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== Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_17649" /> == | == Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology <ref name="term_17649" /> == | ||
<p> In the early history of humanity, astrology and astronomy were closely related. The latter dealt with the movements of heavenly bodies, while the former attempted to interpret the possible effects that these might have upon earth's inhabitants. In Babylonia, where astrology had its origins, considerable importance was attached to such phenomena as eclipses and meteors, to say nothing of planetary movements. [[Individual]] stars and constellations were given names, and when they began to be worshiped as gods, the way was opened for astrologers to make predictions as to how people on earth might be affected. </p> <p> In the second millennium b.c., [[Babylonian]] astrologers drew up horoscopes indicating what might be expected to happen in each month. Once twelve of these menologies had been compiled, they were used year after year without change. The superstitious [[Babylonians]] also devised the zodiac, a division of the celestial sphere into twelve equal parts known as signs or houses, which were named after the sun, moon, and principal planets. By the late fourth century b.c., Mesopotamian astrology had spread to Greece, and about a century later was adopted widely by the Egyptians. When | <p> In the early history of humanity, astrology and astronomy were closely related. The latter dealt with the movements of heavenly bodies, while the former attempted to interpret the possible effects that these might have upon earth's inhabitants. In Babylonia, where astrology had its origins, considerable importance was attached to such phenomena as eclipses and meteors, to say nothing of planetary movements. [[Individual]] stars and constellations were given names, and when they began to be worshiped as gods, the way was opened for astrologers to make predictions as to how people on earth might be affected. </p> <p> In the second millennium b.c., [[Babylonian]] astrologers drew up horoscopes indicating what might be expected to happen in each month. Once twelve of these menologies had been compiled, they were used year after year without change. The superstitious [[Babylonians]] also devised the zodiac, a division of the celestial sphere into twelve equal parts known as signs or houses, which were named after the sun, moon, and principal planets. By the late fourth century b.c., Mesopotamian astrology had spread to Greece, and about a century later was adopted widely by the Egyptians. When Greek culture was absorbed by the Romans, astrology assumed the form of a religion, and its practitioners began to design individual horoscopes. </p> <p> <i> The Old [[Testament]] </i> While some have asserted that the twelvefold blessing pronounced by Jacob on his sons ( [[Genesis]] 49:1-28 ) had some astrological significance, there is nowhere in the material any mention of the possible influence of heavenly bodies. The [[Israelites]] were forbidden to worship stars ( Deuteronomy 9:14 ), this being seen as an offshoot of astrological speculation. Several centuries later, the influence of Mesopotamian star adulation was being experienced in Israel, causing Amos to condemn the northern kingdom's worship of [[Saturn]] (5:26). Jeremiah also referred to the pagan veneration of [[Ishtar]] or [[Venus]] (7:18; 44:17-19) as well as celestial bodies generally (8:2; 19:13). Isaiah was the first to refer specifically to astrologers and their activities (47:13), and in his prophecy he predicted their destruction, saying that "the fire will burn them up" (47:14). </p> <p> Daniel seems to have been familiar with astrologers (2:27; 4:7) and with their inability to interpret the king's dreams. Some writers have suggested that the term "Chaldean, " used to describe the wise men of [[Babylon]] who acted as astrologers, had actually been written <i> galdu, </i> "astrologers, " by Daniel, but later on was transcribed incorrectly as <i> kaldu, </i> since by then [[Chaldea]] ( <i> mat Kaldu </i> ) had become known as the place where they flourished. Daniel repudiated their supposed abilities by declaring that only God can be regarded as the true source of revelations concerning the future (5:14-16). </p> <p> Some two centuries before Christ was born, astrology gained a foothold in [[Jewish]] religion, when identification of certain angels with stars and planets came into vogue. Although the tradition was repudiated in Wisdom of [[Solomon]] 13:1-4 , it had already become impossible to halt the Jewish fascination with astrology. The remains of a Byzantine synagogue floor, unearthed at sixth-century a.d. levels at [[Beth]] [[Alpha]] in Palestine, included a mosaic in the form of a zodiac, thus showing the extent to which astrology had infiltrated religious architecture. </p> <p> <i> The New Testament </i> It is against the intertestamental period's concern with angels and elemental spirits that the influence of astrology on early [[Christianity]] must be assessed. What may have been an example of celestial phenomena being given an astrological interpretation involved the appearance of an unusual star in the heavens. Such occurrences were not entirely unknown in antiquity, and sometimes were taken as pointing to the birth of a famous person, such as [[Alexander]] the Great. Thus the Mesopotamian magi ( Matthew 2:1-2 ), who were most probably professional astrologers, were able to both reassure and alarm Herod by offering him astrological reasons for their journey. The star has been a matter of debate also. The magi spoke of it as a single entity, but some scholars have regarded it as a conjunction of Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn. Others prefer the translation "in its ascendancy" to the traditional "in the east." If the star was a single celestial body, it could possibly have been a nova in its final stage of existence, but this cannot be demonstrated. The Greek word <i> magoi </i> [Μάγος] appears again in Acts 8:9,13:6-8 , to describe magicians rather than astrologers. </p> <p> There could possibly be a reference to the worship of angelic beings in some of Paul's writings, notably