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== Fausset's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_36352" /> == | == Fausset's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_36352" /> == | ||
<p> (See [[Joel]] .) The | <p> (See [[Joel]] .) The '''''Arbeh''''' is the migratory devastating locust. The '''''Gowb''''' , "grasshopper," is a species of '''''Gryllus''''' , with voracity like the migratory locust, but small in size (Smith's Bible Dictionary makes '''''Gowb''''' the nympha state of the locust): Amos 7:1. Nahum 3:17; "the great grasshoppers ''(Hebrew: "The Locust Of Locusts")'' which camp in the hedges in the cold day, but when the sun ariseth flee away," etc. The locust lays its eggs under shelter of hedges; they are hatched by the sun's heat in the spring; by June the young are so matured as to be able to flee away. So [[Assyria]] shall disappear. The '''''Chagab''''' is another of the '''''Gryllidae''''' ( Numbers 13:33; Ecclesiastes 12:5); Isaiah 40:22, "grasshopper," thus '''''Gowb''''' = '''''Chagab''''' . They all are '''''Οrthoptera''''' with four wings; jaws strong and formed for biting. </p> <p> The hind limbs of the '''''Saltatoria''''' are largely developed, the thighs long and thick, the shanks still longer; thus "they have legs (the '''''Tibiae''''' , so placed) above their feet to leap withal upon the earth" ( Leviticus 11:21). The migratory locust is two inches and a half long, the forewings brown and black, and the thorax crested. Their devastations are vividly depicted ( Exodus 10:15; Joel 2:3; Joel 2:5; Joel 2:10). The ''''''Arbeh''''' and the '''''Sol'Am''''' ("the bald, smooth headed, locust," nowhere else mentioned; some of the winged '''''Orthopterous Saltatoria''''' ; the Hebrew is related to the Egyptian for "locust") and the grasshopper ( '''''Chagab''''' ) might be eaten (Leviticus 11). They are generally thrown alive into boiling water with salt, the wings, legs, and heads being pulled off; the bodies taste like shrimps, and are roasted, baked, fried in butter, ground, pounded, and mixed with flour for cakes, or smoked for after rise. </p> <p> For "beetle" ( Leviticus 11:22) translate " '''''Chargowl''''' ," some kind of the locust or grasshopper " '''''Saltatoria''''' ", from the Arabic '''''Hardjal''''' "to leap." The '''''Tsaltsal''''' occurs only in Deuteronomy 28:42, the locust that makes a shrill noise, from a root "to sound" (Gesenius), very destructive: one of the Cicadae. The "palmerworm" ( '''''Gazam''''' ) is probably the larva state of the locust (Gesenius): Amos 4:9; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25. Septuagint translated "caterpillar" by which KJV translated '''''Chaciyl''''' , which is rather one of the winged '''''Gryllidae''''' ("the consuming locust".) '''''Gazam''''' is the gnawing locust, ''''''Arbeh''''' the swarming locust, '''''Yeleq''''' the licking locust (in Jeremiah 51:27 "the rough caterpillars" refer to the spinous nature of the tibiae) which is translated "caterpillar" also in Psalms 105:34, elsewhere "cankerworm." </p> <p> Locusts appear in swarms extending many miles and darkening the sunlight ( Joel 2:10); like horses, so that the Italians call them " '''''Cavaletta''''' ", "little horse" ( Joel 2:4-5; Revelation 9:7; Revelation 9:9); with a fearful noise; having no king ( Proverbs 30:27); impossible to withstand in their progress; entering dwellings ( Exodus 10:6; Joel 2:8-10); not flying by night ( Nahum 3:17; Exodus 10:13 "morning".) Birds, as the locust bird, which is thought to be the rose-colored starling, devour them; the sea destroys more ( Exodus 10:19). Their decaying bodies taint the air ( Joel 2:20). [[Barrow]] (Travels, 257) says the stench of the bodies on the shore was smelt 150 miles off. Joel's phrase "the northern army" implies that he means human invaders from the N., the point of entrance to the [[Assyrians]] and Babylonians. </p> <p> Reichardt (Jewish Intelligence, Feb., 1867) notices the Hebrew letters of '''''Gazam''''' = 50, exactly the number of years that the [[Chaldees]] ruled the [[Jews]] from the temple's destruction by Nebuchadnezzar, 588 B.C., to Babylon's overthrow by Cyrus, 538 B.C. ''''''Arbeh''''' = 208, the period of Persia's dominion over the Jews from 538 to 330 B.C., when [[Alexander]] overthrew Persia. '''''Yeleq''''' = 140, the period of Greek rule over the Jews from 330 to 190 B.C., when [[Antiochus]] Epiphanes, Israel's persecutor, was overcome by the Roman L. Scipio. '''''Chaciyl''''' = 108, the exact number of years between 38 B.C., when Rome placed the Idumean Herod on the throne, and A.D. 70, when the Romans destroyed [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Jewish]] nationality. Thus, the four successive world empires and the calamities which they inflicted on [[Israel]] are the truths shadowed forth by the four kinds of locusts in Joel. </p> | ||
== Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_52453" /> == | == Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible <ref name="term_52453" /> == | ||
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== Smith's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_73598" /> == | == Smith's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_73598" /> == | ||
