10), there was little regular culture in Canaan. Thus Gerar and Shechem seem to have been cities where pastoral wealth predominated. The herdmen strove with Isaac about his wells; about his crop there was no contention (&nbsp;Genesis 10:14; &nbsp;Genesis 34:28). In Joshua's time, as shown by the story of the "Eshcol" (&nbsp;Numbers 13:23-24), Canaan was found in a much more advanced agricultural state than when Jacob had left it (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:8), resulting probably from the severe experience of famines, and the example of Egypt, to which its people were thus led. The pastoral life was the means of keeping the sacred race, while yet a family, distinct from mixture and locally unattached, especially while in Egypt. When, grown into a nation, they conquered their future seats, agriculture supplied a similar check on the foreign intercourse and speedy demoralization, especially as regards idolatry, which commerce would have caused. Thus agriculture became the basis of the Mosaic commonwealth (Michaelis, 37-41). It tended to check also the freebooting and nomad life, and made a numerous offspring profitable, as it was already honorable by natural sentiment and by law. Thus, too, it indirectly discouraged slavery, or, where it existed, made the slave somewhat like a son, though it made the son also somewhat of a slave. Taken in connection with the inalienable character of inheritances, it gave each man and each family a stake in the soil, and nurtured a hardy patriotism. "The land is Mine" (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:23) was a dictum which made agriculture likewise the basis of the theocratic relation. Thus every family felt its own life with intense keenness, and had its divine tenure which it was to guard from alienation. The prohibition of culture in the sabbatical year formed, under this aspect, a kind of rent reserved by the Divine Owner. Landmarks were deemed sacred (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 19:14), and the inalienability of the heritage was insured by its reversion to the owner in the year of jubilee; so that only so many years of occupancy could be sold (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:8-16; &nbsp;Leviticus 25:23-35). The prophet Isaiah (&nbsp;Isaiah 5:8) denounces the contempt of such restrictions by wealthy grandees who sought to "add field to field," erasing families and depopulating districts. (See [[Land]]). </p> <p> In giving to the Israelites possession of a country already under cultivation, it was the Divine intention that they should keep up that cultivation, and become themselves an agricultural people; and in doing this they doubtless adopted the practices of agriculture which they found already established in the country. This may have been the more necessary, as agriculture is a practical art; and those of the Hebrew who were acquainted with the practices of Egyptian husbandry had died in the wilderness; and even had they lived, the processes proper to a hot climate and alluvial soil, watered by river inundation, like that of Egypt, although the same in essential forms, could not have been altogether applicable to so different a country as Palestine. (See [[Egypt]]). </p> <p> '''II.''' ''Weather, Etc. —'' As the nature of the seasons lies at the root of all agricultural operations, it should be noticed that the variations of sunshine and rain, which with us extend throughout the year, are in Palestine confined chiefly to the latter part of autumn and the winter. During all the rest of the year the sky is almost uninterruptedly cloudless, and rain very rarely falls. The autumnal rains usually commence at the latter end of October or beginning of November, not suddenly, but by degrees, which gives opportunity to the husbandman to sow his wheat and barley. The rains continue during November and December, but afterward they occur at longer intervals, and rain is rare after March, and almost never occurs as late as May. The cold of winter is not severe; and as the ground is never frozen, the labors of the husbandman are not entirely interrupted. Snow falls in different parts of the country, but never lies long on the ground. In the plains and valleys the heat of summer is oppressive, but not in the more elevated tracts. In these high grounds the nights are cool, often with heavy dew. The total absence of rain in summer soon destroys the verdure of the fields, and gives to the general landscape, even in the high country, an