Difference between revisions of "Blood"

<p> <b> 1. Meaning of the term. </b> -Among its simplest designations, ‘blood’ represents the blood which flows From wounds in the body (&nbsp;Acts 22:20); the extremity of human endurance of evil (&nbsp;Hebrews 12:4). The phrase ‘flesh and blood’ signifies the lower sensuous nature (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:50; cf. &nbsp;Matthew 16:17); any one whatever (&nbsp;Galatians 1:16); the substantial basis of human life (&nbsp;Hebrews 2:14); and human power antagonistic to the gospel (&nbsp;Ephesians 6:12). Thus ‘blood’ may symbolize any aspect of human life inferior to that of the ‘spirit.’ </p> <p> <b> 2. Origin. </b> -The meaning of the term is derived from OT usage, as in St. Peter’s reference to the portents of the Day of the Lord, quoting Joel’s words, ‘blood … the moon [shall be turned into] blood’ (&nbsp;Acts 2:19-20; cf. &nbsp;Joel 2:30-31). The same usage together with dependence on the story of the plagues in Egypt appears in Rev. (&nbsp;Revelation 6:12; &nbsp;Revelation 8:7; &nbsp;Revelation 8:6; &nbsp;Revelation 11:6; &nbsp;Revelation 16:3-4). [[Blood]] thus represents the greatness, awfulness, and finality of the [[Divine]] judgment, by which either a wicked condition is simply brought to an end (cf. also &nbsp;Revelation 19:13), or a temporary dispensation gives place to the last age of human earthly existence in the fulfilment of God’s purpose. </p> <p> <b> 3. Usage. </b> -(1) The word is related to [[Jewish]] ordinances. Among the prohibitions put forth by the council at [[Jerusalem]] was one enjoining abstinence from blood (&nbsp;Acts 15:20-29; &nbsp;Acts 21:25; cf. &nbsp;Leviticus 3:17). The reason for the edict was doubtless that assigned for the earlier restriction, that ‘the life of all flesh is in the blood’ (&nbsp;Leviticus 17:14). (2) Blood further symbolizes the life violently taken (&nbsp;Acts 1:19; &nbsp;Acts 22:20, &nbsp;Romans 3:15, &nbsp;Revelation 16:5), for which the murderer is responsible (&nbsp;Acts 5:28, &nbsp;Revelation 17:6; &nbsp;Revelation 18:24), and liable to the just judgment of God (&nbsp;Revelation 6:10; &nbsp;Revelation 19:2), perhaps, in poetic justice, a punishment like the crime (cf. &nbsp;Revelation 14:20). It may also signify the unpitying violence with which men treat their fellows (&nbsp;Romans 3:15). (3) In his denunciation that blood shall be upon one’s own head, St. Paul meant that the Corinthians who had refused belief in the gospel were both responsible for their rejection and exposed to God’s judgment against them (&nbsp;Acts 18:6; cf. &nbsp;Acts 5:26, &nbsp;2 Samuel 1:16, &nbsp;Matthew 27:25). In like manner one might be ‘guilty of the … blood of Christ’ (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:27). (4) Blood represents the life of men capable of redemption, for which any herald of the gospel is responsible and of which he may be found guilty if he fails in his duty as a preacher of Christ (&nbsp;Acts 20:26). (5) It signifies the life given up for an atonement, both as presented to God and as having reconciling virtue for men (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:7; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:4; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:18-22; &nbsp;Hebrews 13:11 f.; &nbsp;Hebrews 13:20 f.). </p> <p> <b> 4. The term used in connexion with the work of Christ. </b> -The most important uses of the word centre in the work of Christ. In the [[Epistle]] to the Romans the reference to blood involves its relation on the one hand to the sacrificial-offering, on the other hand to the sin-offering, wherein it appears that the sacrificial is the sin-offering. In other letters of St. Paul the references to blood are incidental and determined by the particular feature of redemption in the mind of the [[Apostle]] at the moment. In the Epistle to the Hebrews the meaning of the word is derived from the analogy of the OT Scriptures, which in a very inadequate manner prefigured the offering which Christ made of Himself. Revelation is dominated by the OT usage of the word and is in a large degree influenced by prophetic language, although the common note of redemption through the blood of Christ is heard here also. As related to the work of Christ, then, the apostolic teaching concerning blood involves the following specific features: ( <i> a </i> ) It is connected with sacrifices, as that of the Day of [[Atonement]] (&nbsp;Romans 3:25, &nbsp;Hebrews 9:7 ff.), by means of which the relation of men