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== Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_56859" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the New Testament <ref name="term_56859" /> == | ||
<p> 1. Meaning of the term.-The word προσήλυτος is not found in classical Greek. It is still an open question whether those who formed the word from προσέρχομαι thought of the verb in its primary sense of ‘advenio,’ or in its religious sense of ‘(deum) adeo’ (cf. Hebrews 7:25, τοὺς προσερχομένους διʼ αὐτοῦ τῷ Θεῷ). In the former case, προσήλυτος originally meant advena, ‘new-comer’ (for which the classical equivalent is ἔπηλυς); in the latter, it meant ‘proselyte’ in the sense of ‘one who comes or draws near to God.’ In his exhaustive study of προσήλυτος in the LXX_ (Exp_, 4th ser., x. 264 ff.), W. C. Allen argues from the fact that the word is correctly used in a majority of cases for the ðÌÅø to whom certain rights were conceded in [[Israel]] (Oxf. Heb. Lex., s.v. ðÌÅø 2 [p. 158a]), that its meaning was from the first that of ‘proselyte’-the meaning of ‘stranger’ being secondary, and arising from the proselyte’s having his home ‘in a strange land’ (like the [[Israelites]] themselves in Egypt: hence they are called προσήλυτοι, Exodus 22:21; Exodus 23:9, Leviticus 19:34, Deuteronomy 10:19): The statement of [[Philo]] (de Monarch. 1. 7, τούτους δὲ καλεῖ προσηλύτους ἀπὸ τοῦ προσεληλυθέναι καινῇ καὶ φιλοθέῳ πολιτείᾳ), and also the words of [[Josephus]] (Ant. XVIII. iii. 5, νομίμοις προσεληλυθυῖα τοῖς Ἰουδαικοῖς), are in favour of this view. What prevents us, however, from giving it our full adhesion is that the LXX_ does not use προσήλυτος in all the passages where ðÌÅø seems to mean or to approximate in meaning to ‘proselyte,’ but has sometimes πάροικος. This, of course, may be due to different hands having been employed in the work of translation. Valuable for guidance is W. R. Smith’s note (OTJC_2, p. 342): ‘In the [[Levitical]] legislation the word Gêr is already on the way to assume the later technical sense of proselyte’ (cf. Driver, ICC_, ‘Deuteronomy,’ p. 165). </p> <p> The distinction drawn between ‘the proselyte of the gate’ , who accepted the ‘Seven Noachian Laws’ (ERE_ iv. 245a), and ‘the proselyte of righteousness’, who by complete adoption of Israel’s laws became incorporated with the covenant people (HDB_ ii. 157a), belongs to Rabbinical [[Judaism]] (ERE_ vii. 592b), and is not found in Scripture. It had its precedents, however, in the differences of religious standing observable among the in Israel; while the σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν mentioned by Josephus (Ant. XIV. vii. 2), and frequently in Acts, may roughly represent the ‘proselytes of the gate’ of the Gemârâ. It has been suggested that the of Psalms 22:23; Psalms 115:11; Psalms 115:13; Psalms 118:4; Psalms 135:20 are identical with the φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν of Acts 13:16; Acts 13:26, but A. B. [[Davidson]] has shown that the general usage of the OT is against the identification (ExpT_ iii. 491). While Bertholet and others maintain that προσήλυτοι, οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν and οἱ σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν are synonymous (EBi_ iii. 3904), the view of Schürer ( | <p> 1. Meaning of the term.-The word προσήλυτος is not found in classical Greek. It is still an open question whether those who formed the word from προσέρχομαι thought of the verb in its primary sense of ‘advenio,’ or in its religious sense of ‘(deum) adeo’ (cf. Hebrews 7:25, τοὺς προσερχομένους διʼ αὐτοῦ τῷ Θεῷ). In the former case, προσήλυτος originally meant advena, ‘new-comer’ (for which the classical equivalent is ἔπηλυς); in the latter, it meant ‘proselyte’ in the sense of ‘one who comes or draws near to God.’ In his exhaustive study of προσήλυτος in the LXX_ (Exp_, 4th ser., x. 264 ff.), W. C. Allen argues from the fact that the word is correctly used in a majority of cases for the ðÌÅø to whom certain rights were conceded in [[Israel]] (Oxf. Heb. Lex., s.v. ðÌÅø 2 [p. 158a]), that its meaning was from the first that of ‘proselyte’-the meaning of ‘stranger’ being secondary, and arising from the proselyte’s having his home ‘in a strange land’ (like the [[Israelites]] themselves in Egypt: hence they are called προσήλυτοι, Exodus 22:21; Exodus 23:9, Leviticus 19:34, Deuteronomy 10:19): The statement of [[Philo]] (de Monarch. 1. 7, τούτους δὲ καλεῖ προσηλύτους ἀπὸ τοῦ προσεληλυθέναι καινῇ καὶ φιλοθέῳ πολιτείᾳ), and also the words of [[Josephus]] (Ant. XVIII. iii. 5, νομίμοις προσεληλυθυῖα τοῖς Ἰουδαικοῖς), are in favour of this view. What prevents us, however, from giving it our full adhesion is that the LXX_ does not use προσήλυτος in all the passages where ðÌÅø seems to mean or to approximate in meaning to ‘proselyte,’ but has sometimes πάροικος. This, of course, may be due to different hands having been employed in the work of translation. Valuable for guidance is W. R. Smith’s note (OTJC_2, p. 342): ‘In the [[Levitical]] legislation the word Gêr is already on the way to assume the later technical sense of proselyte’ (cf. Driver, ICC_, ‘Deuteronomy,’ p. 165). </p> <p> The distinction drawn between ‘the proselyte of the gate’ , who accepted the ‘Seven Noachian Laws’ (ERE_ iv. 245a), and ‘the proselyte of righteousness’, who by complete adoption of Israel’s laws became incorporated with the covenant people (HDB_ ii. 157a), belongs to Rabbinical [[Judaism]] (ERE_ vii. 592b), and is not found in Scripture. It had its precedents, however, in the differences of religious standing observable among the in Israel; while the σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν mentioned by Josephus (Ant. XIV. vii. 2), and frequently in Acts, may roughly represent the ‘proselytes of the gate’ of the Gemârâ. It has been suggested that the of Psalms 22:23; Psalms 115:11; Psalms 115:13; Psalms 118:4; Psalms 135:20 are identical with the φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν of Acts 13:16; Acts 13:26, but A. B. [[Davidson]] has shown that the general usage of the OT is against the identification (ExpT_ iii. 491). While Bertholet and others maintain that προσήλυτοι, οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν and οἱ σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν are synonymous (EBi_ iii. 3904), the view of Schürer [[(Hjp_ Ii]] ii. 314 ff.) that the first term means proselytes in the technical sense, and the other two those who, without having submitted to the rite of circumcision, joined in [[Jewish]] worship, has gained a wider acceptance. The adherence of [[Gentiles]] to Judaism in the centuries immediately preceding and following the fall of [[Jerusalem]] ‘ranged over the entire gamut of possible degrees,’ depending upon ‘the different degrees in which the ceremonial precepts of the Law were observed’ (Harnack, The [[Mission]] and [[Expansion]] of Christianity2, i. 12, 10). The following passage from [[Theodore]] Reinach well illustrates this: </p> <p> ‘Judaism possessed the prudence and tact not to exact from its adepts [converts] at the outset full and complete adoption of the Jewish Law. The neophyte was at first simply a “friend” to the Jewish customs, observing the least enthralling ones-the [[Sabbath]] and the lighting of a fire on the previous evening; certain fast-days; abstention from pork. His sons frequented the synagogues and deserted the temples, studied the Law, and contributed their oboli to the treasury of Jerusalem [cf. Nehemiah 10:32 f., ERE_ vii. 592a]. By degrees habit accomplished the rest. At last the proselyte took the decisive step: he received the rite of circumcision, took the hath of purity …, and offered, doubtless in money, the sacrifice which signalized his definitive entrance into the bosom of Israel. Occasionally, in order to accentuate his conversion, he even adopted a Hebraic name.… In the third generation, according to Deuteronomy 23:8, there existed no distinction between the Jew by race and the Jew by adoption’ (JE_ iv. 570). </p> <p> ‘The bath of purity’ here spoken of refers to the baptism of proselytes. This is described by W. [[Brandt]] (ERE_ ii. 408) as ‘a practice of ceremonial ablution altogether new,’ which ‘we may safely assume … was not of later origin than [[Christian]] baptism.’ It is not mentioned in the OT, and the traces of it found by Talmudic scholars in Genesis 35:2, Exodus 19:10 are quite imaginary. It is referred to by [[Epictetus]] (who taught till a.d. 94) in his conversations as a matter of common knowledge: ‘When a man,’ he says, ‘takes upon himself the arduous life of the baptized and the elect (τοῦ βεβαμμένου καὶ ᾑρημένου), then he is really what he calls himself, a Jew’ (Arrian, Diss. Epicteti, ii. 9). The [[Babylonian]] [[Talmud]] reports that about the end of the 1st cent. two famous Rabbis disputed with one another as to its necessity, which shows that at that period it was not universally regarded as indispensable. It was designated in later times ‘the immersion of proselytism,’ and the manner of its administration was as follows: ‘The individual who desired to become a Jew was conducted to the bath, and there immersed himself in the presence of the Rabbis, who recited to him portions of the Law’ (cf. Plummer, art._ ‘Baptism,’ HDB_ i. 239 f. for other references). </p> <p> 2. NT passages referring to proselytes.-(1) Matthew 23:15. Grätz’s conjecture that this verse refers to an actual incident, the voyage of R. Gamaliel, R. Eliezer, R. Joshua, and R. [[Akiba]] to Rome, where they converted Flavius Clemens, the cousin of [[Domitian]] (cf. ERE_ vii. 592b), would imply that the saying is not justly attributed to our Lord. It is probable, as Adolf Jellinek, the famous Austrian Rabbi and scholar (1821-1893), suggested, that what is here condemned is the Pharisees’ practice of winning over every year at least one proselyte each (E. G. Hirsch, JE_ x. 221). (2) There were proselytes among the multitude who witnessed the miracle of [[Pentecost]] ( Acts 2:10), some of whom may have been added to the Church; the selection of ‘Nicolas a proselyte of Antioch’ ( Acts 6:5) as one of the seven deacons indicates that there was a certain proportion of men of his class in the primitive Christian community. (3) In Acts 13:43 τῶν σεβομένων προσηλύτων is perhaps a conflate reading (EBi_ iii. 3902), but the phrase appears to be a popular designation of ‘God-fearing proselytes’-the same whom St. Paul twice appeals to ( Acts 13:16; Acts 13:26) as οἱ φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν. (4) Acts 8:27. The chamberlain of [[Candace]] is included by Reinach among the ‘distinguished recruits’ of the Jewish faith (JE_ iv. 570b). (5) [[Cornelius]] was one of the φοβούμενοι τὸν θεόν ( Acts 10:2; Acts 10:22; Acts 10:35); note that in v. 35 St. Peter’s words have not the breadth often assigned to them-he only goes the length of recognizing the manifest signs of God’s acceptance of a [[Gentile]] who ‘feareth him, and worketh righteousness.’ (6) [[Lydia]] ( Acts 16:14), Titus [[Justus]] ( Acts 18:7), and the σεβόμενοι of [[Thessalonica]] and [[Athens]] ( Acts 17:4; Acts 17:17) illustrate the important aid that members of this class gave to St. Paul in his travels. He did not, however, always find the σεβόμεναι γυναῖκες favourable to the gospel ( Acts 13:50). It was partly owing to the fact of the Christian faith having found so many adherents among the σεβόμενοι τὸν θεόν that the class of ‘half-proselytes’ or ‘half-converts’ came to be regarded by Rabbinical teachers with doubtful approval. </p> <p> 3. Outline of the history of proselytism.