aspect of drought and barrenness. No green thing remains but the foliage of the scattered fruit-trees, and occasional vineyards and fields of millet. In autumn the whole land becomes dry and parched, the cisterns are nearly empty, and all nature, animate and inanimate, looks forward with longing for the return of the rainy season. In the hill-country the time of harvest is later than in the plains of the Jordan and of the seacoast. The barley harvest is about a fortnight earlier than that of wheat. In the plain of the Jordan the wheat harvest is early in May; in the plains of the coast and of Esdraelon, it is toward the latter end of that month, and in the hills not until June. The general vintage is in September, but the first grapes ripen in July; and from that time the towns are well supplied with this fruit. — Robinson, Biblical Researches, 2, 96-100. See PALESTINE. </p> <p> The Jewish calendar (q.v.), as fixed by the three great festivals, turned on the seasons of green, ripe, and fully-gathered produce. Hence, if the season was backward, or, owing to the imperfections of a non-astronomical reckoning, seemed to be so, a month was intercalated. This rude system was fondly retained long after mental progress and foreign intercourse placed a correct calendar within their power; so that notice of a Veadar, i.e., second or intercalated Adar, on account of the lambs being not yet of a paschal size, and the barley not forward enough for the [[Abib]] (green sheaf), was sent to the Jews of [[Babylon]] and Egypt (Ugol. de [[Re]] Rust. &nbsp;Isaiah 5:22) early in the season. (See [[Time]]). The year, ordinarily consisting of twelve months, was divided into six agricultural periods, as follows (Mishna, Tosaphta Taanith, ch. 1): </p> <p> (1.) SOWING TIME. </p> <p> Tisri, latter half beginning about autumnal equinox. Early rain due. </p> <p> Marchesvan......................... Early rain due </p> <p> Fasleu, former half ................ Early rain due </p> <p> (2.) UNRIPE TIME </p> <p> Kisleu, latter half. </p> <p> Tebeth. </p> <p> Sebat, former half. </p> <p> (3.) COLD SEASON. </p> <p> Sebat, latter half ................... Latter rain due </p> <p> [[Adar]] ............ ............, Latter rain due. </p> <p> [Veadar]……. Latter rain due </p> <p> Nisan, former half ................. Latter rain due </p> <p> (4.) HARVEST TIME. </p> <p> Nisan, latter half ..................( Beginning about vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) </p> <p> Ijar. .......... Wheat ripe....... Pentecost </p> <p> Sivan, former half .......... Wheat ripe....... Pentecost. </p> <p> (5.) SUMMER. </p> <p> Sivan, latter half. </p> <p> Tammuz. </p> <p> Ab, former half. </p> <p> (6.) SULTRY SEASON. </p> <p> Ab, latter half. </p> <p> I lul. </p> <p> Tisri, former half. ................... Ingathering of fruits. </p> <p> Thus the six months from mid Tisri to mid Nisan were mainly occupied with the process of cultivation, and the rest with the gathering of the fruits. Rain was commonly expected soon after the autumnal equinox, or mid Tisri; and if by the first of Kisleu none had fallen, a fast was proclaimed (Mishna, Taanith, ch. 1). </p> <p> The common Scriptural expressions of the "early" and the "latter rain" (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:14; &nbsp;Jeremiah 5:24; &nbsp;Hosea 6:3; &nbsp;Zechariah 10:1; &nbsp;James 5:7) are scarcely confirmed by modern experience; the season of rains being unbroken (Robinson, 1, 41, 429; 3, 96); though perhaps the fall is more strongly marked at the beginning and the end of it. The consternation caused by the failure of the former rain is depicted in Joel 1, 2; and this prophet seems to promise that and the latter rain together "in the first month," i. c. Nisan (2, 23). (See Rain). </p> <p> Its plenty of water from natural sources made Canaan a contrast to rainless Egypt (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 8:7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:8-12). Nor was the peculiar Egyptian method of horticulture alluded to in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 11:10 unknown, though less prevalent in Palestine. That peculiarity seems to have consisted in making in the fields square shallow beds, like our salt-pans, surrounded by a raised border of earth to keep in the water, which was then turned from one square to another by pushing aside the mud, to open one and close the next, with the foot. Robinson, however, describes a different process, to which he thinks this