to God, and indeed of God to men (cf. &nbsp;Romans 5:10), broken by sin, is restored by the death of Christ. According to the Epistle to the Hebrews, while the animal sacrifices as such were irrational, destitute of personal consent, intermittent, incapable of purifying, spiritual efficacy (&nbsp;Hebrews 10:4), this lack was more than set off by the blood of Christ, ( <i> b </i> ) As in the Old [[Dispensation]] all persons ministering at the altar, utensils of service and worship, and means of approach to God were cleansed with blood as a medium of purification (cf., however, &nbsp;Leviticus 5:11 ff.), so the blood of Christ signifies that all that which pertains to salvation in the heavenly sanctuary into which both He and His followers enter has been for ever purified in His blood (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:22 ff.). It is as if the author of the Hebrews conceived of sin as having penetrated and defiled even the unseen heavenly world, which therefore needed to be set free from contamination and made holy in the same way as things belonging to the earthly tabernacle. ( <i> c </i> ) It is the sign and pledge of Christ’s free surrender of Himself to His atoning death (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:12-14, &nbsp;Revelation 1:5), and symbolizes the experience through which Jesus must pass on His way to perfected communion with God and the final stage of His mediatorial agency (&nbsp;Hebrews 10:19; &nbsp;Hebrews 13:12, &nbsp;1 John 5:6-8; cf. &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:28, &nbsp;Revelation 19:13). ( <i> d </i> ) The blood is also the means for the ratification of the New [[Covenant]] (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:25, &nbsp;Hebrews 9:15-20; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:29; &nbsp;Hebrews 13:20; cf. &nbsp;Matthew 26:28, &nbsp;Exodus 24:6-8). It could not but be that a ceremony, the meaning of which was so deeply embedded in the religions experience of the race, and which was so well fitted to symbolize the solemn consecration to mutual obligations, should find its significance completely expressed in the blood of Christ through which God would reunite Himself in even more spiritual bonds to the lives of Christ’s followers. ( <i> e </i> ) the blood is represented as the purchase price of deliverance from sin (&nbsp;Acts 20:28, &nbsp;Ephesians 1:7, &nbsp;Colossians 1:14, &nbsp;1 Peter 1:19, &nbsp;Revelation 5:9; cf. &nbsp;Hebrews 9:22). The vivid imagery of this word receives nowhere a closer definition; its force lies in its suggestion of one aspect of the experience of the man who passes from the consciousness of the bondage of sin to the joyful freedom of forgiveness. ( <i> f </i> ) Hence the word is associated with forgiveness of sins. As a sacrificial offering Christ was at the same time a sin-offering (&nbsp;Romans 3:25; &nbsp;Romans 5:9, &nbsp;Hebrews 9:12), and as such His offering has expiatory efficacy. ( <i> g </i> ) By His blood as our High [[Priest]] He enters into the presence of God on our behalf (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:12-24; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:19), there both perfectly realizing fellowship with God for Himself and carrying forward His mediatorial work. ( <i> h </i> ) The blood has efficacy in the actual life of believers, disclosing its energy in their progressive personal sanctification (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:14; &nbsp;Hebrews 10:19; &nbsp;Hebrews 12:24, &nbsp;1 Peter 1:2, &nbsp;1 John 1:7, &nbsp;Revelation 1:5; &nbsp;Revelation 7:14), and in the power which it confers on thorn to overcome that which resists the [[Christian]] aim from without (&nbsp;Revelation 12:11). ( <i> i </i> ) Blood is also a symbol of the inner fellowship of believers with one another and with God-the reference is social (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 10:16, &nbsp;Hebrews 13:12). </p> <p> Looking back over this subject as a whole, it is evident that the apostolic writers do not let their attention rest on blood as such, but only on blood as it is a vehicle and symbol of life. For the blood represents the life, even if this is taken by violence. Christ’s blood freely given, with the sole aim of recovering men in sin to fellowship with God and to their Divine destination as children of God. The efficacy of the life of Christ thus given is continuous from the unseen world and in the purpose of God. Thus the blood which flowed once for all is not of transitory worth, but is endowed with the energy perpetually to create new redemptive personal and social values-it is eternal. </p> <p> Literature.-B. F. Westcott, <i> The Epistle of St. John </i> , 1883, ‘Additional note on i. 7:1,’ p. 34ff., also <i> The Epistle to the Hebrews </i> , 1889, note ‘On the Use at the term “Blood” in the Epistle,’ p. 293f.; W. Sanday and A. C. Headlam, <i> The Epistle to the Romans 5 </i> ( <i> International Critical [[Commentary]] </i> , 1902), p. 91ff. </p> <p> C. A. Beckwith. </p>