-Conversions to Judaism went on unimpeded in NT times, both before and after the Jewish war (Parting of the Roads, pp. 285, 305). The chief source of our information on this point is Josephus, whose historical accuracy is now generally admitted (HDB_ v. 466). Some of the proselytes whom he mentions by name were acquisitions of very doubtful value, as the kings [[Azizus]] of Emesa and Polemo of Cilicia, who were prompted to embrace Judaism by the desire to contract advantageous marriages with [[Herodian]] princesses (Ant. xx. vii. 1, 3), and the Empress Poppaea, whom he calls θεοσεβής (ib. XX. viii. 11). On the other hand, the conversions of Helena, queen of Adiabene, and her son, Izates, seem to have been due to sincere conviction, and the chapters in which the historian records their life and virtuous deeds are some of the most attractive of his great work (ib. XX. ii-iv). </p> <p> The bitterness engendered by the persecution which followed the failure of the rising against [[Hadrian]] (a.d. 132-135), and the growth of the Christian Church, were joint causes which led the Rabbis to make conversion to Judaism more difficult. ‘Qualified conversions to Judaism’ were ‘regarded with increasing disfavor,’ R. Joḥanan declaring ‘that if after a probation of twelve months the ger toshab did not submit to the rite of circumcision, he was to be regarded as a heathen’ (E. G. Hirsch, JE_ x. 222a). But the ðÌÅø öÆåÆ-he who, in St. Paul’s words, ‘by receiving circumcision, became a debtor to do the whole law’ ( Galatians 5:3)-was always admitted with fervour. ‘That proselytes are welcome in Israel and are beloved of God is the theme of many a rabbinical homily’ (Hirsch, loc. cit.). </p> <p> It should be mentioned that in two passages of the LXX_ where a proselyte proper is meant ( Exodus 12:19, Isaiah 14:1) ðÌÅø is rendered, not by προσήλυτος but by γειώρας, an [[Aramaic]] word derived from ðÌÅø (HDB_ iv. 133a; Exp_, 4th ser., x. 269; cf. HDB_ ii. 157a). </p> <p> Literature.-W. C. Allen, ‘On the meaning of προσήλυτος in the Septuagint,’ in Exp_, 4th ser., x. [1894] 264 ff.; Arrian, Dissertationes Epicteti, ii. 9; Oxf. Heb. Lex., s.v. ðÌÅø, p. 158; A. B. Davidson, ‘They that fear the Lord,’ in ExpT_ iii. [1891-92] 491; HDB_ v. 466; S. R. Driver, ICC_, ‘Deuteronomy’2, Edinburgh, 1896, p. 165; W. Brandt, art._ ‘Baptism (Jewish),’ in ERE_ ii. 408; H. Hirschfeld, art._ ‘Creeds (Jewish),’ ib. iv. 245; H. Lcewe, art._ ‘Judaism,’ ib. vii. 592; H. Grätz, Die jüdischen Proselyten im Römerreiche, Breslau, 1884, p. 30; A. Harnack, Mission and Expansion of Christianity2, London, 1908, pp. 10, 12; T. Reinach, art._ ‘Diaspora,’ in JE_ iv. 570; E. G. Hirsch, art._ ‘Proselyte,’ ib. x. 221, 222; A. Jellinek, Beth-ha-Midrasch, Vienna, 1853-78, pt. v. p. xlvi; A. Plummer, art._ ‘Baptism,’ in HDB_ i. 239, 240; F. C. Porter, art._ ‘Proselyte,’ ib. iv. 132 f.; W. M. Ramsay, St. Paul the [[Traveller]] and the Roman Citizen, London, 1895, p. 43; E. Schürer, [[Hjp_ Ii]] ii. [Edinburgh, 1885] 311 f., 315; J. A. Selbie, art._ ‘Ger,’ in HDB_ ii. 157a; W. R. Smith, OTJC_2, London, 1892, p. 342; W. R. Smith and W. H. Bennett, art._ ‘Proselyte,’ in EBi_ iii. 3902, 3904; The [[Parting]] of the Roads, ed. F. J. Foakes Jackson, London, 1912, pp. 286, 305. </p> <p> James Donald. </p> | ||
== Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_53473" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_53473" /> == | ||
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== Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78797" /> == | == Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78797" /> == | ||
<div> '''1: | <div> '''1: '''''Προσήλυτος''''' ''' (Strong'S #4339 — Adjective — proselutos — pros-ah'-loo-tos ) </div> <p> akin to proserchomai, "to come to," primarily signifies "one who has arrived, a stranger;" in the NT it is used of converts to Judaism, or foreign converts to the Jewish religion, Matthew 23:15; Acts 2:10; 6:5; 13:43 . There seems to be no connection necessarily with Palestine, for in Acts 2:10; 13:43 it is used of those who lived abroad. Cp. the Sept., e.g., in Exodus 22:21; 23:9; Deuteronomy 10:19 , of the "stranger" living among the children of Israel. </p> | ||
== People's Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_70676" /> == | == People's Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_70676" /> == | ||
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== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_57072" /> == | == Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_57072" /> == | ||
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== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_7356" /> == | == International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_7356" /> == | ||
<p> ''''' pros´ḗ ''''' - ''''' lı̄t ''''' ( προσήλυτος , <i> ''''' prosḗlutos ''''' </i> , from <i> ''''' prosérchomai ''''' </i> , "I approach"): Found 4 times in the New Testament. In the Septuagint it often occurs as the translation of גּר , <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> . The Hebrew verb <i> ''''' gūr ''''' </i> means "to sojourn"; <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> accordingly means a stranger who has come to settle in the land, as distinguished on the one hand from <i> ''''' 'ezrāḥ ''''' </i> , "a homeborn" or "native," and on the other from <i> ''''' nokhrı̄ ''''' </i> or <i> ''''' ben ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' nēkhār ''''' </i> , which means a stranger who is only passing through the country. Yet it is to be noted that in 2 Chronicles 2:17 those of the native tribes still living in the land as Amorites, Hittites, etc., are also called <i> '''''gērı̄m''''' </i> . In two places, ( Exodus 12:19; Isaiah 14:1 ) the Septuagint uses , <i> '''''g''''' </i> ( <i> '''''e''''' </i> ) <i> '''''iṓras''''' </i> , which is derived from <i> '''''gı̄yōr''''' </i> , the Aramaic equivalent for <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> . Septuagint uses <i> '''''pároikos''''' </i> (the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew <i> '''''tōshābh''''' </i> , "a settler") for <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> when Israel or the triarchs are indicated ( Genesis 15:13; Genesis 23:4; Exodus 2:22; Exodus 18:3; Deuteronomy 23:7; 1 Chronicles 29:15; Psalm 39:12; Psalm 119:19; Jeremiah 14:8 ), and in a few other