<p> '''Locust.''' A well-known insect, of the grasshopper family, which commits terrible ravages on vegetation in the countries which it visits. "The common brown locust is about three inches in length, and the general form is that of a grasshopper." </p> <p> The most destructive of the locust tribe that occur in the Bible lands are the '''Edipoda migratoria''' and the '''Acridium peregrinum''' ; and as both these species occur in Syria and Arabia, etc., it is most probable that one or other is denoted in those passages which speak of the dreadful devastations committed by these insects. </p> <p> Locusts occur in great numbers, and sometimes obscure the sun. Exodus 10:15; Judges 6:5; Jeremiah 46:23. Their voracity is alluded to in Exodus 10:12; Exodus 10:15; Joel 1:4; Joel 1:7. They make a fearful noise in their flight. Joel 2:5; Revelation 9:9. Their irresistible progress is referred to in Joel 2:8-9. They enter dwellings, and devour even the woodwork of houses. Exodus 10:6; Joel 2:9-10. They do not fly in the night. Nahum 3:17. The sea destroys the greater number. Exodus 10:19; Joel 2:20. </p> <p> The flight of locusts is thus described by M. Olivier (Voyage dans l' [[Empire]] Othoman, ii. 424): "With the burning south winds (of Syria), there comes, from the interior of Arabia and from the most southern parts of Persia, clouds of locusts, ('''Acridium peregrinum''' ), whose ravages to these countries are as grievous and nearly as sudden as those of the heaviest hail in Europe. </p> <p> We witnessed them twice. It is difficult to express the effect produced on us, by the sight of the whole atmosphere filled on all sides and to a great height, by an innumerable quantity of these insects, whose flight was slow and uniform, and whose noise resembled that of rain: the sky was darkened, and the light of the sun considerably weakened. </p> <p> In a moment, the terraces of the houses, the streets, and all the fields were covered by these insects, and in two days, they had nearly devoured all the leaves of the plants. Happily, they lived but a short time, and seemed to have migrated only to reproduce themselves and die; in fact, nearly all those we saw the next day had paired, and the day following, the fields were covered with their dead bodies." </p> <p> "Locusts have been used as food from the earliest times. Herodotus speaks of a [[Libyan]] nation, who dried their locusts in the sun and ate them with milk. The more common method, however, was to pull off the legs and wings and roast them in an iron dish. Then they thrown into a bag, and eaten like parched corn, each one taking a handful, when he chose." - Biblical Treasury. </p> <p> Sometimes the insects are ground and pounded, and then mixed with flour and water and made into cakes, or they are salted and then eaten; sometimes smoked; sometimes boiled or roasted; again, stewed, or fried in butter. </p> | <p> '''Locust.''' A well-known insect, of the grasshopper family, which commits terrible ravages on vegetation in the countries which it visits. "The common brown locust is about three inches in length, and the general form is that of a grasshopper." </p> <p> The most destructive of the locust tribe that occur in the Bible lands are the '''Edipoda migratoria''' and the '''Acridium peregrinum''' ; and as both these species occur in Syria and Arabia, etc., it is most probable that one or other is denoted in those passages which speak of the dreadful devastations committed by these insects. </p> <p> Locusts occur in great numbers, and sometimes obscure the sun. Exodus 10:15; Judges 6:5; Jeremiah 46:23. Their voracity is alluded to in Exodus 10:12; Exodus 10:15; Joel 1:4; Joel 1:7. They make a fearful noise in their flight. Joel 2:5; Revelation 9:9. Their irresistible progress is referred to in Joel 2:8-9. They enter dwellings, and devour even the woodwork of houses. Exodus 10:6; Joel 2:9-10. They do not fly in the night. Nahum 3:17. The sea destroys the greater number. Exodus 10:19; Joel 2:20. </p> <p> The flight of locusts is thus described by M. Olivier (Voyage dans l' [[Empire]] Othoman, ii. 424): "With the burning south winds (of Syria), there comes, from the interior of Arabia and from the most southern parts of Persia, clouds of locusts, ( '''Acridium peregrinum''' ), whose ravages to these countries are as grievous and nearly as sudden as those of the heaviest hail in Europe. </p> <p> We witnessed them twice. It is difficult to express the effect produced on us, by the sight of the whole atmosphere filled on all sides and to a great height, by an innumerable quantity of these insects, whose flight was slow and uniform, and whose noise resembled that of rain: the sky was darkened, and the light of the sun considerably weakened. </p> <p> In a moment, the terraces of the houses, the streets, and all the fields were covered by these insects, and in two days, they had nearly devoured all the leaves of the plants. Happily, they lived but a short time, and seemed to have migrated only to reproduce themselves and die; in fact, nearly all those we saw the next day had paired, and the day following, the fields were covered with their dead bodies." </p> <p> "Locusts have been used as food from the earliest times. Herodotus speaks of a [[Libyan]] nation, who dried their locusts in the sun and ate them with milk. The more common method, however, was to pull off the legs and wings and roast them in an iron dish. Then they thrown into a bag, and eaten like parched corn, each one taking a handful, when he chose." - Biblical Treasury. </p> <p> Sometimes the insects are ground and pounded, and then mixed with flour and water and made into cakes, or they are salted and then eaten; sometimes smoked; sometimes boiled or roasted; again, stewed, or fried in butter. </p> | ||
