Difference between revisions of "Weights And Measures"

<p> <b> [[Weights And Measures]] </b> —The specific object for which the [[Gospels]] were composed did not call for anything like a full detailed use of metrical data. Within their limited compass there are only incidental allusions to a system, or rather systems, of weights and measures. These are naturally scanty and obscure. The most that can be done with them is to identify them as nearly as possible with equivalents in modern systems, and to ascertain their places in those that were current in the [[Palestine]] of NT times. At this last point a difficulty at once emerges, due partly to the absence of regard for accuracy and precision in such matters prevalent at the time and place, and partly to the mixture of standards derived from successive and widely differing populations coming in with successive waves of conquest and invasion. The situation was not unlike that of modern Syria, with its bewildering confusion of coinage and other standards of value, brought in and grafted on the native system by French, German, and English merchants. </p> <p> It is generally agreed by expert metrologists that the basis and fountainhead of all systems of measurement is to be traced to Babylonia. But in passing into Western countries, the [[Babylonian]] system was naturally subjected to as many modifications as it entered regions, and gave rise to quite as many secondary or derivative systems. These, during the course of the interrelations of the peoples using them, mutually affected one another; and the result was a variety of values called by the same name, or by names derived from the same original. On account of this fact, etymological processes of reasoning are in this field of little value, if not altogether valueless and misleading. Moreover, throughout the whole history of metrology there is a tendency noticeable towards the shrinkage or reduction of primitive values, making it essential to distinguish with great care between the values current under the same name in different periods of history. In the attempt to reach the exact facts as far as the 1st cent. a.d. is concerned, it will be best to bear in mind that in Palestine during the OT period three main systems of metrology came into use more or less extensively, the Babylonian, the Egyptian, and the Phœnician, and that to these, just before the times of Jesus, the Roman conquest added a fourth as a disturbing element. </p> <p> I. Weights.—The primitive unit of weight was the <b> shekel. </b> This developed into two forms, the heavy and the light (cf. Kennedy in Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible, art. ‘Weights and Measures’). The heavy shekel weighed 252.5 grs., and the light just one-half of that. Perhaps while the shekel was still being used in these forms, a third value was attached to it by the introduction of the [[Syrian]] shekel of 320 grs., and a fourth value later, viz. the Phœnician of 224.4 grs. In Roman times the <i> denarius </i> was introduced. This was equivalent to the Attic drachm. But [[Josephus]] ( <i> Ant </i> . iii. viii. 2) represents the [[Hebrew]] shekel (σίκλος) as equal to a tetradrachm (4 drs.), and a drachm-denarius was fixed by [[Nero]] at 52.62 grs. At least approximately, therefore, for the 1st cent. a.d., three units in the scale of weights may be determined, as follows: the drachm-denarius = 52.5 grs., the light shekel = 105 grs., and the heavy shekel=210 grs. Of the higher units the <i> mina </i> is equated with 100 drs., and the <b> talent </b> with 60 <i> minae </i> , hence the scale: </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Dr. Den. </p> </td> <td> <p> Shek. </p> </td> <td> <p> Tetr. </p> </td> <td> <p> Min. </p> </td> <td> <p> Talent. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Drachm-Denar. </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 52.5 </p> </td> <td> <p> + </p> </td> <td> <p> grs. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Shek. (light). </p> </td> <td> <p> 2 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 105 </p> </td> <td> <p> + </p> </td> <td> <p> grs. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Shek. (heavy) Tetradrachm </p> </td> <td> <p> 4 </p> </td> <td> <p> 2 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 210 </p> </td> <td> <p> + </p> </td> <td> <p> grs. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Mina. </p> </td> <td> <p> 100 </p> </td> <td> <p> 50 </p> </td> <td> <p> 25 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 5250 </p> </td> <td> <p> + </p> </td> <td> <p> grs. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Talent. </p> </td> <td> <p> 6000 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3000 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1500 </p> </td> <td> <p> 60 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 315000 </p> </td> <td> <p> + </p> </td> <td> <p> grs. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> In the Gospels the words δίδραχμον (light shekel, &nbsp;Matthew 17:24) and τάλαντον* [Note: ταλαντιχῖοε in &nbsp;Revelation 16:21 (cf. also Jos. BJ v. vi. 3) can in the nature of the case be only an approximation. The PEFSt, 1892, 289 f., records the discovery of a large stone weighing 64600 grs. (41900 grammes), used as a heavy talent weight.] (talent, &nbsp;Matthew 18:24; &nbsp;Matthew 25:15-28) occur, but not as the names of weights; they are the designations of coins (see Money). The only term purely designating a weight is λίτρα ( <b> pound </b> , &nbsp;John 12:3; &nbsp;John 19:39).* [Note: In this place, according to Hultsch, the λίτρχ is not the same as in &nbsp;John 19:39. He understands the term to be the name of a translucent horn vessel with measuring lines on the outside, used by apothecaries in dealing out medicines. Such a measuring instrument was used; but that it served for carrying ointment is improbable, and the identification of the λίτρα here with &nbsp;John 19:39 seems more natural.] This was identified with the <i> mina </i> of the above scale as its approximate equivalent. Its exact weight in the Roman scale of weights is given as 5050 grs., or 11 oz. avoirdupois. </p> <p> II. [[Measures]] </p> <p> <b> 1. </b> <i> Measures of [[Length]] </i> .—The unit of linear measurement in earlier Biblical times was the <b> cubit </b> (אַמָּה). This was obtained by the adoption of the length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger as the standard. There are evidences that such a standard was early averaged, conventionalized, and made the legal unit among the Israelites, being introduced like other standards of the kind from Baby. Ionia. The cubit did not, however, remain a fixed unit throughout. From &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5 (cf. &nbsp;Ezekiel 43:13) we learn that two standards of measurement called cubits had come into use, and were employed in the prophet’s day, and that these differed by one hand’s breadth. The common cubit was six hand-breadths in length, the sacred cubit, seven. The question of the absolute length of either is, therefore, resolved into the value of the handbreadth. It would be useless to discuss in detail the various processes through which the solution of the problem has been attempted. The results of these processes show a divergence of over nine inches. Conder ( <i> Handbook of the Bible </i> ) finds the cubit to be 16 in. in length. Petrie ( <i> Ency. Brit. </i> 9 [Note: designates the particular edition of the work referred] xxiv. 484) finds it to be 25.2. Between these extremes are the following: A. R. S. Kennedy (Hasting's Dictionary of the Bible, art. ‘Weights and Measures’), 17.5 in.; Watson ( <i> PEFSt </i> [Note: EFSt Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1897, 203 ff.), 17.7; Beswick ( <i> ib </i> . 1879, 182 ff.), 17.72; [[Warren]] ( <i> ib </i> . 