cases. In Talmudical literature <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> always stands for proselyte in the New Testament sense, i.e. a Gentile who has been converted to Judaism. Onkelos, who was himself a proselyte, always translates the word in this way. </p> 1. Ger in the Old Testament: <p> No difficulties were put in the way of those strangers who wished to settle down in the land of Israel. All strangers, the third generation of [[Egyptians]] and [[Edomites]] included, and only [[Ammonites]] and [[Moabites]] excluded, could enter "the congregation of God" without circumcision and without the obligation to keep the ceremonial law. </p> <p> 'The stranger within the gate' was free to eat meat which was prohibited to the [[Israelite]] ( Deuteronomy 14:21 ). If, however, the stranger wished to take part in the Passover, a feast permeated with national ideals, he must be circumcised. The keeping of the Sabbath and other feasts was regarded rather as a privilege than as a duty ( Exodus 23:12; Deuteronomy 16:11 , Deuteronomy 16:14 ); but according to Leviticus 16:29 the <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> was obliged to keep the fast of Atonement. He was forbidden on pain of death to blaspheme ( Leviticus 24:16 ) or to offer children to [[Molech]] ( Leviticus 20:2 ). If he desired to bring a burnt offering, the same law applied to him as to the Israelites ( Leviticus 17:8; Leviticus 22:18 ). Though the law of circumcision was not forced upon the <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> , it seems that the Mosaic Law endeavored to bring him nearer to the cult of Israel, not from any proselytizing motives, but in order to preserve theocracy from admixture of foreign elements, which would speedily have proved fatal to its existence. </p> <p> Though the God of Israel, when He is thought of only as such, ceases to be God; though Israel was chosen <i> before </i> all nations <i> for </i> all nations; though Israel had been again and again reminded that the Messiah would bring a blessing to all nations; and though there were instances of pagans coming to believe in Yahweh, yet it did not belong to the economy of Old Testament religion to spread the knowledge of God directly among the Gentiles (the Book of Jonah is an exception to this). There was certainly no active propagandism. Though we read in Nehemiah 10:28 of those who "separated themselves from the peoples of the lands unto the law of God" (compare Isaiah 56:3 , "the foreigner, that hath joined himself to Yahweh" - the only and exact description of a proselyte proper in the Old Testament), the spirit of exclusiveness prevailed; the doubtful elements were separated ( Ezra 4:3 ): mixed marriages were prohibited by the chiefs, and were afterward disapproved of by the people ( Ezra 9:1-15; 10; Nehemiah 13:23 ff). Direct proselytism did not begin till about a century later. </p> 2. Proselytizing: <p> The preaching of the gospel was preceded and prepared for by the dispersion of the Jews, and a world-wide propagandism of Judaism. In the 5th century Bc the Jews had a temple of their own at Syene. Alexander the Great settled 8,000 Jews in the Thebais, and Jews formed a third of the population of Alexandria. Large numbers were brought from Palestine by [[Ptolemy]] I (320 BC), and they gradually spread from Egypt along the whole [[Mediterranean]] coast of Africa. After the persecution of [[Antiochus]] [[Epiphanes]] (170 BC) they scattered themselves in every direction, and, in the words of the Sibylline [[Oracles]] (circa 160 BC), "crowded with their numbers every ocean and country." There was hardly a seaport or a commercial center in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, or the Islands of the AEgean, in which Jewish communities were not to be found. Josephus ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , vii, 2) quotes [[Strabo]] as saying: "It is hard to find a place in the habitable earth that hath not admitted this tribe of men, and is not possessed by them." Thus, in spite of the hatred and contempt which Judaism everywhere excited, its lofty, austere and spiritual religious aspirations and conceptions became known to the pagan world and exercised a profound attraction upon many souls that were deeply dissatisfied with contemporary religions. Judaism was at that period filled with missionary zeal and aspired to world-mastery. Many books on Judaism (e.g. the Sibylline Oracles) were written anonymously by Jews in order to influence pagan readers. The synagogue, which had become the center of Jewish worship, now opened its doors widely to the pagan world (compare Acts 15:21 ), and many of the sermons delivered there were directly aimed at the conversion of pagans. The Jews began to feel that they were "a guide of the blind, a fight of them that are in darkness" ( Romans 2:19 ). </p> <p> Not only Josephus ( <i> Apion </i> , II; <i> Bj </i> , VII, iii, 3), but also Seneca ( <i> Apud </i> Aug. <i> De Civit </i> . <i> Dei </i> vi. 11), [[Dio]] [[Cassius]] (xxxvii. 17), Tacitus ( <i> Ann </i> . ii. 85; <i> Hist </i> . Nehemiah 10:5 ), Horace ( <i> Sat </i> . i. 4, 142), [[Juvenal]] ( <i> Sat. </i> xiv. 96 ff), and other Greek and Roman writers testify to the widespread effects of the proselytizing propaganda of the Jews. </p> <p> Many gladly frequented the synagogues and kept some of the Jewish laws and customs. Among those were to be found the "men who feared God," spoken of in Acts. They were so called to distinguish them from full proselytes; and it was probably for this class that tablets of warning in the temple were inscribed in Greek and Latin </p> <p> Another class kept practically all the Jewish laws and customs, but were not circumcised. Some again, though not circumcised, had their children circumcised (Juvenal <i> Sat </i> . xiv. 96 ff). Such Jewish customs as fasting, cleansings, abstaining from pork, lighting the candles on Friday evening, and keeping the Sabbath (Josephus, <i> Apion </i> , II, 29, etc.) were observed