<p> Beside its proper sense, the fluid of the veins of men and animals, the term in [[Scripture]] is used, </p> <p> <strong> 1. </strong> For life. "God will require the blood of a man," he will punish murder in what manner soever committed. "His blood be upon us," let the guilt of his death be imputed to us. "The voice of thy brother's blood crieth;" the murder committed on him crieth for vengeance. "The avenger of blood;" </p> <p> he who is to avenge the death of his relative, &nbsp;Numbers 35:24; &nbsp;Numbers 35:27 . </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> Blood means relationship, or consanguinity. </p> <p> <strong> 3. </strong> Flesh and blood are placed in opposition to a superior nature: "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven," </p> <p> &nbsp;Matthew 16:17 . </p> <p> <strong> 4. </strong> They are also opposed to the glorified body; "Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God," &nbsp; 1 Corinthians 15:50 . </p> <p> <strong> 5. </strong> They are opposed also to evil spirits: "We wrestle not against flesh and blood," against visible enemies composed of flesh and blood, "but against principalities and powers," &c, &nbsp; Ephesians 6:12 . </p> <p> <strong> 6. </strong> Wine is called the pure blood of the grape: "Judah shall wash his garments in the blood of the grape," &nbsp; [[Genesis]] 49:11; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 32:14 . </p> <p> <strong> 7. </strong> The priests were established by God to judge between blood and blood; that is, in criminal matters, and where the life of man is at stake;—to determine whether the murder be casual, or voluntary; whether a crime deserve death, or admit of remission, &c. </p> <p> <strong> 8. </strong> In its most eminent sense blood is used for the sacrificial death of Christ; whose blood or death is the price of our salvation. His blood has "purchased the church," &nbsp; Acts 20:28 . "We are justified by his blood," </p> <p> &nbsp;Romans 5:9 "We have redemption through his blood," &nbsp; Ephesians 1:7 , &c. See [[Atonement]] . </p> <p> That singular and emphatic prohibition of blood for food from the earliest times, which we find in the Holy Scriptures, deserves particular attention. God expressly forbade the eating of blood alone, or of blood mixed with the flesh of animals, as when any creature was suffocated, or strangled, or killed without drawing its blood from the carcass. For when the grant of animal food was made to Noah, in those comprehensive words, "Even as the green herb have I given you all things," it was added, "but flesh with the life thereof, namely, its blood, ye shall not eat" &nbsp;Genesis 9:4 . And when the law was given to the children of Israel, we find the prohibition against the eating of blood still more explicitly enforced, both upon [[Jews]] and Gentiles, in the following words, "Whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, that eateth any manner of blood; I will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood, and will cut him off from among his people: for the life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls: for it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul," </p> <p> &nbsp;Leviticus 17:10-11 . And to cut off all possibility of mistake upon this particular point, it is added: "Therefore I said unto the children of Israel, No soul of you shall eat blood, neither shall any stranger that sojourneth among you eat blood; and whatsoever man there be of the children of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, which hunteth and catcheth any beast or fowl that may be eaten; he shall even pour out the blood thereof and cover it with dust, for it is the life of all flesh; the blood of it is for the life thereof; therefore I said unto the children of Israel, Ye shall eat the blood of no manner of flesh: for the life of all flesh is the blood thereof; whosoever eateth it shall be cut off," &nbsp;Leviticus 17:12-14 . This restraint, than which nothing can