passage refers ''(Res.'' 1, 542; 2, 351; 3, 21), as still in use likewise in Palestine. There irrigation (including under the term all appliances for making the water available) was as essential as drainage in our region; and for this the large extent of rocky surface, easily excavated for cisterns and ducts, was most useful. Even the plain of [[Jericho]] is watered not by canals from the Jordan, since the river lies below the land, but by rills converging from the mountains. In these features of the country lay its expansive resources to meet the wants of a multiplying population. The lightness of agricultural labor in the plains set free an abundance of hands for the task of terracing and watering, and the result gave the highest stimulus to industry. (See Irrigation). </p> <p> '''III.''' ''Soil, Etc. —'' The Israelites probably found in Canaan a fair proportion of woodland, which their necessities, owing to the discouragement of commerce, must have led them to reduce (&nbsp;Joshua 17:18). But even in early times timber seems to have been far less used for building material than among Western nations; the Israelites were not skillful hewers, and imported both the timber and the workmen (&nbsp;1 Kings 5:6; &nbsp;1 Kings 5:8). No store of wood-fuel seems to have been kept; ovens were heated with such things as dung and hay (&nbsp;Ezekiel 4:12; &nbsp;Ezekiel 4:15; Malachi 4:13); and, in any case of sacrifice on an emergency, some, as we should think, unusual source of supply is constantly mentioned for the wood (&nbsp;1 Samuel 6:14; &nbsp;2 Samuel 24:22; &nbsp;1 Kings 19:21; comp. &nbsp;Genesis 22:3; &nbsp;Genesis 22:6-7). All this indicates a nonabundance of timber, and implies that nearly all the arable soil was under culture, or, at least, used for pasturage. (See [[Forest]]). </p> <p> The geological characters of the soil in Palestine have never been satisfactorily stated; but the different epithets of description which travelers employ, enable us to know that it differs considerably, both in its appearance and character, in different parts of the land; but wherever soil of any kind exists, even to a very slight depth, it is found to be highly fertile. As parts of Palestine are hilly, and as hills have seldom much depth of soil, the mode of cultivating them in terraces was anciently, and is now much employed. A series of low stone walls, one above another, across the face of the hill, arrest the soil brought down by the rains, and afford a series of levels for the operations of the husbandman. This mode of cultivation is usual in Lebanon, and is not unfrequent in Palestine, where the remains of terraces across the hills, in various parts of the country, attest the extent to which it was anciently carried. This terrace cultivation has necessarily increased or declined with the population. If the people were so few that the valleys afforded sufficient food for them, the more difficult culture of the hills was neglected; but when the population was too large for the valleys to satisfy with bread, then the hills were laid under cultivation. (See [[Vineyard]]). </p> <p> In such a climate as that of Palestine, water is the great fertilizing agent. The rains of autumn and winter, and the dews of spring, suffice for the ordinary objects of agriculture; but the ancient inhabitants were able, in some parts, to avert even the aridity which the summer droughts occasioned, and to keep up a garden-like verdure, by means of aqueducts communicating with the brooks and rivers (&nbsp;Psalms 1:3; &nbsp;Psalms 65:10; &nbsp;Proverbs 21:1; &nbsp;Isaiah 30:25; &nbsp;Isaiah 32:2; &nbsp;Isaiah 32:20; &nbsp;Hosea 12:11). Hence springs, fountains, and rivulets were as much esteemed by husbandmen as by shepherds (&nbsp;Joshua 15:19; &nbsp;Judges 1:15). The soil was also cleared of stones, and carefully cultivated; and its fertility was increased by the ashes to which the dry stubble and herbage were occasionally reduced by being burned over the surface of the ground (&nbsp;Proverbs 24:31; &nbsp;Isaiah 7:23; &nbsp;Isaiah 32:13). Dung and, in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, the blood of animals were also used to enrich the soil (&nbsp;2 Kings 9:37; &nbsp;Psalms 83:10; &nbsp;Isaiah 25:10; &nbsp;Jeremiah 9:22; &nbsp;Luke 14:34-35). A rabbi limits the quantity to three heaps of ten half-cors, or about 380 gallons, to each [[Seah]] (q.v.) of grain, and wishes the quantity in each heap, rather than their number, to be increased if the field be large (Mishna, ''Shebiith,'' 3, 2). Nor was the great usefulness of sheep to the soil unrecognised (''Ib.'' 4), though, owing to the general distinctness of the pastoral life, there was less scope for it. (See [[Manure]]). </p> <p> That the soil might not be exhausted, it was ordered that every seventh year should be a sabbath of rest to the land: there was then to be no sowing or reaping, no pruning of vines or olives, no vintage or gathering of fruits; and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field (&nbsp;Leviticus 25:1-7; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:1-10). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise. It was for a long time utterly neglected (&nbsp;Leviticus 26:34-35; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 36:21), but after the captivity it was more observed. By this remarkable institution the Hebrew were also trained to habits of economy and foresight, and invited to exercise a large degree of trust in the bountiful providence of their Divine King. (See [[Sabbatical Year]]). </p> <p> A change in the climate of Palestine, caused by increase of population and the clearance of trees, must have taken place before the period of the N.T. A further change, caused by the decrease of skilled agricultural labor, e.g. in irrigation and terrace-making, has since ensued. Not only this, but the great variety of elevation and local character in so small a compass of country necessitates a partial and guarded application of general remarks (Robinson, 1, 507, 553, 554; 3, 595; Stanley, Palestine, p. 118-126). Yet wherever industry is secure, the soil still asserts its old fertility. The Hauran (Peraea) is as fertile as Damascus, and its bread enjoys the highest reputation. The black and fat, but light soil about Gaza, is said to hold so much moisture as to be very fertile with little rain. Here, as in the neighborhood of Beyrut, is a vast olive-ground, and the very sand of the shore is said to be fertile if watered. (See Water). </p> <p> '''IV.''' ''Crops And Fields. —'' Under the term דָּגָן, ''Dagan','' which we translate "grain" and "corn," the Hebrew comprehended almost every object ''Of Field'' culture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn (Pliny, Hist. Nat. 18, 7). Wheat was abundant and excellent; and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains as our common English wheat (Irby and Mangles, p. 472). Barley was also much cultivated; not only for bread, but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts; for oats and rye do not grow in warm climates. Hay was not in use; and therefore the barley was mixed with chopped straw to form the food of cattle (&nbsp;Genesis 24:25; &nbsp;Genesis 24:32; &nbsp;Judges 19:19, etc.). Other kinds of field culture were millet, spelt, various species of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, flax, and perhaps cotton. Many other articles might be mentioned as being now cultivated in Palestine; but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times or not. The cereal crops of constant mention are wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and millet (?). Of the two former, together with the vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the harrow, mention is found in the book of Job (&nbsp;Job 31:40; &nbsp;Job 15:33; &nbsp;Job 24:6; &nbsp;Job 29:9; &nbsp;Job 39:10). Two kinds of cummin (the black variety called "fitches," &nbsp;Isaiah 28:27), and such podded plants as beans and lentiles, may be named among the staple produce. To these, later writers add a great variety of garden plants, e.g. kidney-beans, peas, lettuce, endive, leek, garlic, onion, melon, cucumber, cabbage, etc. (Mishna, ''Kilaim,'' 1, 2). The produce which formed Jacob's present was of such kinds as would keep, and had kept during the famine (&nbsp;Genesis 43:11). The ancient Hebrew had little notion of green or root crops grown for fodder, nor was the long summer drought suitable for them. Barley supplied food both to man and beast, and the plant called in &nbsp;Ezekiel 4:9 "millet," דֹּחִן, dochan' (the ''Holcus Dochna'' of Linn. according to Gesenius, ''Heb. Lex.'' s.v.), was grazed while green, and its ripe grain made into bread. In the later period of more advanced irrigation the תַּלְתָּן, ''Tiltan','' "fenugreek" (Buxtorf, ''Lex. Talm.'' col. 2601), occurs (Mishna, ''Maaseroth,'' 1), also the שִׁחִת, ''Shach'Ath, A'' clover, apparently, given cut (Mishna, ''Peah,'' 5, 5). [[Mowing]] (גֵּז, ''Gez,'' Amos 6, 1; &nbsp;Psalms 