by these Gentile sympathizers. Schurer holds that there were congregations of [[Greeks]] and Romans in Asia Minor, and probably in Rome, which, though they had no connection with the synagogue, formed themselves into gatherings after the pattern of the synagogue, and observed some of the Jewish customs. Among the converts to Judaism there were probably few who were circumcised, and most of those who were circumcised submitted to the rite in order to marry Jewesses, or to enjoy the rights and privileges granted to the Jews by Syrian, [[Egyptian]] and Roman rulers (Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , vii, 2; XX, vii, 1; compare Xvi , vii, 6). It would appear from Christ's words ( Matthew 23:15 , "one proselyte") that the number of full proselytes was not large. Hyrcanus forced the Edomites to adopt Judaism by circumcision (129 BC); and on other occasions the same policy of propagandism by force was followed. Josephus tells an interesting story ( <i> Ant. </i> , XX, ii, 1) of the conversion of [[Queen]] Helena of [[Adiabene]] and her two sons. The conversion of the sons was due to the teaching of a merchant called Ananias, who did not insist on circumcision. Later, another Jew, [[Eliezer]] of Galilee, told the young princes that it was not enough to read the Law, but that they must keep it too, with the result that both were circumcised. From this it is evident that Jewish teachers of the Gentileconverts varied in the strictness of their teaching. </p> 3. Proselytes in the New Testament: <p> The word "proselyte" occurs 4 times in the New Testament; once in Mt ( Matthew 23:15 ), where our Lord refers to the proselytizing zeal of the Pharisees, and to the pernicious influence which they exerted on their converts; and 3 times in Acts. Proselytes were present at Pentecost ( Acts 2:10 ); Nicolas, one of the deacons appointed by the primitive church at Jerusalem, was a proselyte ( Acts 6:5 ); and after Paul had spoken in the synagogue at [[Antioch]] of Pisidia, many devout proselytes followed Paul and [[Barnabas]] ( Acts 13:43 ). It is to be noted in this last case that the proselytes are called <i> '''''sebómenoi''''' </i> , a word generally reserved for another class. Certain people are spoken of in Acts as <i> '''''phoboúmenoi''''' </i> <i> '''''tón''''' </i> <i> '''''theón''''' </i> , "fearing God" ( Acts 10:2 , Acts 10:22 , Acts 10:35; Acts 13:16 , Acts 13:26 ), and as <i> '''''sebómenoi''''' </i> <i> '''''tón''''' </i> <i> '''''theón''''' </i> , "reverencing God," or simply <i> '''''sebómenoi''''' </i> ( Acts 13:50; Acts 16:14; Acts 17:4 , Acts 17:17; Acts 18:7 ). These seem (as against Bertholet and <i> EB </i> ) to have been sympathizers with Judaism, who attended the worship of the synagogue, but were not circumcised. It was among this class that the gospel made its first converts among the Gentiles. Those who were fully proselytes were probably as fanatical opponents of Christianity as were the Jews. </p> 4. Ger in the Talmud: <p> From the old strict Pharisaic-Palestinian point of view, circumcision, with the addition of baptism and the offering of sacrifice, was indispensable (so to Paul every circumcised person was a Jew; compare Galatians 5:3 ); and thus their converts had to submit to the whole burden of the Mosaic and traditional Law. The rabbinic distinction between <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> <i> '''''tōshābh''''' </i> , "a settler," and <i> '''''gēr''''' </i> <i> '''''cedheḳ''''' </i> , "a proselyte of righteousness," is, according to Schurer, only theoretical, and arose at a later date ( <i> '''''Bābhā'''''' </i> <i> '''''Mecı̄‛ā'''''' </i> 5 6, 9, 12; <i> '''''Makkōth''''' </i> 2 3; <i> '''''Neghā‛ı̄m''''' </i> 3 1, et al.). </p> <p> While the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' cedheḳ ''''' </i> (or <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' berı̄th ''''' </i> , "proselyte of the covenant") was considered as being in every respect a "perfect Israelite," the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' tōshābh ''''' </i> (or <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' sha‛ar ''''' </i> , "proselyte of the gate"; compare Exodus 20:10 ) only professed his faith in the God of Israel, and bound himself to the observance of the 7 Noachic precepts, abstinence from blasphemy, idolatry, homicide, fornication, robbery, eating the flesh of an animal that had died a natural death, and disobedience to (Jewish) authority ( <i> '''''Ṣanh''''' </i> . 56a; compare Acts 15:20 , Acts 15:29; Acts 21:25 ). He was considered more of a Gentile than a Jew. </p> <p> Three things were required for the admission of a proselyte, circumcision,. baptism, and the offering of sacrifice ( <i> ''''' Ber ''''' </i> . 47b; <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 45b, 46a, 48b, 76a; <i> ''''' 'Ābhōth ''''' </i> 57a, et al.). In the case of women only baptism and the offering of sacrifice were required; for that reason there were more women converts than men. Josephus ( <i> Bj </i> , II, xx, 2) tells how most of the women of Damascus were addicted to the Jewish religion. [[Doubt]] has been expressed as to the necessity of proselytes being baptized, since there is no mention of it by Paul or Philo or Josephus, but it is probable that a Gentile, who was unclean, would not be admitted to the temple without being cleansed. </p> <p> The proselyte was received in the following manner. He was first asked his reason for wishing to embrace Judaism. He was told that Israel was in a state of affliction; if he replied that he was aware of the fact and felt himself unworthy to share these afflictions, he was admitted. Then he received instruction in some of the "light" and "heavy" commandments, the rules concerning gleaning and tithes, and the penalties attached to the breach of the commandments. If he was willing to submit to all this, he was circumcised, and after his recovery he was immersed without delay. At this latter ceremony two "disciples of the