1899, 229 ff.), 17.75 in.; Smith’s <i> DB </i> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] , based on Thenius, 19.5 in.; and Petrie ( <i> PEFSt </i> [Note: EFSt Quarterly Statement of the same.] , 1892, 31), 22.6. If we set aside the extremes by Conder and Petrie and Smith’s <i> DB </i> [Note: Dictionary of the Bible.] , the divergence in the remainder is reduced to a margin not larger than .25 inch. Accordingly, the consensus of the most recent investigation may be safely taken to fix the value of the cubit in inches at between 17.50 and 17.75. Therefore the symbol, 17.5 + may be accepted as the approximate value of the common cubit among the Israelites. Upon this basis the longer cubit of &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5 was &nbsp;Ezekiel 20:6 in. This result coincides with the [[Egyptian]] metrological system, and it appears probable that, being introduced from Egypt as the equivalent of the royal Egyptian measure of the name, the cubit was gradually reduced until in Ezekiel’s day the shorter form of it had been definitely fixed. This, then, persisted up to NT times, and was identified with the Roman <i> cubitus </i> of a little less than 17.5 in. (cf. Smith, <i> Dict. of Antiq </i> . p. 1227).† [Note: In Egypt, too, there was a longer cubit and a shorter, and these two were related to one another as 7 to 6, their values in inches being respectively 19.43 and 16.66.] </p> <p> The subdivisions of the cubit were the <b> span </b> , equalling half a cubit; the <b> palm </b> or <i> hand-breadth </i> , one-sixth of a cubit; and the <i> digit </i> or <b> finger-breadth </b> , one twenty-fourth of a cubit. The multiples in common use were the <b> fathom </b> , consisting of four cubits, and the <b> reed </b> , of six cubits. Hence the table: </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Digit. </p> </td> <td> <p> Palm. </p> </td> <td> <p> Span. </p> </td> <td> <p> Cubit. </p> </td> <td> <p> Fathom. </p> </td> <td> <p> Reed. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <td> <p> [[Digit]] (Finger-breadth) </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> -73 </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Palm]] (Hand-breadth) </p> </td> <td> <p> 4 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3. </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Span. </p> </td> <td> <p> 12 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 8.75 </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Cubit. </p> </td> <td> <p> 24 </p> </td> <td> <p> 6 </p> </td> <td> <p> 2 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 17.52 </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Fathom. </p> </td> <td> <p> 96 </p> </td> <td> <p> 24 </p> </td> <td> <p> 8 </p> </td> <td> <p> 4 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 70.+ </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Reed. </p> </td> <td> <p> 144 </p> </td> <td> <p> 36 </p> </td> <td> <p> 12 </p> </td> <td> <p> 6 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1.5 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> 105.5 </p> </td> <td> <p> in </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> In the Gospels the cubit is mentioned in &nbsp;Matthew 6:27, &nbsp;Luke 12:25, and &nbsp;John 21:8. In all these passages it appears as an approximation, and neither requires nor admits or precise determination. Lengths less than that of the cubit are not alluded to. Of greater lengths the following occur, being outside the usual scale as given above. The <i> stadium </i> , or <b> furlong </b> (&nbsp;Luke 24:13, &nbsp;John 6:19; &nbsp;John 11:18). The term is borrowed from the Greek scale, and appears there as the equivalent of 600 ft. (more precisely 600 ft. 9 in.), or 400 cubits. The mile (&nbsp;Matthew 5:41) was also borrowed, but is taken from the Roman scale, and was equal to 7.5 Greek stadia (furlongs), or 3000 cubits (1700 yds.). The <b> day’s journey </b> (&nbsp;Luke 2:44), which is a common Oriental way of reckoning distances of considerable length at the present day, seems to have been used in ancient times also. It is not, however, reducible to any definite equivalent, and was no doubt a very elastic term. See on this and on ‘Sabbath day’s journey,’ art. Journey. </p> <p> <b> 2. </b> <i> Measures of Surface </i> .—Of measures of area no mention is made in the Gospels or in the NT anywhere. Occasional allusions to the purchase of land (&nbsp;Matthew 13:44; &nbsp;Matthew 27:7, &nbsp;Luke 14:18; cf. &nbsp;Acts 1:18) are not of such a character as to include the measurement used in these and similar transactions. </p> <p> <b> 3. </b> <i> Measures of Capacity </i> .—These naturally fall into liquid and dry measures. Primitively the most common word for measure of volume in Bible lands was perhaps the <i> seah </i> (σάτον, μέτρον, cf. &nbsp;Matthew 13:33, which is also the usage of the LXX Septuagint). This was the ‘ <b> measure </b> ’ <i> par excellence </i> . This, however, became differentiated at least as early as before the NT age into a unit of dry measure, and the <i> hin </i> , with twice the capacity of the <i> seah </i> , took its place in the corresponding liquid scale. Nevertheless, in ascertaining the values of both liquid and dry standards of measurement, the most convenient starting-point is the <i> seah </i> . This, on the one hand, is easily traceable in its equivalents in the Graeco-Roman metrology, and, on the other, as the unit on which the ephah-bath is based, furnishes a key to the Palestinian metrology of both dry and liquid varieties. </p> <p> As to the equivalency of the <i> seah </i> in the classical Graeco-Roman system, the following data give testimony: Josephus ( <i> Ant </i> . ix. iv. 5) says, ‘A <i> seah </i> is equal to one and one-half [[Italian]] <i> modii </i> .’ An anonymous writer, cited by Hultsch ( <i> Metr. Script </i> . i. 81. 6), speaks to the same effect; so also [[Jerome]] (on &nbsp;Matthew 13:33), who, however, probably simply reproduces this representation. On the other hand, according to [[Epiphanius]] ( <i> Metr. Script </i> , i. 82. 8), the <i> seah </i> was equal to one and one-quarter <i> modii </i> (20 <i> sextarii </i> ); but that this is not a precise statement appears from the same writer’s equating the <i> seah </i> with 22 <i> sextarii </i> elsewhere ( <i> Metr. Script </i> , i. 82. 9). Indirectly from the identification of the <i> bath </i> , the <i> cor </i> , and the <i> hin </i> by Josephus, with their corresponding Roman equivalents (cf. <i> Ant </i> . viii. ii. 9, xv. ix. 2, iii. viii. 3), the value of the <i> seah </i> is computed at 22 <i> sextarii </i> ; and as this agrees with the equation of the Babylonian <i> ephah-bath </i> with 66 <i> sextarii </i> (Hultsch, <i> Griech. and Rom. </i> [Note: Roman.] <i> Metr </i> . ii. p. 412), it may be taken as correct. </p> <p> This gives us the value of the <i> seah </i> in Roman <i> sextarii </i> . The reduction of the <i> sextarii </i> to present-day English standards may be made either upon the basis of the calculations of Hultsch ( <i> Metrol </i> p. 453), which yield a <i> sextarius </i> of .96 pt. (cf. Smith, <i> Diet. of Ant. </i> , followed by Harper’s <i> Dict. of Class. Lit. and Ant. </i> , ed. H. T. Peck), and a <i> seah </i> of 21 + pts. (2 gals. 2 qts. and 1 + pts.); or this reduction may be made upon the basis of the use of the [[Farnese]] <i> congius </i> (= 6 <i> sextarii </i> ) in the [[Dresden]] Museum, which yields a <i> sextarius </i> of .99 pts. The difference in results between these methods amounts to no more than .03 pt. in the Roman <i> sextarius </i> . Neither of the two methods positively excludes, the possibility of error, but the latter appears upon the whole more trustworthy. Thus in the reconstruction of a table we have the equation to start with: <i> sextarius </i> = .99 pt. The <i> seah </i> (22 <i> sext </i> . = 2 Galatians 2 qts. 1.78 pts.) is, then, approximately 23 + pts. </p> <p> This yields for the dry measure the scale as follows: </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Log. </p> </td> <td> <p> Kab. </p> </td> <td> <p> Omer. </p> </td> <td> <p> Seah. </p> </td> <td> <p> Ephah. </p> </td> <td> <p> Cor. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Log. </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> pt. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Kab. </p> </td> <td> <p> 4 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 4 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Omer. </p> </td> <td> <p> 7.5 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1.8 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 7½ </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Seah. </p> </td> <td> <p> 24 </p> </td> <td> <p> 6 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3.6 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 23.75 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Ephah. </p> </td> <td> <p> 72 </p> </td> <td> <p> 18 </p> </td> <td> <p> 10 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 71.28 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Cor (Homer). </p> </td> <td> <p> 720 </p> </td> <td> <p> 180 </p> </td> <td> <p> 100 </p> </td> <td> <p> 30 </p> </td> <td> <p> 10 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 712.8 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> And for the liquid the scale as follows: </p> <table> <tr> <td> <p> Log. </p> </td> <td> <p> Hin. </p> </td> <td> <p> Seah. </p> </td> <td> <p> Bath. </p> </td> <td> <p> Cor. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <table> <tr> <td> <p> [[Log]] </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> pt. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Hin. </p> </td> <td> <p> 12 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 11.9 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Seah. </p> </td> <td> <p> 24 </p> </td> <td> <p> 2 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 23.8 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Bath. </p> </td> <td> <p> 72 </p> </td> <td> <p> 6 </p> </td> <td> <p> 3 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 71.28 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Cor. </p> </td> <td> <p> 720 </p> </td> <td> <p> 60 </p> </td> <td> <p> 30 </p> </td> <td> <p> 10 </p> </td> <td> <p> 1 </p> </td> <td> <p> = </p> </td> <td> <p> 712.8 </p> </td> <td> <p> pts. </p> </td> </tr> </table> <p> These two scales represent the values of measures of capacity of the later days of Judaism. For OT times the value of the <i> seah </i> would have to be made larger, and the table correspondingly increased. For practical purposes the <i> log </i> = <i> sextarius </i> = pt. equation may be deemed sufficient. </p> <p> In the Gospels the following allusions to the scales occur. The <i> seah </i> (&nbsp;Matthew 13:33, &nbsp;Luke 13:21) is the equivalent of one-third of an <i> ephah </i> , and so is meant to designate generally as large a quantity as was usually handled in household necessities. Three <i> seahs </i> are equal to 35½ qts. or 1 bushel. The <i> cor </i> (&nbsp;Luke 16:7) appears under the name of ‘ <b> measure </b> ,’ the expression being naturally a general and inexact one. The total quantity intended to be indicated is 100 <i> Cors </i> or 1110 bushels. </p> <p> Measures not included in the above scales occur as follows. The <i> xestes </i> (ξέστης, translated ‘ <b> cup </b> ,’ &nbsp;Mark 7:4 (8)) was probably a small and handy household vessel, with the capacity of a pint measure, and used as such. The <i> modius </i> (μόδιος, &nbsp;Matthew 5:15, &nbsp;Mark 4:21, &nbsp;Luke 11:33, translation in all the English versions ‘ <b> bushel </b> ’) is. not the English bushel, but the Hebrew <i> seah </i> . The name is borrowed from the Graeco-Roman usage. The measure itself was, like the <i> xestes </i> , a useful household utensil. The <i> metretes </i> (μετρητής, &nbsp;John 2:6, translation ‘ <b> firkin </b> ’) is evidently the <i> bath </i> of the Hebrew scale, containing approximately 9 gallons. </p> <p> Literature.—Hultsch, <i> Griech. u. Röm. Metrologie </i> , ii. (1882), also his [[Collection]] of Greek and Roman Sources, under the title of <i> Metrologicorum Scriptorum Reliquiœ </i> , 2 vols. (1864–1866); Lehmann, ‘Altbab. Mass u. Gewicht’ (in <i> Verhandl. d. Berliner Geseltschaft f. Anthropol </i> . 1889); Zuckermann, <i> Das Jüdische Masssystem </i> (1867); Nowack, <i> Heb. [[Arch]] </i> , i. 198 ff.; Benzinger, <i> Heb. Arch </i> . 178 ff. </p> <p> A. C. Zenos. </p>

<p> '''Weights And Measure.''' </p> <p> A. '''Weights.''' - The general principle of the present inquiry is to give the evidence of the monuments the preference on all doubtful points. All ancient Greek systems of weight were derived, either directly or indirectly, from an eastern source. The older systems of ancient [[Greece]] and [[Persia]] were the Aeginetan, the Attic, the Babylonian and the Euboic. </p> <p> 1. The ''Aeginetan Talent'' is stated to have contained 60 ''Minae'' , 6000 ''Drachme'' . </p> <p> 2. The ''Attic Talent'' is the standard weight introduced by Solon. </p> <p> 3. The ''Babylonian Talent'' may be determined from existing weights found by Mr. Layard at Nineveh. [[Pollux]] makes it equal to 7000 ''Attic Drachms'' . </p> <p> 4. The ''Euboic Talent'' , though bearing a Greek name, is rightly held to have been originally an eastern system. The proportion of the Euboic talent to the Babylonian talent was probably as 60 to 72. Taking the Babylonian maneh at 7992 grs., we obtain 399,600 for the Euboic talent. The principal if not the only [[Persian]] gold coin is the [[Daric]] , weighing about 129 grs. </p> <p> The ''Hebrew Talent'' or talents and divisions. A talent of silver is mentioned in Exodus, which contained 3000 shekels, distinguished as "the holy shekel," or "shekel of the sanctuary." The gold talent contained 100 manehs, 10,000 shekels. The silver talent contained 3000 shekels, 6000 bekas, 60,000 gerahs. The significations of the names of the Hebrew weights must be here stated. </p> <p> The chief unit was the [[Shekel]] (that is, [[Weight]] ), called also the ''Holy Shekel'' or ''Shekel Of The Sanctuary'' ; subdivided into the [[Beka]] (that is, ''Half'' ) or ''Half-Shekel'' , and the [[Gerah]] (that is, a [[Grain]] or [[Beka]] ). </p> <p> The chief multiple, or higher unit, was the ''Kikkar'' (that is, [[Circle]] or ''Globe'' , probably for an ''Aggregate Sum'' ), translated in our version, after the [[Septuagint]] (LXX) [[Talent]] ; (that is, ''Part, Portion'' or [[Number]] ), a word used in Babylonian and in the Greek [[Hena]] or [[Mina]] . </p> <p> (1) The relations of these weights, as usually: employed for the standard of ''Weighing Silver'' , and their absolute values, determined from the extant silver coins, and confirmed from other sources, were as follows, in grains exactly and in avoirdupois weight approximately: </p> <p> (2) For gold, a different shekel was used, probably of foreign introduction. Its value has been calculated at from 129 to 132 grains. The former value assimilates it to the Persian [[Daric]] of the Babylonian standard. The talent of this system was just double that of the silver standard; if was divided into 100 ''Manehs'' , and each [[Maneh]] into 100 shekels, as follows: </p> <p> (3) There appears to have been a third standard for copper, namely, a shekel four times as heavy as the gold shekel (or 528 grains), 1500 of which made up the copper talent of 792,000 grains. It seems to have been subdivided, in the coinage, into halves (of 264 grains), quarters (of 132 grains) and ''Sixths'' (of 88 grains). </p> <p> B. '''Measures.''' - </p> <p> I. '''Measures of Length.''' - In the Hebrew, as in every other system, these measures are of two classes: length, in the ordinary sense, for objects whose size we wish to determine, and distance, or itinerary measures, and the two are connected by some definite relation, more or less simple, between their units. </p> <p> The