== Easton's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_32391" /> == | == Easton's Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_32391" /> == | ||
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== Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78279" /> == | == Vine's Expository Dictionary of NT Words <ref name="term_78279" /> == | ||
<div> '''1: | <div> '''1: '''''Ἀκρίς''''' ''' (Strong'S #200 — Noun [[Feminine]] — akris — ak-rece' ) </div> <p> occurs in Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6 , of the animals themselves, as forming part of the diet of John the Baptist; they are used as food; the Arabs stew them with butter, after removing the head, legs and wings. In Revelation 9:3,7 , they appear as monsters representing satanic agencies, let loose by [[Divine]] judgments inflicted upon men for five months, the time of the natural life of the "locust." For the character of the judgment see the whole passage. </p> | ||
== Holman Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_41935" /> == | == Holman Bible Dictionary <ref name="term_41935" /> == | ||
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== International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_5804" /> == | == International Standard Bible Encyclopedia <ref name="term_5804" /> == | ||
<p> ''''' lō´kust ''''' : The translation of a large number of Hebrew and Greek words: </p> 1. Names: <p> (1) אתבּה , <i> ''''' 'arbeh ''''' </i> from the root רבה , <i> ''''' rābhāh ''''' </i> , "to increase" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' raba' ''''' </i> , "to increase"). (2) סלעם , <i> ''''' sāl'ām ''''' </i> , from obsolete root סלעם , <i> ''''' ṣal'am ''''' </i> , "to swallow down," "to consume." (3) חרגּל , <i> ''''' ḥargōl ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥarjal ''''' </i> , "to run to the right or left," <i> ''''' ḥarjalat ''''' </i> , "a company of horses" or "a swarm of locusts," <i> ''''' ḥarjawan ''''' </i> , a kind of locust). (4) חגב , <i> ''''' ḥāghābh ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥajab ''''' </i> , "to hide," "to cover"). (5) גּזם , <i> ''''' gāzām ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' jazum ''''' </i> , " to cut off") (6) ילק , <i> ''''' yeleḳ ''''' </i> , from the root לקק , <i> ''''' lāḳaḳ ''''' </i> "to lick" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' laḳlaḳ ''''' </i> , "to dart out the tongue" (used of a serpent)). (7) חסיל , <i> ''''' ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> , from the root חסל , <i> ''''' ḥaṣāl ''''' </i> , "to devour" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥauṣal ''''' </i> , "crop" (of a bird)). (8) גּוב , <i> ''''' gōbh ''''' </i> , from the obsolete root גּבה , <i> ''''' gābhāh ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' jâbı̂ ''''' </i> , "locust," from the root <i> ''''' jaba' ''''' </i> , "to come out of a hole"). (9) גּב , <i> ''''' gēbh ''''' </i> , from same root. (10) צלצל , <i> ''''' celācal ''''' </i> from root צלל , <i> ''''' cālal ''''' </i> (onomatopoetic), "to tinkle," "to ring" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ṣall ''''' </i> , "to give a ringing sound" (used of a horse's bit); compare also Arabic <i> ''''' ṭann ''''' </i> , used of the sound of a drum or piece of metal, also of the humming of flies). (11) ἀκρίς , <i> ''''' akrı́s ''''' </i> (genitive ἀκρίδος , <i> ''''' akrı́dos ''''' </i> ; diminutive ἀκρίδιον , <i> ''''' akrı́dion ''''' </i> , whence <i> Acridium </i> , a genus of locusts). </p> 2. Identifications: <p> (1), (2), (3) and (4) constitute the list of clean insects in Leviticus 11:21 f, characterized as "winged creeping things that go upon all fours, which have legs above their feet, wherewith to leap upon the earth." This manifestly refers to jumping insects of the order <i> Orthoptera </i> , such as locusts, grasshoppers and crickets, and is in contrast to the unclean "winged creeping things that go upon all fours," which may be taken to denote running <i> Orthoptera </i> , such as cockroaches, mole-crickets and ear-wigs, as well as insects of other orders. </p> <p> <i> ''''' 'Arbeh ''''' </i> (1) is uniformly translated "locust" in the Revised Version (British and American). the King James Version has usually "locust," but "grasshopper" in Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12; Job 39:20; Jeremiah 46:23 . Septuagint has usually ἀκρίς , <i> '''''akrı́s''''' </i> , "locust"; but has βροῦχος , <i> '''''broúchos''''' </i> , "wingless locust," in Leviticus 11:22; 1 Kings 8:37 ( <i> '''''akris''''' </i> in the parallel passage, 2 Chronicles 6:28 ); Nahum 3:15; and ἀττέλεβος , <i> '''''attélebos''''' </i> , "wingless locust," in Nahum 3:17 . <i> ''''''Arbeh''''' </i> occurs (Ex 10:4-19) in the account of the plague of locusts; in the phrase "as locusts for multitude" ( Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12 ); "more than the locusts ... innumerable" ( Jeremiah 