wise" stood by to tell him more of the "light" and "heavy" commandments. When he came up after the immersion, those assembled addressed him saying: "Unto whom hast thou given thyself? Blessed art thou, thou hast given thyself to God; the world was created for the sake of Israel, and only Israelites are called the children of God. The afflictions, of which we spoke, we mentioned only to make thy reward the greater." After his baptism he was considered to be a new man, "a little child newly born" ( <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 22a, 47a, 48b, 97b); a new name was given him; either he was named "Abraham the son of Abraham," or the Scriptures were opened at hazard, and the first name that was read was given to him. [[Thenceforth]] he had to put behind him all his past; even his marriage ties and those of kinship no longer held good (compare <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 22a; <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 58b). </p> <p> Although he was thus juridically considered a new man, and one whose praises were sung in the Talmudical literature, he was yet on the whole looked down on as inferior to a born Jew ( <i> ''''' Ḳidd ''''' </i> . 4 7; <i> ''''' Shebhū‛ōth ''''' </i> 10 9, et al.). Rabbi Chelbo said: "Proselytes are as injurious to Israel as a scab" ( <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 47b; <i> ''''' Ḳidd ''''' </i> . 70b; compare Philippians 3:5 ). See also [[Stranger]] . </p> Literature. <p> See articles on "Proselyte" and "Ger." in <i> Eb </i> , <i> Hdb </i> , <i> Jewish Encyclopedia </i> , and <i> [[Re]] </i> ; Slevogt, <i> De proselytis Judeorum </i> , 1651; A. Bertholet, <i> Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden </i> , 1896; Schurer, <i> Hjp </i> , 1898; Huidekoper, <i> Judaism at Rome </i> , 1887; Harnack, <i> Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums </i> , 1906, English translation; Allen, "On the Meaning of proselutos in the Septuagint," <i> The Expositor </i> , 1894; A. B. Davidson, "They That Fear the Lord," <i> Expository Times </i> , 3 (1892), 491 ff. </p> | <p> ''''' pros´ḗ ''''' - ''''' lı̄t ''''' ( προσήλυτος , <i> ''''' prosḗlutos ''''' </i> , from <i> ''''' prosérchomai ''''' </i> , "I approach"): Found 4 times in the New Testament. In the Septuagint it often occurs as the translation of גּר , <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> . The Hebrew verb <i> ''''' gūr ''''' </i> means "to sojourn"; <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> accordingly means a stranger who has come to settle in the land, as distinguished on the one hand from <i> ''''' 'ezrāḥ ''''' </i> , "a homeborn" or "native," and on the other from <i> ''''' nokhrı̄ ''''' </i> or <i> ''''' ben ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' nēkhār ''''' </i> , which means a stranger who is only passing through the country. Yet it is to be noted that in 2 Chronicles 2:17 those of the native tribes still living in the land as Amorites, Hittites, etc., are also called <i> ''''' gērı̄m ''''' </i> . In two places, ( Exodus 12:19; Isaiah 14:1 ) the Septuagint uses , <i> ''''' g ''''' </i> ( <i> ''''' e ''''' </i> ) <i> ''''' iṓras ''''' </i> , which is derived from <i> ''''' gı̄yōr ''''' </i> , the Aramaic equivalent for <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> . Septuagint uses <i> ''''' pároikos ''''' </i> (the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew <i> ''''' tōshābh ''''' </i> , "a settler") for <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> when Israel or the triarchs are indicated ( Genesis 15:13; Genesis 23:4; Exodus 2:22; Exodus 18:3; Deuteronomy 23:7; 1 Chronicles 29:15; Psalm 39:12; Psalm 119:19; Jeremiah 14:8 ), and in a few other cases. In Talmudical literature <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> always stands for proselyte in the New Testament sense, i.e. a Gentile who has been converted to Judaism. Onkelos, who was himself a proselyte, always translates the word in this way. </p> 1. Ger in the Old Testament: <p> No difficulties were put in the way of those strangers who wished to settle down in the land of Israel. All strangers, the third generation of [[Egyptians]] and [[Edomites]] included, and only [[Ammonites]] and [[Moabites]] excluded, could enter "the congregation of God" without circumcision and without the obligation to keep the ceremonial law. </p> <p> 'The stranger within the gate' was free to eat meat which was prohibited to the [[Israelite]] ( Deuteronomy 14:21 ). If, however, the stranger wished to take part in the Passover, a feast permeated with national ideals, he must be circumcised. The keeping of the Sabbath and other feasts was regarded rather as a privilege than as a duty ( Exodus 23:12; Deuteronomy 16:11 , Deuteronomy 16:14 ); but according to Leviticus 16:29 the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> was obliged to keep the fast of Atonement. He was forbidden on pain of death to blaspheme ( Leviticus 24:16 ) or to offer children to [[Molech]] ( Leviticus 20:2 ). If he desired to bring a burnt offering, the same law applied to him as to the Israelites ( Leviticus 17:8; Leviticus 22:18 ). Though the law of circumcision was not forced upon the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> , it seems that the Mosaic Law endeavored to bring him nearer to the cult of Israel, not from any proselytizing motives, but in order to preserve theocracy from admixture of foreign elements, which would speedily have proved fatal to its existence. </p> <p> Though the God of Israel, when He is thought of only as such, ceases to be God; though Israel was chosen <i> before </i> all nations <i> for </i> all nations; though Israel had been again and again reminded that the Messiah would bring a blessing to all nations; and though there were instances of pagans coming to believe in Yahweh, yet it did not belong to the economy of Old Testament religion to spread the knowledge of God directly among the Gentiles (the