measures of the former class (length) have been universally derived, in the first instance, from ''The Parts Of The Human Body'' ; but it is remarkable that, in the Hebrew system, the only part used for this purpose is the [[Hand]] and ''Fore-Arm'' , to the exclusion of the [[Foot]] , which was the chief unit of the western nations. </p> <p> Hence, arises the difficulty of determining the ratio of the foot to the [[Cubit]] , (The Hebrew word for the cubit ( '''ammah''' ) appears to have been of Egyptian origin, as some of the measures of capacity (the '''hin''' and '''ephah''' ) certainly were). Which appears as the chief Oriental unit from the very building of Noah's ark. &nbsp;Genesis 6:15-16; &nbsp;Genesis 7:20. </p> <p> The Hebrew lesser measures were the ''Finger'S Breadth'' , &nbsp;Jeremiah 52:21 only; the [[Palm]] or [[Handbreadth]] , &nbsp;Exodus 25:25; &nbsp;1 Kings 7:26; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 4:5, used metaphorically in &nbsp;Psalms 39:5, the [[Span]] , that is, the full stretch between the tips of the thumb and the little finger, &nbsp;Exodus 28:16; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:4; &nbsp;Ezekiel 43:13, and figuratively. &nbsp;Isaiah 40:12. </p> <p> The data for determining the actual length of the [[Mosaic]] cubit involve peculiar difficulties, and absolute certainty seems unattainable. The following, however, seem the most probable conclusions: </p> <p> First, that three cubits were used in the times of the Hebrew monarchy, namely : </p> <p> (1) The ''Cubit Of A Man'' , &nbsp;Deuteronomy 3:11 or the ''Common Cubit'' of [[Canaan]] (in contradistinction to the Mosaic cubit) of the [[Chaldean]] standard; </p> <p> (2) The ''Old Mosaic'' or ''Legal Cubit'' , a handbreadth larger than the first, and agreeing with the smaller Egyptian cubit; </p> <p> (3) The ''New Cubit'' , which was still larger, and agreed with the larger Egyptian cubit, of about 20.8 inches, used in the Nilometer. </p> <p> Second, that the ordinary cubit of the Bible did not come up to the full length of the cubit of other countries. The [[Reed]] ( '''kaneh''' ), for measuring buildings (like the Roman '''decempeda''' ), was to 6 cubits. It occurs only in Ezekiel &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5-8; &nbsp;Ezekiel 41:8; &nbsp;Ezekiel 42:16-29 The values given in the following table are to be accepted with reservation, for want of greater certainty: </p> <p> Of ''Measures Of Distance'' , the smallest is the [[Pace]] , and the largest is the [[Day'S Journey]] . </p> <p> (a) The [[Pace]] , &nbsp;2 Samuel 6:13, whether it be a ''Single'' , like our pace, or [[Double]] , like the Latin '''passus''' , is defined by nature within certain limits, its usual length being about 30 inches for the former and 5 feet for the latter. There is some reason to suppose that even before the Roman measurement of the roads of Palestine, the Jews had a mile of 1000 paces, alluded to in &nbsp;Matthew 5:41. It is said to have been single or double, according to the length of the pace; and hence the peculiar force of our Lord's saying: "Whosoever shall compel thee [as a courier] to go a mile, go with him twain" - put the most liberal construction on the demand. </p> <p> (b) The [[Day'S Journey]] was the most usual method of calculating distances in travelling, &nbsp;Genesis 30:36; &nbsp;Genesis 31:23; &nbsp;Exodus 3:18; &nbsp;Exodus 5:3; &nbsp;Numbers 10:33; &nbsp;Numbers 11:31; &nbsp;Numbers 33:8; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 1:2; &nbsp;1 Kings 19:4; &nbsp;2 Kings 3:9; &nbsp;Jonah 3:3 &nbsp;1 [[Maccabees]] 5:24; &nbsp;1 Maccabees 7:45; &nbsp;Tobit 6:1, though but one instance of it occurs in the New [[Testament]] &nbsp;Luke 2:44. </p> <p> The ordinary day's journey among the Jews was 30 miles; but when they travelled in companies, only ten miles. [[Neapolis]] formed the first stage out of [[Jerusalem]] according to the former and [[Beeroth]] according to the latter computation, </p> <p> (c) The '''Sabbath Day''' '''S Journey'' of 2000 cubits, &nbsp;Acts 1:12, is peculiar to the New Testament, and arose from a rabbinical restriction. It was founded on a universal, application of the prohibition given by Moses for a special occasion: "Let no man go out of his place on the seventh day." &nbsp;Exodus 16:29. </p> <p> An exception was allowed for the purpose of worshipping at the Tabernacle; and, as 2000 cubits was the prescribed space to be kept between the [[Ark]] and the people as well as the extent of the suburbs of the [[Levitical]] cities on every side, &nbsp;Numbers 35:5, this was taken for the length of a '''Sabbath Day''' '''S Journey'' measured front the wall of the city in which the traveller lived. Computed from the value given above for the cubit, the '''Sabbath Day''' '''S Journey'' would be just six tenths of a mile. </p> <p> (d) After the captivity, the relations of the Jews to the Persians, Greeks and Romans caused the use, probably, of the '''parasang''' , and certainly of the [[Stadium]] and the [[Mile]] . Though the first is not mentioned in the Bible, if is well to exhibit the ratios of the three. </p> <p> The universal Greek standard, the stadium of 600 Greek feet, which was the length of the race-course at Olympia, occurs first in the Maccabees, and is common in the New Testament. Our version renders it [[Furlong]] ; it being, in fact, the eighth part of the Roman mile, as the [[Furlong]] is of ours. &nbsp;2 Maccabees 11:5; &nbsp;2 Maccabees 12:9; &nbsp;2 Maccabees 12:17; &nbsp;2 Maccabees 12:29; &nbsp;Luke 24:13; &nbsp;John 6:19; &nbsp;John 11:18; &nbsp;Revelation 14:20; &nbsp;Revelation 21:18. </p> <p> One measure remains to be mentioned. The [[Fathom]] , used in sounding by the [[Alexandrian]] mariners in a voyage, is the Greek '''orguia''' , that is, the full stretch of the two arms from tip to tip of the middle finger, which is about equal to the height, and in a man of full stature is six feet. For estimating area, and especially land, there is no evidence that the Jews used any special system of square measures, but they were content to express by the [[Cubit]] , the length and breadth of the surface to be measured, &nbsp;Numbers 35:4,5; &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:27, or by the [[Reed]] . &nbsp;Ezekiel 41:8; &nbsp;Ezekiel 42:16-19; &nbsp;Revelation 21:16. </p> <p> II. '''Measures of Capacity.''' - The measures of capacity for liquids were: </p> <p> (a) The [[Log]] , &nbsp;Leviticus 14:10. Etc. The name originally signifying [[Basin]] . </p> <p> (b) The [[Hin]] , a name of Egyptian origin, frequently noticed in the Bible. &nbsp;Exodus 29:40; &nbsp;Exodus 30:24; &nbsp;Numbers 15:4; &nbsp;Numbers 15:7-8; &nbsp;Ezekiel 4:11; etc. </p> <p> (c) The [[Bath]] , the name meaning ''"Measured",'' the largest of the liquid measures. &nbsp;1 Kings 7:26; &nbsp;1 Kings 7:38; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 2:10; &nbsp;Ezra 7:22; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:10. </p> <p> The dry measure contained the following denominations: </p> <p> (a) The [[Cab]] , mentioned only in &nbsp;2 Kings 6:25, the name meaning literally [[Hollow]] or ''Concave'' . </p> <p> (b) The [[Omer]] , mentioned only in &nbsp;Exodus 16:16-36. The word implies a [[Heap]] , and secondarily, a [[Sheaf]] . </p> <p> (c) The [[Seah]] , or ''"Measure",'' this being the etymological meaning of the term and appropriately applied to it, inasmuch as, it was the ordinary measure for household purposes. &nbsp;Genesis 18:6; &nbsp;1 Samuel 25:18; &nbsp;2 Kings 7:1; &nbsp;2 Kings 7:16. The Greek equivalent occurs in &nbsp;Matthew 13:33; &nbsp;Luke 13:21. </p> <p> (d) The [[Ephah]] , a word of Egyptian origin and frequent recurrence in the Bible. &nbsp;Exodus 16:36; &nbsp;Leviticus 5:11; &nbsp;Leviticus 6:20; &nbsp;Numbers 5:15; &nbsp;Numbers 28:5; &nbsp;Judges 6:19; &nbsp;Ruth 2:17; &nbsp;1 Samuel 1:24; &nbsp;1 Samuel 