be more express, was also, under the new covenant, enjoined upon believing Gentiles, as "a burden" which "it seemed necessary to the Holy Spirit to impose upon them," &nbsp;Acts 15:28-29 . For this prohibition no <em> moral </em> reason seems capable of being offered; nor does it clearly appear that blood is an unwholesome aliment, which some think was the physical reason of its being inhibited; and if, in fact, blood is deleterious as food, there seems no greater reason why this should be pointed out by special revelation to man, to guard him against injury, than many other unwholesome ailments. There is little force in the remark, that the eating of blood produces a ferocious disposition; for those nations that eat strangled things, or blood cooked with other ailments, do not exhibit more ferocity than others. The true reason was, no doubt, a <em> sacrificial </em> one. When animals were granted to Noah for food, the blood was reserved; and when the same law was reenacted among the Israelites, the original prohibition is repeated, with an explanation which at once shows the original ground upon which it rested: "I have given it upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls." From this "additional reason," as it has been called, it has been argued, that the doctrine of the atoning power of blood was new, and was, then, for the first time, announced by Moses, or the same cause for the prohibition would have been assigned to Noah. To this we may reply, </p> <p> <strong> 1. </strong> That unless the same reason be supposed as the ground of the prohibition of blood to Noah, as that given by Moses to the Jews, no reason at all can be conceived for this restraint being put upon the appetite of mankind from Noah to Moses; and yet we have a prohibition of a most solemn kind, which in itself could have no reason, enjoined without any external reason being either given or conceivable. </p> <p> <strong> 2. </strong> That it is a mistake to suppose that the declaration of Moses to the Jews, that God had "given them the blood for an atonement," is an <em> "additional reason" </em> for the interdict, not to be found in the original prohibition to Noah. The whole passage occurs in Leviticus 17; and the great reason there given of the prohibition of blood is, that it is "the <em> life;" </em> and what follows respecting "atonement," is exegetical of this reason;—the life is in the blood, and the blood or life is given as an atonement. Now, by turning to the original prohibition in Genesis, we find that precisely the same reason is given: "But the flesh with the blood, which is <em> the life </em> thereof, shall ye not eat." The reason, then, being the same, the question is, whether the exegesis added by Moses must not necessarily be understood in the general reason given for the restraint to Noah. Blood is prohibited because it is the <em> life; </em> and Moses adds, that it is "the blood," or <em> life, </em> "which makes atonement." Let any one attempt to discover any reason for the prohibition of blood to Noah, in the mere circumstance that it is "the life," and he will find it impossible. It is no reason at all, moral or instituted, except that as it was LIFE SUBSTITUTED FOR LIFE, the life of the animal in sacrifice for the life of man, and that, therefore, blood had a sacred appropriation. The manner, too, in which Moses introduces the subject, is indicative that, though he was renewing a prohibition, he was not publishing a new doctrine; he does not teach his people that God had then given, or appointed, blood to make atonement; but he prohibits them from eating it, because he had already made this appointment, without reference to time, and as a subject with which they were familiar. Because the blood was the life, it was sprinkled upon, and poured out at, the altar: and we have in the sacrifice of the paschal lamb, and the sprinkling of its blood, a sufficient proof that, before the giving of the law, not only was blood not eaten, but was appropriated to a sacred sacrificial purpose. Nor was this confined to the Jews; it was customary with the Romans and Greeks, who, in like manner, poured out and sprinkled the blood of victims at their altars; a rite derived, probably, from the Egyptians, who deduced it, not from Moses, but from the sons of Noah. The notion, indeed, that the blood of the victims was peculiarly sacred to the gods, is impressed upon all ancient [[Pagan]] mythology. </p>