46:23 ); </p> <p> "The locusts have no king, </p> <p> Yet go they forth all of them by bands" ( Proverbs 30:27 ). </p> <p> <i> ''''' 'Arbeh ''''' </i> is referred to as a plague in Deuteronomy 28:38; 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chronicles 6:28; Psalm 78:46; in Joel and in Nahum. These references, together with the fact that it is the most used word, occurring 24 times, warrant us in assuming it to be one of the swarming species, i.e. <i> Pachtylus </i> <i> migratorius </i> or <i> Schistocerca </i> <i> peregrina </i> , which from time to time devastate large regions in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Ṣāl‛ām ''''' </i> (2), English Versions of the Bible "bald locust," occurs only in Leviticus 11:22 . According to Tristram, <i> NBH </i> , the name "bald locust" was given because it is said in the [[Talmud]] to have a smooth head. It has been thought to be one of the genus <i> Tryxalis </i> ( <i> T. unguiculata </i> or <i> T. nasuta </i> ), in which the head is greatly elongated. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Ḥargōl ''''' </i> (3), the King James Version "beetle," the Revised Version (British and American) "cricket," being one of the leaping insects, cannot be a beetle. It might be a cricket, but comparison with the Arabic (see <i> supra </i> ) favors a locust of some sort. The word occurs only in Leviticus 11:22 . See [[Beetle]] . </p> <p> <i> ''''' Hāghābh ''''' </i> (4) is one of the clean leaping insects of Leviticus 11:22 (English Versions of the Bible "grasshopper"). The word occurs in four other places, nowhere coupled with the name of another insect. In the report of the spies ( Numbers 13:33 ), we have the expression, "We were in our own sight as grasshoppers"; in Ecclesiastes 12:5 , "The grasshopper shall be a burden"; in Isaiah 40:22 , "It is he that sitteth above the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers." These three passages distinctly favor the rendering "grasshopper" of the English Versions of the Bible. In the remaining passage ( 2 Chronicles 7:13 ), "...if I command the locust (English Versions) to devour the land," the migratory locust seems to be referred to. [[Doubtless]] this as well as other words was loosely used. In English there is no sharp distinction between the words "grasshopper" and "locust." </p> <p> The migratory locusts belong to the family <i> Acridiidae </i> , distinguished by short, thick antennae, and by having the organs of hearing at the base of the abdomen. The insects of the family <i> Locustidae </i> are commonly called "grasshoppers," but the same name is applied to those <i> Acridiidae </i> which are not found in swarms. The <i> Locustidae </i> have long, thin antennae, organs of hearing on the tibiae of the front legs, and the females have long ovipositors. It may be noted that the insect known in [[America]] as the seventeen-year locust, which occasionally does extensive damage to trees by laying its eggs in the twigs, is a totally different insect, being a Cicada of the order <i> Rhynchota </i> . [[Species]] of <i> Cicada </i> are found in Palestine, but are not considered harmful. </p> <p> The Book of Joel is largely occupied with the description of a plague of locusts. Commentators differ as to whether it should be interpreted literally or allegorically (see [[Joel]] ). Four names <i> ''''' 'arbeh ''''' </i> (1), <i> ''''' gāzām ''''' </i> (5), <i> ''''' yeleḳ ''''' </i> (6) and <i> ''''' ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> (7), are found in Joel 1:4 and again in Joel 2:25 . </p> <p> For the etymology of these names, see 1 above. <i> ''''' Gāzām ''''' </i> ( Amos 4:9; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25 ) is in the Revised Version (British and American) uniformly translated "palmer-worm" Septuagint κάμπη , <i> '''''kámpē''''' </i> , "caterpillar"). <i> '''''Ḥāṣı̄l''''' </i> in the Revised Version (British and American) ( 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chronicles 6:28; Psalm 78:46; Isaiah 23:4; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25 ) is uniformly translated "caterpillar." The Septuagint has indifferently <i> '''''brouchos''''' </i> , "wingless locust," and ἐρυσίβη , <i> '''''erusı́bē''''' </i> , "rust" (of wheat). <i> '''''Yeleḳ''''' </i> ( Psalm 105:34; Jeremiah 51:14 , Jeremiah 51:27; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25; Nahum 3:15 , Nahum 3:16 ) is everywhere "canker-worm" in the Revised Version (British and American), except in Psalm 105:34 , where the American Standard Revised Version has "grasshopper." the King James Version has "caterpillar" in Psalms and Jeremiah and "canker-worm" in Joel and Nahum. Septuagint has indifferently <i> '''''akris''''' </i> and <i> '''''brouchos''''' </i> . "Palmerworm" and "canker-worm" are both Old English terms for caterpillars, which are strictly the larvae of lepidopterous insects, i.e. butterflies and moths. </p> <p> While these four words occur in Joel 1:4 and Joel 2:25 , a consideration of the book as a whole does not show that the ravages of four different insect pests are referred to, but rather a single one, and that the locust. These words may therefore be regarded as different names of the locust, referring to different stages of development of the insect. It is true that the words do not occur in quite the same order in 14 and in Joel 2:25 , but while the former verse indicates a definite succession, the latter does not. If, therefore, all four words refer to the locust, "palmer-worm," "canker-worm," "caterpillar" and the Septuagint <i> '''''erusibē''''' </i> , "rust," are obviously inappropriate. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Gōbh ''''' </i> (8) is found in the difficult passage ( Amos 7:1 ), "...He formed locusts (the King James Version "grasshoppers," the King James Version margin "green worms," Septuagint <i> '''''akris''''' </i> ) in the beginning of the shooting up of the latter growth"; and ( Nahum 3:17 ) in "...thy marshals (are) as the swarms of grasshoppers (Hebrew <i> '''''gōbh''''' </i> <i> '''''gōbhay''''' </i> ; the King James Version "great grasshoppers"), which encamp in the hedges in the cold day, but when the sun ariseth they flee away, and their place is not known where they are." The related <i> '''''gēbh''''' </i> (9) occurs but once, in Isaiah 33:4 , also a disputed passage, "And your spoil shall be gathered as the caterpillar ( <i> '''''ḥāṣı̄l''''' </i> ) gathereth: as locusts ( <i> '''''gēbhı̄m''''' </i> ) leap shall men leap upon it." It is impossible to determine what species is meant, but some kind of locust or grasshopper fits any of these passages. </p> <p> In Deuteronomy 28:42 , "All thy trees and the fruit of thy ground shall the locust (English Versions of the Bible) possess," we have (10) <i> '''''celācal''''' </i> , Septuagint <i> '''''erusibē''''' </i> ). The same word is translated in 2 Samuel 6:5 and Psalm 150:5 <i> bis </i> "cymbals," in Job 41:7 "fish-spears," and in Isaiah 18:1 "rustling." As stated in 1, above, it is an onomatopoetic word, and in Deuteronomy 28:42 may well refer to the noise of the wings of a flight of locusts. </p> <p> In the New [[Testament]] we have (11) <i> ''''' akris ''''' </i> , "locust," the food of John the Baptist ( Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6 ); the same word is used figuratively in Revelation 9:3 , Revelation 9:1; and also in the [[Apocrypha]] (Judith 2:20; The Wisdom of Solomon 16:9; and see 2 [[Esdras]] 4:24). </p> 3. Habits: <p> The swarms of locusts are composed of countless individuals. The statements sometimes made that they darken the sky must not be taken too literally. They do not produce darkness, but their effect may be like that of a thick cloud. Their movements are largely determined by the wind, and while fields that are in their path may be laid waste, others at one side may not be affected. It is possible by vigorous waving to keep a given tract clear of them, but usually enough men cannot be found to protect the fields from their ravages. </p> <p> Large birds have been known to pass through a flight of locusts with open mouths, filling their crops with the insects. Tristram, <i> Nhb </i> , relates how he saw the fishes in the Jordan enjoying a similar feast, as the locusts fell into the stream. The female locust, by means of the ovipositor at the end of her abdomen, digs a hole in the ground, and deposits in it a mass of eggs, which are cemented together with a glandular secretion. An effective way of dealing with the locusts is to gather and destroy these egg-masses, and it is customary for the local governments to offer a substantial reward for a measure of eggs. The young before they can fly are frequently swept into pits or ditches dug for the purpose and are burned. </p> <p> The young are of the same general shape as the adult insects, differing in being small, black and wingless. The three distinct stages in the metamorphosis of butterflies and others of the higher insects are not to be distinguished in locusts. They molt about six times, emerging from each molt larger than before. At first there are no wings. After several molts, small and useless wings are found, but it is only after the last molt that the insects are able to fly. In the early molts the tiny black nymphs are found in patches on the ground, hopping out of the way when disturbed. Later they run, until they are able to fly. </p> <p> In all stages they are destructive to vegetation. Some remarkable pictures of their ravages are found in Joel 1:6 , Joel 1:7 , "For a nation is come up upon my land, strong, and without number; his teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the jaw-teeth of a lioness. He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my figtree: he hath made it clean bare, and cast it away; the branches thereof are made white" (see also Joel 2:2-9 , Joel 2:20 ). </p> 4. Figurative: <p> Locusts are instruments of the wrath of God ( Exodus 10:4-19; Deuteronomy 28:38 , Deuteronomy 28:42; 2 Chronicles 7:13; Psalm 78:46; Psalm 105:34; Nahum 3:15-17; The Wisdom of Solomon 16:9; Revelation 9:3 ); they typify an invading army ( Jeremiah 51:14 , Jeremiah 51:27 ); they are compared with horses ( Joel 2:4; Revelation 9:7 ); in Job 39:20 , [[Yahweh]] says of the horse: "Hast thou made him to leap as a locust?" the King James Version "Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper?" Locusts are among the "four things which are little upon the earth, but ... are exceeding wise" ( Proverbs 30:27 ). Like the stars and sands of the sea, locusts are a type of that which cannot be numbered ( Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12; Jeremiah 