Book of Jonah is an exception to this). There was certainly no active propagandism. Though we read in Nehemiah 10:28 of those who "separated themselves from the peoples of the lands unto the law of God" (compare Isaiah 56:3 , "the foreigner, that hath joined himself to Yahweh" - the only and exact description of a proselyte proper in the Old Testament), the spirit of exclusiveness prevailed; the doubtful elements were separated ( Ezra 4:3 ): mixed marriages were prohibited by the chiefs, and were afterward disapproved of by the people ( Ezra 9:1-15; 10; Nehemiah 13:23 ff). Direct proselytism did not begin till about a century later. </p> 2. Proselytizing: <p> The preaching of the gospel was preceded and prepared for by the dispersion of the Jews, and a world-wide propagandism of Judaism. In the 5th century Bc the Jews had a temple of their own at Syene. Alexander the Great settled 8,000 Jews in the Thebais, and Jews formed a third of the population of Alexandria. Large numbers were brought from Palestine by [[Ptolemy]] I (320 BC), and they gradually spread from Egypt along the whole [[Mediterranean]] coast of Africa. After the persecution of [[Antiochus]] [[Epiphanes]] (170 BC) they scattered themselves in every direction, and, in the words of the Sibylline [[Oracles]] (circa 160 BC), "crowded with their numbers every ocean and country." There was hardly a seaport or a commercial center in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Greece, or the Islands of the AEgean, in which Jewish communities were not to be found. Josephus ( <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , vii, 2) quotes [[Strabo]] as saying: "It is hard to find a place in the habitable earth that hath not admitted this tribe of men, and is not possessed by them." Thus, in spite of the hatred and contempt which Judaism everywhere excited, its lofty, austere and spiritual religious aspirations and conceptions became known to the pagan world and exercised a profound attraction upon many souls that were deeply dissatisfied with contemporary religions. Judaism was at that period filled with missionary zeal and aspired to world-mastery. Many books on Judaism (e.g. the Sibylline Oracles) were written anonymously by Jews in order to influence pagan readers. The synagogue, which had become the center of Jewish worship, now opened its doors widely to the pagan world (compare Acts 15:21 ), and many of the sermons delivered there were directly aimed at the conversion of pagans. The Jews began to feel that they were "a guide of the blind, a fight of them that are in darkness" ( Romans 2:19 ). </p> <p> Not only Josephus ( <i> Apion </i> , II; <i> Bj </i> , VII, iii, 3), but also Seneca ( <i> Apud </i> Aug. <i> De Civit </i> . <i> Dei </i> vi. 11), [[Dio]] [[Cassius]] (xxxvii. 17), Tacitus ( <i> Ann </i> . ii. 85; <i> Hist </i> . Nehemiah 10:5 ), Horace ( <i> Sat </i> . i. 4, 142), [[Juvenal]] ( <i> Sat. </i> xiv. 96 ff), and other Greek and Roman writers testify to the widespread effects of the proselytizing propaganda of the Jews. </p> <p> Many gladly frequented the synagogues and kept some of the Jewish laws and customs. Among those were to be found the "men who feared God," spoken of in Acts. They were so called to distinguish them from full proselytes; and it was probably for this class that tablets of warning in the temple were inscribed in Greek and Latin </p> <p> Another class kept practically all the Jewish laws and customs, but were not circumcised. Some again, though not circumcised, had their children circumcised (Juvenal <i> Sat </i> . xiv. 96 ff). Such Jewish customs as fasting, cleansings, abstaining from pork, lighting the candles on Friday evening, and keeping the Sabbath (Josephus, <i> Apion </i> , II, 29, etc.) were observed by these Gentile sympathizers. Schurer holds that there were congregations of [[Greeks]] and Romans in Asia Minor, and probably in Rome, which, though they had no connection with the synagogue, formed themselves into gatherings after the pattern of the synagogue, and observed some of the Jewish customs. Among the converts to Judaism there were probably few who were circumcised, and most of those who were circumcised submitted to the rite in order to marry Jewesses, or to enjoy the rights and privileges granted to the Jews by Syrian, [[Egyptian]] and Roman rulers (Josephus, <i> Ant. </i> , Xiv , vii, 2; XX, vii, 1; compare Xvi , vii, 6). It would appear from Christ's words ( Matthew 23:15 , "one proselyte") that the number of full proselytes was not large. Hyrcanus forced the Edomites to adopt Judaism by circumcision (129 BC); and on other occasions the same policy of propagandism by force was followed. Josephus tells an interesting story ( <i> Ant. </i> , XX, ii, 1) of the conversion of [[Queen]] Helena of [[Adiabene]] and her two sons. The conversion of the sons was due to the teaching of a merchant called Ananias, who did not insist on circumcision. Later, another Jew, [[Eliezer]] of Galilee, told the young princes that it was not enough to read the Law, but that they must keep it too, with the result that both were circumcised. From this it is evident that Jewish teachers of the Gentileconverts varied in the strictness of their teaching. </p> 3. Proselytes in the New Testament: <p> The word "proselyte" occurs 4 times in the New Testament; once in Mt ( Matthew 23:15 ), where our Lord refers to the proselytizing zeal of the Pharisees, and to the pernicious influence which they exerted on their converts; and 3 times in Acts. Proselytes were present at Pentecost ( Acts 2:10 ); Nicolas, one of the deacons appointed by the primitive church at Jerusalem, was a proselyte ( Acts 6:5 ); and after Paul had spoken in the synagogue at [[Antioch]] of Pisidia, many devout proselytes followed Paul and [[Barnabas]] ( Acts 13:43 ). It is to be noted in this last case that the proselytes are called <i> ''''' sebómenoi ''''' </i> , a word generally reserved for another class. Certain people are spoken of in Acts as <i> ''''' phoboúmenoi ''''' </i> <i> ''''' tón ''''' </i> <i> ''''' theón ''''' </i> , "fearing God" ( Acts 10:2 , Acts 10:22 , Acts 10:35; Acts 13:16 , Acts 13:26 ), and as <i> ''''' sebómenoi ''''' </i> <i> ''''' tón ''''' </i> <i> ''''' theón ''''' </i> , "reverencing God," or simply <i> ''''' sebómenoi ''''' </i> ( Acts 13:50; Acts 16:14; Acts 17:4 , Acts 17:17; Acts 18:7 ). These seem (as against Bertholet and <i> EB </i> ) to have been sympathizers with Judaism, who attended the worship of the synagogue, but were not circumcised. It was among this class that the gospel made its first converts among the Gentiles. Those who were fully proselytes were probably as fanatical opponents of Christianity as were the Jews. </p> 4. Ger in the Talmud: <p> From the old strict Pharisaic-Palestinian point of view, circumcision, with the addition of baptism and the offering of sacrifice, was indispensable (so to Paul every circumcised person was a Jew; compare Galatians 5:3 ); and thus their converts had to submit to the whole burden of the Mosaic and traditional Law. The rabbinic distinction between <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' tōshābh ''''' </i> , "a settler," and <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' cedheḳ ''''' </i> , "a proselyte of righteousness," is, according to Schurer, only theoretical, and arose at a later date ( <i> ''''' Bābhā' ''''' </i> <i> ''''' Mecı̄‛ā' ''''' </i> 5 6, 9, 12; <i> ''''' Makkōth ''''' </i> 2 3; <i> ''''' Neghā‛ı̄m ''''' </i> 3 1, et al.). </p> <p> While the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' cedheḳ ''''' </i> (or <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' ha ''''' </i> - <i> ''''' berı̄th ''''' </i> , "proselyte of the covenant") was considered as being in every respect a "perfect Israelite," the <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' tōshābh ''''' </i> (or <i> ''''' gēr ''''' </i> <i> ''''' sha‛ar ''''' </i> , "proselyte of the gate"; compare Exodus 20:10 ) only professed his faith in the God of Israel, and bound himself to the observance of the 7 Noachic precepts, abstinence from blasphemy, idolatry, homicide, fornication, robbery, eating the flesh of an animal that had died a natural death, and disobedience to (Jewish) authority ( <i> ''''' Ṣanh ''''' </i> . 56a; compare Acts 15:20 , Acts 15:29; Acts 21:25 ). He was considered more of a Gentile than a Jew. </p> <p> Three things were required for the admission of a proselyte, circumcision,. baptism, and the offering of sacrifice ( <i> ''''' Ber ''''' </i> . 47b; <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 45b, 46a, 48b, 76a; <i> ''''' 'Ābhōth ''''' </i> 57a, et al.). In the case of women only baptism and the offering of sacrifice were required; for that reason there were more women converts than men. Josephus ( <i> Bj </i> , II, xx, 2) tells how most of the women of Damascus were addicted to the Jewish religion. [[Doubt]] has been expressed as to the necessity of proselytes being baptized, since there is no mention of it by Paul or Philo or Josephus, but it is probable that a Gentile, who was unclean, would not be admitted to the temple without being cleansed. </p> <p> The proselyte was received in the following manner. He was first asked his reason for wishing to embrace Judaism. He was told that Israel was in a state of affliction; if he replied that he was aware of the fact and felt himself unworthy to share these afflictions, he was admitted. Then he received instruction in some of the "light" and "heavy" commandments, the rules concerning gleaning and tithes, and the penalties attached to the breach of the commandments. If he was willing to submit to all this, he was circumcised, and after his recovery he was immersed without delay. At this latter ceremony two "disciples of the wise" stood by to tell him more of the "light" and "heavy" commandments. When he came up after the immersion, those assembled addressed him saying: "Unto whom hast thou given thyself? Blessed art thou, thou hast given thyself to God; the world was created for the sake of Israel, and only Israelites are called the children of God. The afflictions, of which we spoke, we mentioned only to make thy reward the greater." After his baptism he was considered to be a new man, "a little child newly born" ( <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 22a, 47a, 48b, 97b); a new name was given him; either he was named "Abraham the son of Abraham," or the Scriptures were opened at hazard, and the first name that was read was given to him. [[Thenceforth]] he had to put behind him all his past; even his marriage ties and those of kinship no longer held good (compare <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 22a; <i> ''''' Ṣanhedrin ''''' </i> 58b). </p> <p> Although he was thus juridically considered a new man, and one whose praises were sung in the Talmudical literature, he was yet on the whole looked down on as inferior to a born Jew ( <i> ''''' Ḳidd ''''' </i> . 4 7; <i> ''''' Shebhū‛ōth ''''' </i> 10 9, et al.). Rabbi Chelbo said: "Proselytes are as injurious to Israel as a scab" ( <i> ''''' Yebhām ''''' </i> . 47b; <i> ''''' Ḳidd ''''' </i> . 70b; compare Philippians 3:5 ). See also [[Stranger]] . </p> Literature. <p> See articles on "Proselyte" and "Ger." in <i> Eb </i> , <i> Hdb </i> , <i> Jewish Encyclopedia </i> , and <i> [[Re]] </i> ; Slevogt, <i> De proselytis Judeorum </i> , 1651; A. Bertholet, <i> Die Stellung der Israeliten und der Juden zu den Fremden </i> , 1896; Schurer, <i> Hjp </i> , 1898; Huidekoper, <i> Judaism at Rome </i> , 1887; Harnack, <i> Mission und Ausbreitung des Christentums </i> , 1906, English translation; Allen, "On the Meaning of proselutos in the Septuagint," <i> The Expositor </i> , 1894; A. B. Davidson, "They That Fear the Lord," <i> Expository Times </i> , 3 (1892), 491 ff. </p> | ||
== Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature <ref name="term_16447" /> == | == Kitto's Popular Cyclopedia of Biblial Literature <ref name="term_16447" /> == | ||