<p> Forbidden to be eaten (&nbsp;Genesis 9:4) under the Old Testament, on the ground that "the life (soul) of the flesh (the soul which gives life to the flesh) is in the blood," and that "God gave it upon the altar to make atonement with for men's souls" (&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11). [[Translate]] the next clause, "for the blood maketh atonement by virtue of the soul." The blood, not in itself, but as the vehicle of the soul, atones, because the animal soul was offered to God on the altar as a. substitute for the human soul. Now that Christ's one, and only true, sacrifice has superseded animal sacrifices, the prohibition against eating blood ceases, the decree in Acts 15 being but temporary, not to offend existing Jewish prejudices needlessly. In &nbsp;Leviticus 3:17 the "fat" is forbidden as well as the blood. God reserved the blood to Himself, investing it with a sacramental sanctity, when allowing man animal food. Besides the atoning virtue it typically had, it brought a curse when not duly expiated, as by burial (&nbsp;Genesis 9:4; &nbsp;Leviticus 17:13). </p> <p> The blood of victims was caught by the priest in a basin, and sprinkled seven times (that of birds was squeezed out at once) on the altar, its four corners or horns, on its side above and below the line running round it, or on the mercy-seat, according to the nature of the offering; the blood of the Passover lamb on the lintel and doorposts (Exodus 12; &nbsp;Leviticus 4:5-7; &nbsp;Leviticus 16:14-19). A drain from the temple carried the blood into the brook Kedron. A land was regarded as polluted by blood shed on it, which was to be expiated only by the blood of the murderer, and not by any "satisfaction" (&nbsp;Genesis 4:10; &nbsp;Genesis 9:4-6; &nbsp;Hebrews 12:24; &nbsp;Numbers 35:31; &nbsp;Numbers 35:33; &nbsp;Psalms 106:38). The guilt of bloodshed, if the shedder was not known, fell on the city nearest by measurement, until it exculpated itself, its elders washing their hands over an expiatory sacrifice, namely, a beheaded heifer in a rough, unplowed, and unsown valley (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 21:1-9). </p> <p> The blood and water from Jesus' side, when pierced after death, was something extraordinary; for in other corpses the blood coagulates, and the water does not flow clear. The "loud voice" just before death (&nbsp;Luke 23:46) shows that He did not die from mere exhaustion. The psalmist, His typical forerunner, says (&nbsp;Psalms 69:20), "reproach hath broken my heart." [[Crucifixion]] alone would not have killed Him in so short a time. Probably the truth is, if we may with reverence conjecture from hints in Scripture, that mental agony, when He hung under the Father's displeasure at our sins which He bore, caused rupture of the pericardium, or sac wherein the heart throbs. The extravasated blood separated into the crassamentum and serum, the blood and the water, and flowed out when the soldier's spear pierced the side. </p> <p> Hence appears the propriety of &nbsp;Hebrews 10:19-20, "having boldness to enter into the holiest by the blood of Jesus, by a new and living way which He hath consecrated for us through the veil (which was 'rent' at His death), that is to say His flesh." Also, "this is My body which is broken for you" (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 11:24) is explained by the breaking of the heart, though it was true "a bone of Him shall not be broken" (&nbsp;John 19:32-27); compare also &nbsp;1 John 5:6, "this is He that came by water (at His baptism by John in Jordan) and blood" (by His bloody baptism, at Calvary). </p> <p> '''THE [[Avenging]] OF BLOOD''' by the nearest kinsman of the deceased was a usage from the earliest historical times (&nbsp;Genesis 9:5-6; &nbsp;Genesis 34:30; &nbsp;2 Samuel 14:7). Among the Bedouin Arabs the thar, or law of blood, comes into effect if the offer of money satisfaction be refused. So among the Anglo-Saxons the wer-gild, or money satisfaction for homicide, varying in amount according to the rank, was customary. The [[Mosaic]] law mitigated the severity of the law of private revenge for blood, by providing six cities of refuge (among the 48 [[Levitical]] cities), three on one side of Jordan, three on the other, for the involuntary homicide to flee into. The avenger, or goel (derived from a [[Hebrew]] root "pollution," implying that he was deemed polluted until the blood of his slain kinsman was expiated), was nearest of kin to the man slain, and was bound to take vengeance on the manslayer. </p> <p> If the latter reached one of the six