46:23; [[Judith]] 2:20). Grasshoppers are a symbol of insignificance ( Numbers 13:33; Ecclesiastes 12:5; Isaiah 40:22; 2 Esdras 4:24). </p> 5. Locusts as Food: <p> The Arabs prepare for food the thorax of the locust, which contains the great wing muscles. They pull off the head, which as it comes away brings with it a mass of the viscera, and they remove the abdomen (or "tail"), the legs and the wings. The thoraxes, if not at once eaten, are dried and put away as a store of food for a lean season. The idea of feeding upon locusts when prepared in this way should not be so repellent as the thought of eating the whole insect. In the light of this it is not incredible that the food of John the Baptist should have been "locusts and wild honey" ( Matthew 3:4 ). See [[Insects]] . </p> | <p> ''''' lō´kust ''''' : The translation of a large number of Hebrew and Greek words: </p> 1. Names: <p> (1) אתבּה , <i> ''''' 'arbeh ''''' </i> from the root רבה , <i> ''''' rābhāh ''''' </i> , "to increase" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' raba' ''''' </i> , "to increase"). (2) סלעם , <i> ''''' sāl'ām ''''' </i> , from obsolete root סלעם , <i> ''''' ṣal'am ''''' </i> , "to swallow down," "to consume." (3) חרגּל , <i> ''''' ḥargōl ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥarjal ''''' </i> , "to run to the right or left," <i> ''''' ḥarjalat ''''' </i> , "a company of horses" or "a swarm of locusts," <i> ''''' ḥarjawan ''''' </i> , a kind of locust). (4) חגב , <i> ''''' ḥāghābh ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥajab ''''' </i> , "to hide," "to cover"). (5) גּזם , <i> ''''' gāzām ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' jazum ''''' </i> , " to cut off") (6) ילק , <i> ''''' yeleḳ ''''' </i> , from the root לקק , <i> ''''' lāḳaḳ ''''' </i> "to lick" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' laḳlaḳ ''''' </i> , "to dart out the tongue" (used of a serpent)). (7) חסיל , <i> ''''' ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> , from the root חסל , <i> ''''' ḥaṣāl ''''' </i> , "to devour" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ḥauṣal ''''' </i> , "crop" (of a bird)). (8) גּוב , <i> ''''' gōbh ''''' </i> , from the obsolete root גּבה , <i> ''''' gābhāh ''''' </i> (compare Arabic <i> ''''' jâbı̂ ''''' </i> , "locust," from the root <i> ''''' jaba' ''''' </i> , "to come out of a hole"). (9) גּב , <i> ''''' gēbh ''''' </i> , from same root. (10) צלצל , <i> ''''' celācal ''''' </i> from root צלל , <i> ''''' cālal ''''' </i> (onomatopoetic), "to tinkle," "to ring" (compare Arabic <i> ''''' ṣall ''''' </i> , "to give a ringing sound" (used of a horse's bit); compare also Arabic <i> ''''' ṭann ''''' </i> , used of the sound of a drum or piece of metal, also of the humming of flies). (11) ἀκρίς , <i> ''''' akrı́s ''''' </i> (genitive ἀκρίδος , <i> ''''' akrı́dos ''''' </i> ; diminutive ἀκρίδιον , <i> ''''' akrı́dion ''''' </i> , whence <i> Acridium </i> , a genus of locusts). </p> 2. Identifications: <p> (1), (2), (3) and (4) constitute the list of clean insects in Leviticus 11:21 f, characterized as "winged creeping things that go upon all fours, which have legs above their feet, wherewith to leap upon the earth." This manifestly refers to jumping insects of the order <i> Orthoptera </i> , such as locusts, grasshoppers and crickets, and is in contrast to the unclean "winged creeping things that go upon all fours," which may be taken to denote running <i> Orthoptera </i> , such as cockroaches, mole-crickets and ear-wigs, as well as insects of other orders. </p> <p> <i> ''''' 'Arbeh ''''' </i> (1) is uniformly translated "locust" in the Revised Version (British and American). the King James Version has usually "locust," but "grasshopper" in Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12; Job 39:20; Jeremiah 46:23 . Septuagint has usually ἀκρίς , <i> ''''' akrı́s ''''' </i> , "locust"; but has βροῦχος , <i> ''''' broúchos ''''' </i> , "wingless locust," in Leviticus 11:22; 1 Kings 8:37 ( <i> ''''' akris ''''' </i> in the parallel passage, 2 Chronicles 6:28 ); Nahum 3:15; and ἀττέλεβος , <i> ''''' attélebos ''''' </i> , "wingless locust," in Nahum 3:17 . <i> ''''' 'Arbeh ''''' </i> occurs (Ex 10:4-19) in the account of the plague of locusts; in the phrase "as locusts for multitude" ( Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12 ); "more than the locusts ... innumerable" ( Jeremiah 46:23 ); </p> <p> "The locusts have no king, </p> <p> Yet go they forth all of them by bands" ( Proverbs 30:27 ). </p> <p> <i> ''''' 'Arbeh ''''' </i> is referred to as a plague in Deuteronomy 28:38; 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chronicles 6:28; Psalm 78:46; in Joel and in Nahum. These references, together with the fact that it is the most used word, occurring 24 times, warrant us in assuming it to be one of the swarming species, i.e. <i> Pachtylus </i> <i> migratorius </i> or <i> Schistocerca </i> <i> peregrina </i> , which from time to time devastate large regions in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Ṣāl‛ām ''''' </i> (2), English Versions of the Bible "bald locust," occurs only in Leviticus 11:22 . According to Tristram, <i> NBH </i> , the name "bald locust" was given because it is said in the [[Talmud]] to have a smooth head. It has been thought to be one of the genus <i> Tryxalis </i> ( <i> T. unguiculata </i> or <i> T. nasuta </i> ), in which the head is greatly elongated. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Ḥargōl ''''' </i> (3), the King James Version "beetle," the Revised Version (British and American) "cricket," being one of the leaping insects, cannot be a beetle. It might be a cricket, but comparison with the Arabic (see <i> supra </i> ) favors a locust of some sort. The word occurs only in Leviticus 11:22 . See [[Beetle]] . </p> <p> <i> ''''' Hāghābh ''''' </i> (4) is one of the clean leaping insects of Leviticus 11:22 (English Versions of the Bible "grasshopper"). The word occurs in four other places, nowhere coupled with the name of another insect. In the report of the spies ( Numbers 13:33 ), we have the expression, "We were in our own sight as grasshoppers"; in Ecclesiastes 12:5 , "The grasshopper shall be a burden"; in Isaiah 40:22 , "It is he that sitteth above the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers." These three passages distinctly favor the rendering "grasshopper" of the English Versions of the Bible. In the remaining passage ( 2 Chronicles 7:13 ), "...if I command the locust (English Versions) to devour the land," the migratory locust seems to be referred to. [[Doubtless]] this as well as other words was loosely used. In English there is no sharp distinction between the words "grasshopper" and "locust." </p> <p> The migratory locusts belong to the family <i> Acridiidae </i> , distinguished by short, thick antennae, and by having the organs of hearing at the base of the abdomen. The insects of the family <i> Locustidae </i> are commonly called "grasshoppers," but the same name is applied to those <i> Acridiidae </i> which are not found in swarms. The <i> Locustidae </i> have long, thin antennae, organs of hearing on the tibiae of the front legs, and the females have long ovipositors. It may be noted that the insect known in [[America]] as the seventeen-year locust, which occasionally does extensive damage to trees by laying its eggs in the twigs, is a totally different insect, being a Cicada of the order <i> Rhynchota </i> . [[Species]] of <i> Cicada </i> are found in Palestine, but are not considered harmful. </p> <p> The Book of Joel is largely occupied with the description of a plague of locusts. Commentators differ as to whether it should be interpreted literally or allegorically (see [[Joel]] ). Four names <i> ''''' 'arbeh ''''' </i> (1), <i> ''''' gāzām ''''' </i> (5), <i> ''''' yeleḳ ''''' </i> (6) and <i> ''''' ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> (7), are found in Joel 1:4 and again in Joel 2:25 . </p> <p> For the etymology of these names, see 1 above. <i> ''''' Gāzām ''''' </i> ( Amos 4:9; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25 ) is in the Revised Version (British and American) uniformly translated "palmer-worm" Septuagint κάμπη , <i> ''''' kámpē ''''' </i> , "caterpillar"). <i> ''''' Ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> in the Revised Version (British and American) ( 1 Kings 8:37; 2 Chronicles 6:28; Psalm 78:46; Isaiah 23:4; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25 ) is uniformly translated "caterpillar." The Septuagint has indifferently <i> ''''' brouchos ''''' </i> , "wingless locust," and ἐρυσίβη , <i> ''''' erusı́bē ''''' </i> , "rust" (of wheat). <i> ''''' Yeleḳ ''''' </i> ( Psalm 105:34; Jeremiah 51:14 , Jeremiah 51:27; Joel 1:4; Joel 2:25; Nahum 3:15 , Nahum 3:16 ) is everywhere "canker-worm" in the Revised Version (British and American), except in Psalm 105:34 , where the American Standard Revised Version has "grasshopper." the King James Version has "caterpillar" in Psalms and Jeremiah and "canker-worm" in Joel and Nahum. Septuagint has indifferently <i> ''''' akris ''''' </i> and <i> ''''' brouchos ''''' </i> . "Palmerworm" and "canker-worm" are both Old English terms for caterpillars, which are strictly the larvae of lepidopterous insects, i.e. butterflies and moths. </p> <p> While these four words occur in Joel 1:4 and Joel 2:25 , a consideration of the book as a whole does not show that the ravages of four different insect pests are referred to, but rather a single one, and that the locust. These words may therefore be regarded as different names of the locust, referring to different stages of development of the insect. It is true that the words do not occur in quite the same order in 14 and in Joel 2:25 , but while the former verse indicates a definite succession, the latter does not. If, therefore, all four words refer to the locust, "palmer-worm," "canker-worm," "caterpillar" and the Septuagint <i> ''''' erusibē ''''' </i> , "rust," are obviously inappropriate. </p> <p> <i> ''''' Gōbh ''''' </i> (8) is found in the difficult passage ( Amos 7:1 ), "...He formed locusts (the King James Version "grasshoppers," the King James Version margin "green worms," Septuagint <i> ''''' akris ''''' </i> ) in the beginning of the shooting up of the latter growth"; and ( Nahum 3:17 ) in "...thy marshals (are) as the swarms of grasshoppers (Hebrew <i> ''''' gōbh ''''' </i> <i> ''''' gōbhay ''''' </i> ; the King James Version "great grasshoppers"), which encamp in the hedges in the cold day, but when the sun ariseth they flee away, and their place is not known where they are." The related <i> ''''' gēbh ''''' </i> (9) occurs but once, in Isaiah 33:4 , also a disputed passage, "And your spoil shall be gathered as the caterpillar ( <i> ''''' ḥāṣı̄l ''''' </i> ) gathereth: as locusts ( <i> ''''' gēbhı̄m ''''' </i> ) leap shall men leap upon it." It is impossible to determine what species is meant, but some kind of locust or grasshopper fits any of these passages. </p> <p> In Deuteronomy 28:42 , "All thy trees and the fruit of thy ground shall the locust (English Versions of the Bible) possess," we have (10) <i> ''''' celācal ''''' </i> , Septuagint <i> ''''' erusibē ''''' </i> ). The same word is translated in 2 Samuel 6:5 and Psalm 150:5 <i> bis </i> "cymbals," in Job 41:7 "fish-spears," and in Isaiah 18:1 "rustling." As stated in 1, above, it is an onomatopoetic word, and in Deuteronomy 28:42 may well refer to the noise of the wings of a flight of locusts. </p> <p> In the New [[Testament]] we have (11) <i> ''''' akris ''''' </i> , "locust," the food of John the Baptist ( Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6 ); the same word is used figuratively in Revelation 9:3 , Revelation 9:1; and also in the [[Apocrypha]] (Judith 2:20; The Wisdom of Solomon 16:9; and see 2 [[Esdras]] 4:24). </p> 3. Habits: <p> The swarms of locusts are composed of countless individuals. The statements sometimes made that they darken the sky must not be taken too literally. They do not produce darkness, but their effect may be like that of a thick cloud. Their movements are largely determined by the wind, and while fields that are in their path may be laid waste, others at one side may not be affected. It is possible by vigorous waving to keep a given tract clear of them, but usually enough men cannot be found to protect the fields from their ravages. </p> <p> Large birds have been known to pass through a flight of locusts with open mouths, filling their crops with the insects. Tristram, <i> Nhb </i> , relates how he saw the fishes in the Jordan enjoying a similar feast, as the locusts fell into the stream. The female locust, by means of the ovipositor at the end of her abdomen, digs a hole in the ground, and deposits in it a mass of eggs, which are cemented together with a glandular secretion. An effective way of dealing with the locusts is to gather and destroy these egg-masses, and it is customary for the local governments to offer a substantial reward for a measure of eggs. The young before they can fly are frequently swept into pits or ditches dug for the purpose and are burned. </p> <p> The young are of the same general shape as the adult insects, differing in being small, black and wingless. The three distinct stages in the metamorphosis of butterflies and others of the higher insects are not to be distinguished in locusts. They molt about six times, emerging from each molt larger than before. At first there are no wings. After several molts, small and useless wings are found, but it is only after the last molt that the insects are able to fly. In the early molts the tiny black nymphs are found in patches on the ground, hopping out of the way when disturbed. Later they run, until they are able to fly. </p> <p> In all stages they are destructive to vegetation. Some remarkable pictures of their ravages are found in Joel 1:6 , Joel 1:7 , "For a nation is come up upon my land, strong, and without number; his teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the jaw-teeth of a lioness. He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my figtree: he hath made it clean bare, and cast it away; the branches thereof are made white" (see also Joel 2:2-9 , Joel 2:20 ). </p> 4. Figurative: <p> Locusts are instruments of the wrath of God ( Exodus 10:4-19; Deuteronomy 28:38 , Deuteronomy 28:42; 2 Chronicles 7:13; Psalm 78:46; Psalm 105:34; Nahum 3:15-17; The Wisdom of Solomon 16:9; Revelation 9:3 ); they typify an invading army ( Jeremiah 51:14 , Jeremiah 51:27 ); they are compared with horses ( Joel 2:4; Revelation 9:7 ); in Job 39:20 , [[Yahweh]] says of the horse: "Hast thou made him to leap as a locust?" the King James Version "Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper?" Locusts are among the "four things which are little upon the earth, but ... are exceeding wise" ( Proverbs 30:27 ). Like the stars and sands of the sea, locusts are a type of that which cannot be numbered ( Judges 6:5; Judges 7:12; Jeremiah 46:23; [[Judith]] 2:20). Grasshoppers are a symbol of insignificance ( Numbers 13:33; Ecclesiastes 12:5; Isaiah 40:22; 2 Esdras 4:24). </p> 5. Locusts as Food: <p> The Arabs prepare for food the thorax of the locust, which contains the great wing muscles. They pull off the head, which as it comes away brings with it a mass of the viscera, and they remove the abdomen (or "tail"), the legs and the wings. The thoraxes, if not at once eaten, are dried and put away as a store of food for a lean season. The idea of feeding upon locusts when prepared in this way should not be so repellent as the thought of eating the whole insect. In the light of this it is not incredible that the food of John the Baptist should have been "locusts and wild honey" ( Matthew 3:4 ). See [[Insects]] . </p> | ||
== Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_48850" /> == | == Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature <ref name="term_48850" /> == | ||