17:17; &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:11; &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:13; &nbsp;Ezekiel 46:5; &nbsp;Ezekiel 46:7; &nbsp;Ezekiel 46:11; &nbsp;Ezekiel 46:14. </p> <p> (e) The ''Lethec'' , or "half homer" literally meaning ''What Is [[Poured]] Out'' ; it occurs only in &nbsp;Hosea 3:2. </p> <p> (f) The [[Homer]] , meaning [[Heap]] . &nbsp;Leviticus 27:16; &nbsp;Numbers 11:32; &nbsp;Isaiah 5:10; &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:13. It is elsewhere termed [[Cor]] , from the circular vessel in which it was measured. &nbsp;1 Kings 4:22; &nbsp;1 Kings 5:11; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 2:10; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 27:5; &nbsp;Ezra 7:22; &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:14. The Greek equivalent occurs in &nbsp;Luke 16:7 The ''Absolute Values'' of the liquid and the dry measures are stated differently by Josephus and the rabbinists, and as we are unable to decide between them, we give a double estimate to the various denominations. </p> <p> In the new Testament, we have notices of the following foreign measures: </p> <p> (a) The ''Metretes'' , &nbsp;John 2:6, Authorized Version, "[[Firkin]] ", for liquids. </p> <p> (b) The [[Choenix]] , &nbsp;Revelation 6:6, Authorized Version, "[[Measure]] ", for dry goods. </p> <p> (c) The ''Xestec'' , applied, however, not to the peculiar measure so named by the Greeks, but to any small vessel, such as a cup. &nbsp;Mark 7:4; &nbsp;Mark 7:8, Authorized Version, "[[Pot]] ". </p> <p> (d) The [[Modius]] , similarly applied to describe any vessel of moderate dimensions, &nbsp;Matthew 5:15; &nbsp;Mark 4:21; &nbsp;Luke 11:33, Authorized Version, "[[Bushel]] ", though properly meaning a Roman measure, amounting to about a peck. </p> <p> The value of the Attic ''Metretes'' was 8.6696 gallons, and consequently the amount of liquid in six stone jars, containing on the average 2 1/2 ''Metretae'' each, would exceed 110 gallons. &nbsp;John 2:6 Very possibly, however, the Greek term represents the Hebrew [[Bath]] ; and if the bath be taken at the lowest estimate assigned to it, the amount would be reduced to about 60 gallons. The [[Choenix]] was 1-48th of an Attic ''Medimnus'' , and contained nearly a quart. It represented the amount of corn for a day's food; and, hence, a [[Choenix]] for a penny (or [[Denarius]] ), which usually purchased a bushel (Cic. Verr. iii 81), indicated a great scarcity. &nbsp;Revelation 6:6. </p>

<p> '''WEIGHTS:''' '''''Mishkol''''' from "shekel" (the weight in commonest use); '''''Eben''''' , a "stone", anciently used as a weight; '''''Peles''''' , "scales". Of all Jewish weights the shekel was the most accurate, as a half shekel was ordered by God to be paid by every Israelite as a ransom. From the period of the Exodus there were two shekels, one for ordinary business (&nbsp;Exodus 38:29; &nbsp;Joshua 7:21; &nbsp;2 Kings 7:1; &nbsp;Amos 8:5), the other, which was larger, for religious uses (&nbsp;Exodus 30:13; &nbsp;Leviticus 5:15; &nbsp;Numbers 3:47). The silver in the half-shekel was 1 shilling, 3 1/2 pence; it contained 20 gerahs, literally, beans, a name of a weight, as our grain from grain. </p> <p> The Attic '''''Tetradrachma''''' , or Greek '''''Stater''''' , was equivalent to the shekel. The '''''Didrachma''''' of the Septuagint at [[Alexandria]] was equivalent to the Attic '''''Tetradrachma''''' . The shekel was about 220 grains weight. In &nbsp;2 Samuel 14:26 "shekel after the king's weight" refers to the perfect standard kept by David. Michaelis makes five to three the proportion of the holy '''''Shekel''''' to the commercial shekel; for in &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:12 the '''''Maneh''''' contains 60 of the holy shekels; in &nbsp;1 Kings 10:17; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 9:16, each maneh contained 100 commercial shekels, i.e. 100 to (60 or five to three. After the captivity the holy shekel alone was used. The half shekel (&nbsp;Exodus 38:26; &nbsp;Matthew 17:24) was the '''''Beka''''' (meaning "division"): the "quarter shekel", '''''Reba''''' ; the "20th of the shekel", '''''Gerah''''' . </p> <p> Hussey calculates the shekel at half ounce avoirdupois, and the '''''Maneh''''' half pound, 14 oz.; 60 holy shekels were in the maneh, 3,000 in the silver talent, so 50 maneh in the talent: 660,000 grains, or 94 lbs. 5 oz. The gold talent is made by Smith's Bible Dictionary 100 manehs, double the silver talent (50 manehs); by the Imperial Bible Dictionary identical with it. (See [[Shekel]] ; [[Money; Talent.) A]]  gold maneh contained 100 shekels of gold. The Hebrew talents of silver and copper were exchangeable in the proportion of about one to 80; 50 shekels of silver are thought equal to a talent of copper. "Talent" means a circle or aggregate sum. One talent of gold corresponded to 24 talents of silver. </p> <p> '''MEASURES:''' Those of length are derived from the human body. The Hebrew used the forearm as the "cubit," but not the "foot." The Egyptian terms '''''Hin''''' , ''''''Ephah''''' , and ''''''Ammah''''' (cubit) favor the view that the Hebrew derived their measures from Egypt. The similarity of the Hebrew to the [[Athenian]] scales for liquids makes it likely that both came from the one origin, namely, Egypt. [[Piazzi]] Smyth observes the sacred cubit of the Jews, 25 inches (to which Sir Isaac Newton's calculation closely approximates), is represented in the great pyramid, 2500 B.C.; in contrast to the ordinary standard cubits, from 18 to 21 inches, the Egyptian one which Israel had to use in Egypt. The 25-inch cubit measure is better than any other in its superior earth-axis commensurability. The inch is the real unit of British linear measure: 25 such inches (increased on the present parliamentary inch by one thousandth) was Israel's sacred cubit; 1.00099 of an English inch makes one pyramid inch; the earlier English inch was still closer to the pyramid inch. </p> <p> Smyth remarks that no pagan device of idolatry, not even the sun and moon, is pourtrayed in the great pyramid, though there are such hieroglyphics in two older pyramids. He says the British grain measure "quarter" is just one fourth of the coffer in the king's chamber, which is the same capacity as the Saxon chaldron or four quarters. The small passage of the pyramid represents a unit day; the grand gallery, seven unit days or a week. The grand gallery is seven times as high as one of the small and similarly inclined passages equalling 350 inches, i.e. seven times 50 inches. The names Shofo and Noushofo (Cheops and Chephren of Herodotus) are marked in the chambers of construction by the stonemasons at the quarry. The Egyptian dislike to those two kings was not because of forced labour, for other pyramids were built so by native princes, but because they overthrew the idolatrous temples. </p> <p> The year is marked by the entrance step into the great gallery, 90.5 inches, going 366 times into the circumference of the pyramid. The seven overlappings of the courses of polished stones on the eastern and the western sides of the gallery represent two weeks of months of 26 days each so there are 26 holes in the western ramp; on the other ramp 28, in the antechamber two day holes over and above the 26. Four grooves represent four years, three of them hollow and one full, i.e. three years in which only one day is to be added to the 14 x 26 for the year; the fourth full from W. to E., i.e. two days to be added on leap year, 366 days. The full groove not equal in breadth to the hollow one implies that the true length of the year is not quite 365 1/4 days. Job (&nbsp;Job 38:6) speaks of the earth's "sockets" with imagery from the pyramid, which was built by careful measurement on a prepared platform of rock. </p> <p> French savants A.D. 1800 described sockets in the leveled rock fitted to receive the four corner stones. The fifth corner stone was the topstone completing the whole; the morning stars