in Galatians 4:3 and Colossians 2:15,20 , where the veneration of celestial bodies, particularly among Colossian Christians, was being condemned. Less probably is the speculation that the depth (Gk. <i> bathos </i> [ John 16:13 ). </p> <p> Anthropologists and others have observed that when religion declines in a culture it is replaced by superstition. Consequently, it is only to be expected that when people fall away from the faith once delivered to the saints they will place increasing trust in such astrological devices as horoscopes. Part of the popularity of these ancient Mesopotamian devices is that they are seen to afford a possible glimpse into the immediate future. It is unhappily true that they are immensely popular among superstitious persons, and are given wide circulation in the press. It is almost unbelievable that some scientists, who above all others insist upon a pragmatic, empirical approach to their work that is devoid of any possible religious influence, should consult their horoscopes each morning before undertaking the day's responsibilities. </p> <p> Many of those in bondage to horoscopes argue that nowadays the stars are not consulted, but that instead the predictions are formulated mathematically, and customized to accommodate the latitude and longitude of particular individuals. [[Christians]] need to reject such spurious "science, " and commit their way consistently to the continual guidance of the [[Holy]] Spirit. </p> <p> R. K. Harrison </p> <p> <i> See also </i> [[Divination]] </p> <p> <i> Bibliography </i> . R. Gleadow, <i> The Origin of the [[Zodiac]] </i> ; L. MacNeice, <i> [[Astrology]] </i> . </p> | ||
== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_55106" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_55106" /> == | ||
<p> <b> ASTROLOGY </b> was an important element of all ancient astronomy. The scientific observation of the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies was closely associated with the belief in their [[Divine]] character, and their influence upon the destinies of men, and formed the basis of calculations and predictions of future events. [[Babylonia]] was the earliest home of this study, which continued to be prosecuted in that part of the world with special diligence, so that in later times the word ‘Chaldaean’ was equivalent to ‘Eastern astrologer.’ It is to this class that we must refer the [[Magi]] or [[Wise]] Men from the East, who are mentioned in Matthew 2:1 ff. They had seen in their own home the rising (for so perhaps we should understand the words ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ, rendered ‘in the east,’ in Matthew 2:2) of a star or constellation, which they connected with the expectation, already diffused in the East, of the birth of a great ruler among the Jews. [[Travelling]] to Palestine, they ascertained at [[Jerusalem]] that the [[Messiah]] was expected to be born in Bethlehem, and directing their steps thither they saw the ‘star’ in front of them all the way, till they came to the house where the infant | <p> <b> ASTROLOGY </b> was an important element of all ancient astronomy. The scientific observation of the positions and movements of the heavenly bodies was closely associated with the belief in their [[Divine]] character, and their influence upon the destinies of men, and formed the basis of calculations and predictions of future events. [[Babylonia]] was the earliest home of this study, which continued to be prosecuted in that part of the world with special diligence, so that in later times the word ‘Chaldaean’ was equivalent to ‘Eastern astrologer.’ It is to this class that we must refer the [[Magi]] or [[Wise]] Men from the East, who are mentioned in Matthew 2:1 ff. They had seen in their own home the rising (for so perhaps we should understand the words ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ, rendered ‘in the east,’ in Matthew 2:2) of a star or constellation, which they connected with the expectation, already diffused in the East, of the birth of a great ruler among the Jews. [[Travelling]] to Palestine, they ascertained at [[Jerusalem]] that the [[Messiah]] was expected to be born in Bethlehem, and directing their steps thither they saw the ‘star’ in front of them all the way, till they came to the house where the infant Jesus was found. (This appears to be the only sense in which the popular and picturesque language of Matthew 2:9 can be understood). </p> <p> The first two chapters of the First [[Gospel]] are recognized as being taken from another source than the rest of the book, and different views have been held as to their historic value. But so far as the astrological references in ch. 2 are concerned, no difficulty need be felt about the narrative. The Evangelist, it is true, does not raise any question as to the reality of the connexion between the ‘star’ and the birth of Jesus. On the possibility of such a connexion, no doubt he shared the common beliefs of his time. But we may accept his statement of the facts without being compelled to admit that there is any truth in astrological theories. The famous calculation of Kepler shows that an unusual conjunction of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn took place about b.c. 7, and it is quite conceivable that this or some similar phenomenon may in God’s providence have led the Wise Men, even through the mistaken principles of their science, actually to visit [[Palestine]] about the time when Jesus was born. See further, artt. Magi and Star. </p> <p> James Patrick. </p> | ||
== Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_80233" /> == | == Watson's Biblical & Theological Dictionary <ref name="term_80233" /> == | ||