72:6) and haymaking were familiar processes, but the latter had no express word; חָצַיר, ''Chatsir','' standing both for grass and hay, a token of a hot climate, where the grass may become hay as it stands. The yield of the land, besides fruit from trees, was technically distinguished as תְּבוּאָה, ''Tebuah', Produce,'' including apparently all cereal plants, קַטְנַיּוֹת, ''Kitniyoth', Pod-Fruits'' (nearly equivalent to the Latin legumen), and זִרְעוּנֵי גַּינָּא, ''Zaruney' Ginna', Garden Seeds'' (Buxtorf, ''Ib.'' col. 693), while the simple word ''Seeds (זִרְעוּנַין, Zarunin')'' was used also generically for all seed, including all else which was liable to tithe, for which purpose the distinction seems to have existed. (See Otho, ''Lex.'' Rabb. p. 17 sq.). (See [[Botany]]). </p>

<p> '''''ag´ri''''' -'''''kul''''' -'''''t̬ū̇r''''' , '''''ag´ri''''' -'''''kul''''' -'''''chur''''' : </p> <p> I. Development of Agriculture </p> <p> II. Climatic [[Conditions]] and Fertility </p> <p> III. Agricultural Pursuits </p> <p> 1. [[Growing]] of Grain </p> <p> (1) [[Plowing]] and Sowing </p> <p> (2) [[Reaping]] </p> <p> (3) Threshing </p> <p> 2. [[Care]] of Vineyards </p> <p> 3. [[Raising]] of [[Flocks]] </p> I. Development of Agriculture <p> One may witness in Syria and Palestine today the various stages of social progress through which the people of Bible times passed in which the development of their agriculture played an important part. To the East the sons of [[Ishmael]] still wander in tribes from place to place, depending upon their animals for food and raiment, unless by a raid they can secure the fruits of the soil from the peoples, mostly of their own blood, who have given up wandering and are supporting themselves by tilling the ground. It is only a short step from this frontier life to the more protected territory toward the Mediterranean, where in comparatively peaceful surroundings, the wanderers become stationary. If the land which they have come to possess is barren and waterless, they become impoverished physically and spiritually, but if they have chosen the rarer spots where underground streams burst forth into valleys covered with alluvial deposits (&nbsp;Exodus 3:8 ), they prosper and there springs up the more complicated community life with its servants, hirelings, gardeners, etc. A division of labor ensues. Some leave the soil for the crafts and professions but still depend upon their farmer neighbors for theft sustenance. (&nbsp;1 Kings 5:11 ) Such was the variety of life of the people among whom Jesus lived, and of their ancestors, and of the inhabitants of the land long before the children of Israel came to take possession of it. Bible history deals with the Hebrews at a period when a large proportion of that people were engaged in agrarian pursuits, hence we find its pages filled with references to agricultural occupations. </p> II. Climatic Conditions and Fertility <p> With climatic conditions and fertility so varied, the mode of cultivation, seedtime and harvest differed even in closely adjacent territory. On the coastal plains and in the low Jordan valley the soil was usually rich and the season was early, whereas the mountainous regions and high interior plains the planting and reaping times were from two weeks to a month later. To make use of the soil on the hillsides, terracing was frequently necessary. Examples of these old terraces still exist. On the unwatered plains the crops could be grown only In the winter and spring, i.e. during the rainy season. These districts dried up in May or June and remained fallow during the rainless summer. The same was true of the hilly regions and valleys except where water from a stream could be diverted from its channel and spread over the fields. In such districts crops could be grown irrespective of the seasons. See Irrigation . </p> III. Agricultural Pursuits <p> To appreciate the many references in the Bible to agricultural pursuits and the frequent allusions of our Lord to the fields and their products, we must remember how different were the surroundings of the farmers of that day from those among which most of us live or with which we are acquainted. What knowledge we have of these pursuits is drawn from such references as disclose methods bearing a close similarity to those of the present day. The strong tendency to resist change which is everywhere manifest throughout the country and the survival of ancient descriptive words in the language of today further confirm our belief