singing together at the topstone being put to creation answers to the shoutings, Grace unto it, at the topstone being put to redemption (&nbsp;Job 38:7; &nbsp;Zechariah 4:7); &nbsp;Ephesians 2:19, "the chief corner stone in which all the building fitly framed together groweth into an holy tern. pie." The topstone was "disallowed by the builders" as "a stone of stumbling and a rock of offense" to them; for the pyramids previously constructed were terrace topped, not topped with the finished pointed cornerstone. </p> <p> [[Pyramid]] is derived from '''''Peram''''' "lofty" (Ewald), from '''''Puros''''' "wheat" (P. Smyth). The mean density of the earth (5,672) is introduced into the capacity and weight measures of the pyramid (&nbsp;Isaiah 40:12). The [[Egyptians]] disliked the number five, the characteristic of the great pyramid, which has five sides, five angles, five corner stones, and the five sided coffer. Israel's predilection for it appears in their marching five in a rank (Hebrew for "harnessed"), &nbsp;Exodus 13:18; according to Manetho, 250,000, i.e. 5 x 50,000; so the shepherd kings at [[Avaris]] are described as 250,000; 50 inches is the grand standard of length in the pyramid, five is the number of books in the Pentateuch, 50 is the number of the [[Jubilee]] year, 25 inches (5 x 5) the cubit, an integral fraction of the earth's axis of rotation, 50 the number of Pentecost. (See [[Number]] .) </p> <p> The cow sacrifice of Israel was an "abomination to the Egyptians"; and the divinely taught builders of the great pyramid were probably of the chosen race, in the line of, though preceding, [[Abraham]] and closer to Noah, introducers into Egypt of the pure worship of [[Jehovah]] (such as [[Melchizedek]] held) after its apostasy to idols, maintaining the animal sacrifices originally ordained by God (&nbsp;Genesis 3:21; &nbsp;Genesis 4:4; &nbsp;Genesis 4:7; &nbsp;Hebrews 11:4), but rejected in Egypt; forerunners of the hyksos or shepherd kings who from the Canaan quarter made themselves masters of Egypt. The enormous mass of unoccupied masonry would have been useless as a tomb, but necessary if the pyramid was designed to preserve an equal temperature for unexceptionable scientific observations; 100 ft. deep inside the pyramid would prevent a variation of heat beyond 01 degree of Fahrenheit, but the king's chamber is 180 ft. deep to compensate for the altering of air currents through the passages. </p> <p> The Hebrew finger, about seven tenths of an inch, was the smaller measure. The palm or handbreadth was four fingers, three or four inches; illustrates the shortness of time (&nbsp;Psalms 39:5). The span, the space between the extended extremities of the thumb and little finger, three palms, about seven and a half inches. The old Mosaic or sacred cubit (the length from the elbow to the end of the middle finger, 25 inches) was a handbreadth longer than the civil cubit of the time of the captivity (from the elbow to the wrist, 21 inches): &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5; &nbsp;Ezekiel 43:13; &nbsp;2 Chronicles 3:3, "cubits after the first (according to the earlier) measure." The Mosaic cubit (Thenius in Keil on &nbsp;1 Kings 6:2) was two spans, 20 1/2 Dresden inches, 214,512 Parisian lines long. </p> <p> Og's bedstead, nine cubits long (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 3:11) "after the cubit of a man," i.e. according to the ordinary cubit (compare &nbsp;Revelation 21:17) as contrasted with any smaller cubit, was of course much longer than the giant himself. In &nbsp;Ezekiel 41:8 ( '''''Atsilah''''' ) Henderson translated for "great" cubits, literally, "to the extremity" of the hand; Fairbairn, "to the joining" between one chamber and another below; Buxtorf, "to the wing" of the house. The measuring reed of &nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5 was six cubits long. Furlong ( '''''Stadion''''' ), one eighth of a Roman mile, or 606 3/4 ft. (&nbsp;Luke 24:13), &nbsp;Luke 24:53 1/2 ft. less than our furlong. </p> <p> The mile was eight furlongs or 1618 English yards, i.e. 142 yards less than the English statute mile; the milestones still remain in some places. &nbsp;Matthew 5:41, "compel," '''''Angareusei''''' , means literally, impress you as a post courier, originally a Persian custom, but adopted by the Romans. Sabbath day's journey (See [[Sabbath]] .) A little way (&nbsp;Genesis 35:16, '''''Kibrah''''' ) is a definite length: '''''Οnkelos''''' , an acre; Syriac, a '''''Parasang''''' (30 furlongs). The Jews take it to be a mile, which tradition makes the interval between Rachel's tomb and Ephrath, or [[Bethlehem]] (&nbsp;Genesis 48:7); Gesenius, a French league. A day's journey was about 20 to 22 miles (&nbsp;Numbers 11:31; &nbsp;1 Kings 19:4). </p> <p> [['''Dry Measures.''' A]]  cab (&nbsp;2 Kings 6:25), a sixth of a seah; four sextaries or two quarts. Omer, an Egyptian word, only in Exodus and Leviticus (&nbsp;Exodus 16:16; &nbsp;Leviticus 23:10); the tenth of an ephah; Josephus makes it seven Attic cotylae or three and a half pints (Ant. 3:6, section 6), but its proportion to the bath (&nbsp;Ezekiel 45:11; Josephus, Ant. 8:2, section 9) would make the omer seven and a half pints; issaron or a tenth was its later name; an omer of manna was each Israelite's daily allowance; one was kept in the holiest place as a memorial (&nbsp;Exodus 16:33-34), but had disappeared before Solomon's reign (&nbsp;1 Kings 8:9). </p> <p> A '''''Seah''''' (&nbsp;Genesis 18:6), the third of an ephah, and containing six cabs (rabbins), three gallons (Josephus, Ant. 9:4, section 5); the Greek '''''Saton''''' (&nbsp;Matthew 13:33). ''''''Ephah''''' , from ''''''If''''' to measure, ten omers, equal to the bath (&nbsp;Ezekiel 45:11); Josephus (Ant. 8:2, section 9) makes it nine gallons; the rabbis make it only half. The half homer was called '''''Lethek''''' (&nbsp;Hosea 3:2). The homer or cor was originally an donkey load; Gesenius, an heap. A measure for liquids or dry goods; ten ephahs (&nbsp;Ezekiel 45:14), i.e. 90 gallons, if Josephus' (Ant. 8:2, section 9) computation of the '''''Bath''''' or ephah as nine gallons is right. The rabbis make it 45 gallons. </p> <p> [['''Liquid Measures''']]  The log, a '''''Cotyle''''' or half pint; related to our lake, a hollow; twelfth of the hin, which was sixth of a bath or 12 pints. The bath was an ephah, the largest Hebrew liquid measure, nine gallons (Josephus), but four and a half (rabbis). The sextary contained nearly a pint, translated "pots" in &nbsp;Mark 7:4-8. The '''''Choenix''''' (&nbsp;Revelation 6:6) one quart, or else one pint and a half; in scarcity a penny or denarius only bought a choenix, but ordinarily a bushel of wheat. The '''''Modius''''' , "bushel," two gallons, found in every household, therefore preceded by the Greek "the" (&nbsp;Matthew 5:15). '''''Μetretes''''' , "firkin" (&nbsp;John 2:6), nearly nine gallons; answering to the Hebrew bath. The '''''Koros''''' or cor, "measure" (&nbsp;Luke 16:7) of grain; bath (&nbsp;Luke 16:6), "measure" of oil. Twelve logs to one hin; six bins to one bath. One cab and four-fifths to one omer. Three omers and one third, one seah. Three seahs to one ephah. Ten ephahs to one homer. </p>