cities, (Kedesh in Naphtali, [[Shechem]] in mount Ephraim, [[Hebron]] in the hill country of Judah, W. of Jordan; Bezor in Reuben, [[Ramoth]] in [[Gilead]] (Gad), [[Golan]] in Manasseh, E. of Jordan,) he was safe until the elders of the city, and then those of his own city, decided whether it was an involuntary act. In this case he was kept safe from the avenger in the city of refuge, so long as he did not go 2,000 cubits beyond its precincts. After the high priest's death he might return home in safety (&nbsp;Numbers 35:25; &nbsp;Numbers 35:28; &nbsp;Joshua 20:4-6). The roads were to be kept clear, that nothing might retard the flight of the manslayer, to whom every moment was precious (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 19:3). Jewish tradition adds that posts inscribed "Refuge," "Refuge," were to be set up at the cross roads. All necessaries of water, etc., were in the cities. </p> <p> No implements of war were allowed there. The law of retaliation in blood affected only the manslayer, and not also (as among pagan nations) his relatives (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 24:16). Blood revenge still prevails in Corsica. The law of blood avenging by the nearest kinsman, though incompatible with our ideas in a more civilized age and nation, is the means of preventing much bloodshed among the Arabs; and its introduction into the law of Israel, a kindred race, accords with the provisional character of the whole Mosaic system, which establishes not what is absolutely best, supposing a state of optimism, but what was best under existing circumstances. Moreover, it contained an important typical lesson, hinted at in &nbsp;Hebrews 6:18; &nbsp;Hebrews 2:14-15. </p> <p> The Son of man, as He to whom the Father hath committed all judgment, is the goel or avenger of blood on guilty man, involved by Satan the "murderer from the beginning" in murderous rebellion against God. He, in another sense, is the goel or redeemer of man, as the high priest whose death sets the shut up captive free; He is also the priestly city of refuge (His priestly office being the mean of our salvation), by fleeing into which man is safe; but in this latter sense, as our High priest "ever liveth," we must not only eater the city, and moreover abide in Him, but also abide in Him forever for eternal safety (&nbsp;John 15:1-11). "The way" to Him is clearly pointed out by God Himself (&nbsp;Isaiah 30:21). "Turn you to the stronghold, ye prisoners of hope" (&nbsp;Zechariah 9:12) Once in Christ, He can defy avenging justice (&nbsp;Romans 8:33-34). </p>

<p> &nbsp;Genesis 4:10 (c) This is symbolical of the death of Abel by the hand of Cain, his brother. The actual blood shed by Abel and lying on the ground called loudly for the punishment of the murderer. </p> <p> &nbsp;Exodus 12:13 (a) Here is a proof that those in the house had believed GOD's Word and had offered the proper sacrifice. The lamb and its blood are types of [[Christ]] and His Blood. (See1Co &nbsp;5:7). </p> <p> &nbsp;Leviticus 20:9 (a) Here is pictured the fact that GOD will fasten upon the guilty person his guilt and his punishment. The lawbreaker shall receive the due reward of his deeds. (See also &nbsp;Leviticus 20:13 and &nbsp;Leviticus 20:27; &nbsp;Ezekiel 18:13; &nbsp;Ezekiel 33:5). </p> <p> &nbsp;Deuteronomy 17:8 (a) The words used here refer to relatives who are quarreling among themselves. Those of the same blood are brought before the judgment seat for the adjustment of their difficulties. (See2Ch &nbsp;19:10). </p> <p> &nbsp;Job 16:18 (a) Job is making a call for a great inventory of his own life. He is inviting an investigation of his own character. He is really asserting that he has lived a righteous life. </p> <p> &nbsp;Psalm 58:10 (b) This is a description of the joy of GOD's people when the wicked are conquered and the enemy is under the feet of the Lord. (See also &nbsp;Psalm 68:23). </p> <p> &nbsp;Isaiah 1:15 (a) Probably this is a figure which describes the guilt of these people in murdering their fellowmen and murdering their children for idol worship. </p> <p> &nbsp;Ezekiel 16:6 (a) This probably refers to the early days of Israel's history in the time of [[Abraham]] followed by the times of Isaac and Jacob. The nation was formed with difficulty and trouble which is compared to the birth of a baby whereby blood is shed. </p> <p> &nbsp;Joel 2:31 (c) It is not clearly understood whether the moon will actually become red, or whether men because of strained eyes see the moon as red, or whether