that we now witness in this country the identical operations which were used two thousand or more years ago. It would be strange if there were not a variety of ways by which the same object was accomplished when we remember that the Hebrew people benefited by the experience of the Egyptians, of the Babylonians, of the inhabitants of the land of their adoption, as well as of its late European conquerors. For this reason the drawings found on the Egyptian monuments, depicting agricultural scenes, help us to explain the probable methods used in Palestine. </p> <p> Three branches of agriculture were more prominent than the others; the growing of grain, the care of vineyards (&nbsp;Numbers 18:30 ), and the raising of flocks. Most households owned fields and vineyards and the richer added to these a wealth of flocks. The description of Job's wealth (in Job 1) shows that he was engaged in all these pursuits. Hezekiah's riches as enumerated in &nbsp;2 Chronicles 32:27 , &nbsp;2 Chronicles 32:28 suggest activity in each of these branches. </p> <p> 1. Growing of Grain </p> <p> In this and following descriptions, present-day methods as far as they correspond to ancient records will be dealt with. </p> (1) Plowing and Sowing <p> On the plains, little or no preparation for plowing is needed, but in the hilly regions, the larger stones, which the tilling of the previous season has loosened and which the winter's rains have washed bare, are picked out and piled into heaps on some ledge, or are thrown into the paths, which thus become elevated above the fields which they traverse. (See [[Field]] .) If grain is to be planted, the seed is scattered broadcast by the sower. If the land has not been used for some time the ground is first plowed, and when the seed has been scattered is plowed again. The sower may keep his supply of seed in a pocket made by pulling up his outer garment through his girdle to a sufficient extent for it to sag down outside his girdle in the form of a loose pouch. He may, on the other hand, carry it in a jar or basket as the sowers are pictured as doing on the Egyptian monuments. As soon as the seed is scattered it is plowed in before the ever-present crows and ravens can gather it up. The path of the plow in the fields of the hilly regions is a tortuous one because of the boulders jutting out here and there (&nbsp;Matthew 13:3 ) or because of the ledges which frequently lie hidden just beneath the surface (the rocky places of Christ's parable). When the plowman respects the footpaths which the sufferance of the owner has allowed to be trodden across his fields or which mark the boundaries between the lands of different owners, and leaves them unplowed, then the seed which has fallen on these portions becomes the food of the birds. Corners of the field where the plow cannot reach are hoed by hand. Harrowing-in as we know it is not practiced today, except on some of the larger plains, and probably was not used in Palestine in earlier times. See [[Harrow]] . </p> (2) Reaping <p> After the plowing is over, the fields are deserted until after the winter rains, unless an unusually severe storm of rain and hail (&nbsp;Exodus 9:25 ) has destroyed the young shoots. Then a second sowing is made. In April, if the hot east winds have not blasted the grain (see [[Blasting]] ) the barley begins to ripen. The wheat follows from a week to six weeks later, depending upon the altitude. Toward the end of May or the first week in June, which marks the beginning of the dry season, reaping begins. Whole families move out from their village homes to spend the time in the fields until the harvest is over. Men and women join in the work of cutting the grain. A handful of grain is gathered together by means of a sickle held in the right hand. The stalks thus gathered in a bunch are then grasped by the left hand and at the same time a pull is given which cuts off some of the stalks a few inches above ground (see [[Stubble]] ) and pulls the rest up by the roots. These handfuls are laid behind the reapers and are gathered up by the helpers (see [[Gleaning]] ), usually the children, and made into piles for transporting to the threshing-floor. </p> (3) Threshing <p> The threshing-floors are constructed in the fields, preferably in an exposed position in order to get the full benefit of the winds. If there is a danger of marauders they are clustered together close to the village. The floor is a level, circular area 25 to 40 ft. in diameter, prepared by first picking out