<p> ''''' wāts ''''' ''''' me´zhur ''''' : The system of weights and measures in use among the Hebrews was derived from [[Babylonia]] and Egypt, especially from the former. The influence of these countries upon Palestine has long been recognized, but archaeological investigations in recent years have shown that the civilization of Babylonia impressed itself upon Syria and Palestine more profoundly in early times than did that of Egypt. The evidence of this has been most clearly shown by the discovery of the <i> Tell el-Amarna [[Letters]] </i> , which reveal the fact that the official correspondence between the Egyptian kings and their vassals in these lands was carried on in the language of Babylonia long after its political influence had been supplanted by that of Egypt. It is natural, then, that we should look to Babylonia for the origin of such important elements of civilization as a system of weights and measures. </p> 1. Linear Measures: <p> It was quite natural that men should have found a standard for linear measures in the parts of the human body, and we find the cubit, originally the length of the forearm, taken as the standard, and the span, the palm and the digit, or finger-breadth, associated with it in linear measurement. They do not seem to have employed the foot, though it is represented in the two-thirds of the cubit, which was used by the Babylonians in the manufacture of building-brick. </p> <p> This system, though adequate enough for man in the earliest times, was not so for an advanced stage of civilization, such as the Babylonians reached before the days of Abraham, and we find that they had introduced a far more accurate and scientific system (see Cubit ). They seem to have employed, however, two cubits, of different lengths, one for commercial purposes and one for building. We have no undoubted examples of either, but judging by the dimensions of their square building-bricks, which are regarded as being two-thirds of a cubit on a side, we judge the latter to have been of about 19 or 20 inches. Now we learn from investigations in Egypt that a similar cubit was employed there, being of from 20.6 to 20.77 inches, and it can hardly be doubted that the Hebrews were familiar with this cubit, but that in more common use was certainly shorter. We have no certain means of determining the length of the ordinary cubit among the Hebrews, but there are two ways by which we may approximate its value. The Siloam [[Inscription]] states that the tunnel in which it was found was 1,200 cubits long. The actual length has been found to be about 1,707 feet, which would give a cubit of about 17.1 in. (see <i> Pefs </i> , 1902,179). Of course the given length may be a round number, but it gives a close approximation. </p> <p> Again, the Mishna states that the height of a man &nbsp;Isaiah 4 cubits, which we may thus regard as the average stature of a Jew in former times. By reference to Jewish tombs we find that they were of a length to give a cubit of something over 17 inches, supposing the stature to be as above, which approximates very closely to the cubit of the Siloam tunnel. The consensus of opinion at the present day inclines toward a cubit of 17.6 inches for commercial purposes and one of about 20 inches for building. This custom of having two standards is illustrated by the practice in Syria today, where the builder's measure, or <i> ''''' dra' ''''' </i> , is about 2 inches longer than the commercial. </p> <p> Of multiples of the cubit we have the measuring-reed of 6 long cubits, which consisted of a cubit and a hand-breadth each (&nbsp;Ezekiel 40:5 ), or about 10 feet. Another measure was the Sabbath day's journey, which was reckoned at 2,000 cubits, or about 1,000 yards. The measuring-line was used also, but whether it had a fixed length we do not know. See Sabbath Day 'S [[Journey]]; [[Measuring Line]] . </p> <p> In the New Testament we have the fathom ( ὀργυιά , <i> ''''' orguiá ''''' </i> ), about 6 feet, and the furlong ( στάδιον , <i> ''''' stádion ''''' </i> ), 600 Greek feet or 606 3/4 English feet, which is somewhat less than one-eighth of a mile. The mile ( μίλιον , <i> ''''' mı́lion ''''' </i> ) was 5,000 Roman feet, or 4,854 English feet, somewhat less than the English mile. </p> <table> [[Border]] > <tr> <td> Linear Measure </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> [[Finger]] or digit ( אצבּע , <i> ''''' 'ecba‛ ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about ¾ in. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Hand-breadth or palm ( טפח , <i> ''''' ṭephah ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> 4 digits </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 3 in. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Span ( זרת , <i> ''''' zereth ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> 3 palms </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 9 in. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Cubit ( אמּה , <i> ''''' 'ammāh ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> 2 spans </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 17.6 in. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Reed ( קנה , <i> ''''' ḳāneh ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> 6 cubits, 6 palms </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 10 ft. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Sabbath day's journey </p> <p> ( ρ Ο2 σαββάτουπ ὁδός , <i> ''''' sabbátou ''''' </i> <i> ''''' hodós ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> 2,000 cubits </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 3,600 ft. </p> </td> </tr> </table> 2. Measures of Capacity: <p> [[Regarding]] the absolute value of the measures of capacity among the Hebrews there is rather more uncertainty than there is concerning those of length and weight, since no examples of the former have come down to us; but their relative value is known. Sir [[Charles]] Warren considers them to have been derived from the measures of length by cubing the cubit and its divisions, as also in the case of weight. We learn from &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:11 that the <i> ''''' bath ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' ephah ''''' </i> were equivalent, and he (Warren) estimates the capacity of these as that of 1/30 of the cubit cubed, or about 2, 333.3 cubic inches, which would correspond to about 9 gallons English measure. Assuming this as the standard, we get the following tables for liquid and dry measure: <i> ''''' Ṣe'ah ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' lethekh ''''' </i> , in the above, occur in the Hebrew text, but only in the margin of the English. It will be noticed that the prevailing element in these tables is the duodecimal which corresponds to the sexagesimal of the Babylonian system, but it will be seen that in the case of weights there was a tendency on the part of the Hebrews to employ the decimal system, making the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> 50 shekels instead of 60, and the talent 3,000 instead of 3,600, of the Babylonian, so here we see the same tendency in making the <i> ''''' ‛ōmer ''''' </i> the tenth of the <i> ''''' 'ēphāh ''''' </i> and the <i> ''''' 'ēphāh ''''' </i> the tenth of the <i> ''''' ḥōmer ''''' </i> or <i> ''''' kōr ''''' </i> . </p> <table> BORDER > <tr> <td> Liquid Measure </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 1 log ( לג , <i> ''''' lōgh ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Leviticus 14:10 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 1 pint </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 4 logs, 1 kab ( קב , <i> ''''' ḳabh ''''' </i> , &nbsp; 2 Kings 6:25 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 2 qts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 12 logs, 3 kabs, 1 hin ( הין , <i> ''''' hı̄n ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Exodus 30:24 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 1 ½ gals. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 72 logs, 18 kabs, 6 hins, 1 bath ( בּת , <i> ''''' bath ''''' </i> , Ezk &nbsp; Ezekiel 45:10 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 9 gals. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 720 logs, 180 kabs, 60 hins, 10 baths, 1 homer or kor </p> <p> ( חמר , <i> ''''' ḥōmer ''''' </i> , כּר , <i> ''''' kōr ''''' </i> , Ezk &nbsp; Ezekiel 45:14 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 90 gals. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> Dry Measure </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 1 log </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 1 pint </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 4 logs, 1 kab </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 2 qts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 7 ½ logs, 1 omer </p> <p> ( עמר , <i> ''''' ‛ōmer ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Exodus 16:16 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 3 qts., 1 1/5 pts. </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 24 logs, 6 kabs, 3 ½ omers, 1 seah </p> <p> ( סאה , <i> ''''' ṣeāh ''''' </i> , &nbsp; 1 Kings 18:32 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 1 ½ pecks </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 72 logs, 18 kabs, 10 omers, 3 seahs, 1 ephah </p> <p> ( אפה , <i> ''''' 'ēphāh ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Exodus 16:36 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 4 ½ pecks </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 360 logs, 90 kabs, 50 omers, 15 seahs, 5 ephahs, 1 lethech </p> <p> ( לתך , <i> ''''' lethekh ''''' </i> , &nbsp; Hosea 3:2 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 5 bu., 2 ½ pecks </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> 720 logs, 180 kabs, 100 omers, 30 seahs, 10 ephahs, 2 lethechs, 1 homer or kor (Ezk &nbsp;Ezekiel 45:14 ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  appr. 11 bu., 1 peck </p> </td> </tr> </table> 3. Weights: <p> Weights were probably based by the ancients upon grains of wheat or barley, but the Egyptians and Babylonians early adopted a more scientific method. Sir Charles Warren thinks that they took the cubes of the measures of length and ascertained how many grains of barley corresponded to the quantity of water these cubes would contain. Thus, he infers that the Egyptians fixed the weight of a cubic inch of rain water at 220 grains, and the Babylonians at 222 2/9. Taking the cubic palm at 25,928 cubic inches, the weight of that quantity of water would be 5,760 ancient grains. The talent he regards as the weight of 2/3 of a cubit cubed, which would be equal to 101,6 cubic palms, but assumes that for convenience it was taken at 100, the weight being 576,000 grains, deriving from this the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> (1/60 of the talent) of 9,600 grains, and a <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> (1/50 of the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> ) 192 grains. But we have evidence that the Hebrew <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> differed from this and that they used different shekels at different periods. The <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> derived from Babylonia had a double standard: the light of 160 grains, or 1/3600 of the talent; and the heavy of just double this, of 320 grains. The former seems to have been used before the captivity and the latter after. The Babylonian system was sexagesimal, i.e. 60 shekels went to the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> and 60 <i> ''''' mānehs ''''' </i> to the talent, but the Hebrews reckoned only 50 shekels to the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> , as appears from &nbsp; Exodus 38:25 , &nbsp;Exodus 38:26 , where it is stated that the amount of silver collected from 603, 550 males was 100 talents and 1, 775 shekels, and, as each contributed a half-shekel, the whole amount must have been 301, 775. Deducting the 1, 775 shekels mentioned besides the 100 talents, we have 300,000 or 3,000 to the talent, and, as there were 60 <i> ''''' mānehs ''''' </i> in the talent, there were 50 shekels to each <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> . When the Hebrews adopted this system we do not know, but it was in vogue at a very early date. </p> <p> The <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> was divided into <i> ''''' gērāhs ''''' </i> , 20 to a <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> (&nbsp; Exodus 30:13 ). The <i> ''''' gērāh ''''' </i> (גּרה , <i> ''''' gērāh ''''' </i> ) is supposed to be some kind of seed, perhaps a bean or some such plant. The <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> of which it formed a part was probably the royal or commercial <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> of 160 grains, derived from Babylon. But the Hebrews certainly had another <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> , called the Phoenician from its being the standard of the Phoenician traders. This would be natural on account of the close connection of the two peoples ever since the days of David and Solomon, but we have certain evidence of it from the extant examples of the monetary shekels of the Jews, which are of this standard, or very nearly so, allowing some loss from abrasion. The Phoenician shekel was about 224 grains, varying somewhat in different localities, and the Jewish shekels now in existence vary from 212 to 220 grains. They were coined after the captivity (see [[Coins]] ), but whether this standard was in use before we have no means of knowing. </p> <p> Examples of ancient weights have been discovered in Palestine by archaeological research during recent years, among them one from Samaria, obtained by Dr. Chaplin, bearing the inscription, in Hebrew <i> ''''' rebha‛ ''''' </i> <i> ''''' neceph ''''' </i> ( נצף רבע ). This is interpreted, by the help of the cognate Arabic, as meaning "quarter-half," i.e. of a <i> ''''' shekel ''''' </i> . The actual weight &nbsp; Isaiah 39.2 grains, which, allowing a slight loss, would correspond quite closely to a quarter-shekel of the light Babylonian standard of 160 grains, or the quarter of the half of the double standard. Another specimen discovered at <i> ''''' Tell ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Zakariyeh ''''' </i> weighs 154 grains, which would seem to belong to the same standard. The weights, of which illustrations are given in the table, are all in the collection of the Syrian [[Protestant]] College, at Beirut, and were obtained from Palestine and [[Phoenicia]] and are of the Phoenician standard, which was the common commercial standard of Palestine. The largest, of the spindle or barrel type, weighs 1,350 grains, or 87.46 grams, evidently intended for a 6-shekel weight, and the smaller ones of the same type are fractions of the Phoenician shekel. They were of the same standard, one a shekel and the other a two-shekel weight. They each have 12 faces, and the smaller has a lion stamped on each face save one, reminding us of the lion-weights discovered in [[Assyria]] and Babylonia. The spindle weights are of black stone, the others of bronze. </p> <p> The above is the Phoenician standard. In the Babylonian the shekel would be 160 or 320 grains; the <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> 8,000 or 16,000, and the talent 480,000 or 960,000 grains, according as it was of the light or heavy standard. </p> <table> BORDER > <tr> <td> Table of Hebrew Weights </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <i> ''''' Gērāh ''''' </i> (&nbsp; Exodus 30:13 , גּרה , <i> ''''' gērāh ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 11 grains </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <i> ''''' Beḳa‛ ''''' </i> (half-shekel, &nbsp; Exodus 38:26 , (בּק , <i> ''''' beḳa‛ ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 122 grains </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <i> ''''' Sheḳel ''''' </i> ( שׁקל , <i> ''''' sheḳel ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 224 or 225 grains </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> <i> ''''' Māneh ''''' </i> = 50 shekels (pound, &nbsp; 1 Kings 10:17 , מנה , <i> ''''' māneh ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 11,200 grains </p> </td> </tr> <tr> <td> <p> Talent = 60 <i> ''''' mānehs ''''' </i> or 3,000 shekels </p> <p> (&nbsp;Exodus 38:25 , כּכּר , <i> ''''' kikkār ''''' </i> ) </p> </td> <td> <p> [[Align =Right>]]  about 672,000 grains </p> </td> </tr> </table>