the tumult of earth's sorrows changes man's vision. [[Evidently]] it refers to a time of great and miraculous happenings because of the powerful operation of the Spirit of GOD in human affairs. (See also &nbsp;Revelation 6:12; &nbsp;Revelation 8:8; &nbsp;Revelation 16:3). </p> <p> &nbsp;Matthew 16:17 (a) This represents human reasonings, philosophies and deductions or conclusions. Nothing within the human heart or mind ever reveals anything of GOD or of the [[Deity]] of CHRIST. </p> <p> &nbsp;John 1:13 (a) This is a definite statement that no one becomes a child of GOD because of his parents, or through any blood stream. [[Salvation]] or [[Christianity]] is not passed down to the children through the blood stream of the father or the mother. Each child and each relative must experience the will and the power of GOD in his own personal case in order to become a child of GOD. This relationship only comes about through personal faith in [[Jesus]] CHRIST. </p> <p> &nbsp;John 6:54 (a) The blood in this case is a type or a picture of the life and death of CHRIST and the Person of CHRIST appropriated by the believer for salvation. It represents the receiving by faith of the sacrifice of CHRIST for forgiveness and cleansing. It is a figure of speech which we commonly use when one expresses his love for another by saying, "I could eat you up." Sometimes the expression is used, "I lapped it up as a cat laps milk." The thought is the same. The believer embraces by faith with no question or doubt the value of the person of CHRIST and the efficacy of His work for our souls. See also1Co &nbsp;11:25-26. </p> <p> &nbsp;Acts 17:26 (a) This blood is a type or a symbol of the universal character of human beings as distinguished from all animal life. All human beings are made of the same kind of blood. It is different from animal blood, but it is always human blood. This links all human beings together as a separate group from all the animal creation and proves the fallacy and the false character of the hypothesis of "evolution." </p> <p> &nbsp;Acts 20:26 (a) The word in this case is used to represent the fact that Paul would not be held responsible for the death, the second death, of any of those whom he had contacted in his travels and preaching. The appearance of blood indicates death. Paul so preached CHRIST and the [[Gospel]] that none of those who heard His Word need never die in their sins and be sent to the Lake of Fire, which is the second death. Paul felt that he had completely cleared himself of all responsibility in connection with the salvation of those people. </p> <p> &nbsp;1 John 1:7 (a) The blood here represents the sacrifice of CHRIST at [[Calvary]] with all the saving power connected with it. When we believe in and trust the Lord JESUS CHRIST, GOD and CHRIST apply His sacrifice to our record of sins, and to ourselves in order to blot out all these sins and iniquities. GOD has made a "blood bank." Any person who believes in and accepts the Lord JESUS CHRIST may and does receive the benefits of that precious blood. </p> <p> &nbsp;Revelation 14:20 (c) This is a picture of the complete victory of the Lord JESUS over all His enemies and the vindication as well as the culmination of the wrath of GOD against all His opponents. </p> <p> &nbsp;Revelation 17:6 (b) This blood represents the death of multitudes who have been slain by this wicked church under the guise of serving GOD. That evil monster, the apostate church, was and is responsible for the death of many thousands of true believers who were burned at the stake, tortured in cages, torn by the rack, and otherwise killed by extremely cruel means. This church reveled in this carnage, and still rejoices in every opportunity to injure and destroy true believers in the Lord JESUS CHRIST. (See also &nbsp;Revelation 18:24). </p>

<p> <em> Dâm </em> (דָּם, Strong'S #1818), “blood.” This is a common Semitic word with cognates in all the Semitic languages. Biblical Hebrew attests it about 360 times and in all periods. <em> Dâm </em> is used to denote the “blood” of animals, birds, and men (never of fish). In Gen. 9:4, “blood” is synonymous with “life”: “But flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat.” The high value of life as a gift of God led to the prohibition against eating “blood”: “It shall be a perpetual statute for your generations throughout all your dwellings, that ye eat neither fat nor blood” (Lev. 3:17). Only infrequently does this word mean “blood-red,” a color: “And they rose up early in the