<p> the art of foretelling future events, from the aspects, positions, and influences of the heavenly bodies. The word is compounded of αστηρ , star, and λογος , discourse; whence, in the literal sense of the term, astrology should signify no more than the doctrine or science of the stars. | <p> the art of foretelling future events, from the aspects, positions, and influences of the heavenly bodies. The word is compounded of αστηρ , star, and λογος , discourse; whence, in the literal sense of the term, astrology should signify no more than the doctrine or science of the stars. Astrology judiciary, or judicial, is what we commonly call simple astrology, or that which pretends to foretel mortal events, even those which have a dependence on the free will and agency of man; as if they were directed by the stars. This art, which owed its origin to the practice of knavery on credulity, is now universally exploded by the intelligent part of mankind. Judicial astrology is commonly said to have been invented in Chaldea, and thence transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; though some will have it of [[Egyptian]] origin, and ascribe the invention to Cham. But we derive it from the Arabians. The Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, and indeed almost all the nations of antiquity, were infatuated with the chimaeras of astrology. It originated in the notion, that the stars have an influence, either beneficial or malignant, upon the affairs of men, which may be discovered, and made the ground of certain prediction, in particular cases; and the whole art consisted in applying astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose. [[Diodorus]] Siculus relates that the [[Chaldeans]] learned these arts from the Egyptians; and he would not have made this assertion, if there had not been at least a general tradition that they were practised from the earliest times in Egypt. The system was, in those remote ages, intimately connected with Sabaism, or the worship of the stars as divinities; but whether it emanates from idolatry or fatality, it denies God and his providence, and is therefore condemned in the Scriptures, and ranked with practices the most offensive and provoking to the Divine Majesty. </p> | ||
== Webster's Dictionary <ref name="term_89336" /> == | == Webster's Dictionary <ref name="term_89336" /> == | ||
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== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_1119" /> == | == International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_1119" /> == | ||
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== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_21373" /> == | == Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_21373" /> == | ||
<p> ( | <p> ( '''''Ἀστρολογία''''' '', Science Of The Stars), A'' pretended science, which was said to discover future events by means of the stars. Astrology (according to the old distinction) was of two kinds' [[Natural]] and ''Judicial.'' The former predicted certain :natural effects which appear to depend upon the influence of the stars, such as winds, rain, storms, etc. By the latter, it was pretended, could be predicted events which were de, pendent upon the human will, as particular actions, peace, war, etc. Astrology accords well with the predestinarian doctrines of Mohammedanism, and was accordingly cultivated with great ardor by the Arabs from the seventh to the thirteenth century. Some of the early Christian fathers argued against the doctrines of astrology; others received them in a modified form. In its public capacity the Roman Church several times condemned the system, but many zealous churchmen cultivated it. [[Cardinal]] D'Ailly, "the eagle of the doctors of France" (died 1420), is said to have calculated the horoscope of Jesus Christ, and maintained that the [[Deluge]] might have been predicted by astrology. Regiomontanus, the famous mathematician Cardan, even [[Tycho]] Brahe and Kepler could not shake off the fascination. Kepler saw the weakness of astrology as a science, but could not bring himself to deny a certain connection between the positions ("constellations") of the planets and the qualities of those born under them. The Copernican system gave the death-blow to astrology. Belief in astrology is not now ostensibly professed in any Christian country, though a few solitary advocates have from time to time appeared, as J. M. Pfaff in Germany, Astrologie (Nurnb. 1816). But it still holds sway in the East, and among Mohammedans wherever situated. Even in Europe the craving of the ignorant of all countries for divination is still gratified by the publication of multitudes of almanacs containing astrological predictions, though the writers no longer believe in them. </p> <p> Many passages of our old writers are unintelligible without some knowledge of astrological terms. In the technical rules by which human destiny was foreseen, the heavenly houses played an important part. Astrologers were by no means at one as to the way of laying out those houses. A very general way was to draw great circles through the north and south points of the horizon as meridians pass through the poles, dividing the heavens, visible and invisible, into twelve equal parts-six above the horizon, and six below. These were the twelve houses, and were numbered onward, beginning with that which lay in the east immediately below the horizon. The first was called the house of life; the second, of fortune, or riches; the third, of brethren; the fourth, of relations; the fifth, of children; the sixth, of health; the seventh, of marriage; the eighth, of death, or the upper portal; the ninth, of religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of friends and benefactors; the twelfth, of enemies, or of captivity. The position of the twelve houses for a given time and place-the instant of an individual's birth, for instance, was a theme. To construct such a plan was to cast the person's nativity. The houses had different powers, the strongest being the first; as it contained the part of the heavens about to rise, it was called the ascendant, and the point of the ecliptic cut by its upper boundary was the horoscope. Each house had one of the heavenly bodies as its lord, who was strongest in his own house. See Ptolemeei [[Opus]] quadripartitum de astrorum judiciis; Schoner, De nativitatibus (Nurnb. 1532); Kepler, Harmonia mundi (Linz. 1619); Prodromus, Diss. cosmograph. (Tub 1596); Pfaff, Astrologische Taschenbiccher for 1822 and 1823; Meyer's Blotter fir hahere Wahrheit, ii, 141; Quarterly Review, 26:180; [[Westminster]] Review, Jan. 1864. (See Astronomy). </p> | ||
== The Nuttall Encyclopedia <ref name="term_68271" /> == | == The Nuttall Encyclopedia <ref name="term_68271" /> == | ||