the stones, and then wetting the ground, tamping or rolling it, and finally sweeping it. A border of stones usually surrounds the floor to keep in the grain. The sheaves of grain which have been brought on the backs of men, donkeys, camels, or oxen, are heaped on this area, and the process of tramping out begins. In some localities several animals, commonly oxen or donkeys, are tied abreast and driven round and round the floor. In other places two oxen are yoked together to a drag, the bottom of which is studded with pieces of basaltic stone. This drag, on which the driver, and perhaps his family, sits or stands, is driven in a circular path over the grain. In still other districts an instrument resembling a wheel harrow is used, the antiquity of which is confirmed by the Egyptian records. The supply of unthreshed grain is kept in the center of the floor. Some of this is pulled down from time to time into the path of the animals. All the while the partly threshed grain is being turned over with a fork. The stalks gradually become broken into short pieces and the husks about the grain are torn off. This mixture of chaff and grain must now be winnowed. This is done by tossing it into the air so that the wind may blow away the chaff (see Winnowing ). When the chaff is gone then the grain is tossed in a wooden tray to separate from it the stones and lumps of soil which clung to the roots when the grain was reaped. The difference in weight between the stones and grain makes separation by this process possible (see [[Sift]] ). The grain is now poled in heaps and in many localities is also sealed. This process consists in pressing a large wooden seal against the pile. When the instrument is removed it leaves an impression which would be destroyed should any of the grain be taken away. This allows the government offers to keep account of the tithes and enables the owner to detect any theft of grain. Until the wheat is transferred to bags some one sleeps by the pries on the threshing-floor. If the wheat is to be stored for home consumption it is often first washed with water and spread out on goats' hair mats to dry before it is stored in the wall compartments found in every house (see [[Storehouses]] ). Formerly the wheat was ground only as needed. This was then a household task which was accomplished with the hand-mill or mortar (see [[Mill]] ). </p> <p> 2. Care of Vineyards </p> <p> No clearer picture to correspond with present-day practice in vine culture (see [[Vine]] ) in Palestine could be given than that mentioned in &nbsp;Isaiah 5:1 , &nbsp;Isaiah 5:6 . [[Grapes]] probably served an important part in the diet of Bible times as they do at present. In the season which begins in July and extends for at least three months, the humblest peasant as well as the richest landlord considers grapes as a necessary part of at least one meal each day. The grapes were not only eaten fresh but were made into wine (see [[Winepress]] ). No parallel however can be found in the Bible for the molasses which is made by boiling down the fresh grape juice. Some writers believe that this substance was meant in some passages translated by wine or honey, but it is doubtful. The care of the vineyards fitted well into the farmer's routine, as most of the attention required could be given when the other crops demanded no time. </p> <p> 3. Raising of Flocks </p> <p> The leaders of ancient Israel reckoned their flocks as a necessary part of their wealth (see [[Sheep Tending]] ). When a man's flocks were his sole possession he often lived with them and led them in and out in search of pasturage (&nbsp;Psalm 23:1-6; &nbsp;Matthew 18:12 ), but a man with other interests delegated this task to his sons (&nbsp;1 Samuel 16:11 ) or to hirelings. Human nature has not changed since the time when Christ made the distinction between the true shepherd and the hireling (&nbsp;John 10:12 ). Within a short time of the writing of these words the writer saw a hireling cursing and abusing the stray members of a flock which he was driving, not leading as do good shepherds. </p> <p> The flock furnished both food and raiment. The milk of camels, sheep and goats was eaten fresh or made into curdled milk, butter or cheese. More rarely was the flesh of these animals eaten (see [[Food]] ). The peasant's outer coat is still made of a tawed sheepskin or woven of goats' hair or wool (see [[Weaving]] ). The various agricultural operations are treated more fully under their respective names, (which see). </p>