morning, and the sun shone upon the water, and the [[Moabites]] saw the water on the other side as red as blood” (2 Kings 3:22). In two passages, <em> dâm </em> represents “wine”: “He washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes” (Gen. 49:11; cf. Deut. 32:14). </p> <p> <em> Dâm </em> bears several nuances. First, it can mean “blood shed by violence”: “So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are: for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein …” (Num. 35:33). Thus it can mean “death”: “So will I send upon you famine and evil beasts, and they shall bereave thee; and pestilence and blood shall pass through thee; and I will bring the sword upon thee” (Ezek. 5:17). </p> <p> Next, <em> dâm </em> may connote an act by which a human life is taken, or blood is shed: “If there arise a matter too hard for thee in judgment, between blood and blood [one kind of homicide or another] …” (Deut. 17:8). To “shed blood” is to commit murder: “Whoso sheddeth man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed …” (Gen. 9:6). The second occurrence here means that the murderer shall suffer capital punishment. In other places, the phrase “to shed blood” refers to a non-ritualistic slaughter of an animal: “What man soever there be of the house of Israel, that killeth an ox, or lamb … in the camp, or that killeth it out of the camp, and bringeth it not unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, to offer an offering unto the Lord before the tabernacle of the Lord; blood [guiltiness] shall be imputed unto that man” (Lev. 17:3-4). </p> <p> In judicial language, “to stand against one’s blood” means to stand before a court and against the accused as a plaintiff, witness, or judge: “Thou shalt not go up and down as a talebearer among thy people: neither shalt thou stand against the blood [i.e., act against the life] of thy neighbor …” (Lev. 19:16). The phrase, “his blood be on his head,” signifies that the guilt and punishment for a violent act shall be on the perpetrator: “For everyone that curseth his father or his mother shall be surely put to death: he hath cursed his father or his mother; his blood [guiltiness] shall be upon him” (Lev. 20:9). This phrase bears the added overtone that those who execute the punishment by killing the guilty party are not guilty of murder. So here “blood” means responsibility for one’s dead: “And it shall be, that whosoever shall go out of the doors of thy house into the street, his blood shall be upon his head, and we will be guiltless: and whosoever shall be with thee in the house, his blood shall be on our head, if any hand be upon him” (Josh. 2:19). </p> <p> Animal blood could take the place of a sinner’s blood in atoning (covering) for sin: “For it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul” (Lev. 17:11). Adam’s sin merited death and brought death on all his posterity (Rom. 5:12); so the offering of an animal in substitution not only typified the payment of that penalty, but it symbolized that the perfect offering would bring life for Adam and all others represented by the sacrifice (Heb. 10:4). The animal sacrifice prefigured and typologically represented the blood of Christ, who made the great and only effective substitutionary atonement, and whose offering was the only offering that gained life for those whom He represented. The shedding of His “blood” seals the covenant of life between God and man (Matt. 26:28). </p>

<div> '''A — 1: αἷμα ''' (Strong'S #129 — Noun Masculine — haima — hah'ee-mah ) </div> <p> (hence Eng., prefix haem,), besides its natural meaning, stands, (a) in conjunction with sarx, "flesh," "flesh and blood," &nbsp;Matthew 16:17; &nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:50; &nbsp;Galatians 1:16; the original has the opposite order, blood and flesh, in &nbsp;Ephesians 6:12; &nbsp;Hebrews 2:14; this phrase signifies, by synecdoche, "man, human beings." It stresses the limitations of humanity; the two are essential elements in man's physical being; "the life of the flesh is in the blood," &nbsp;Leviticus 17:11; (b) for human generation, &nbsp;John 1:13; (c) for "blood" shed by violence, e.g., &nbsp;Matthew 23:35; &nbsp;Revelation 17:6; (d) for the "blood" of sacrificial victims, e.g., &nbsp;Hebrews 9:7; of the "blood" of Christ, which betokens His death by the shedding of His "blood" in expiatory sacrifice; to drink His "blood" is to appropriate the saving effects of His expiatory death, &nbsp;John 6:53 . As "the life of the flesh is in the blood," &nbsp;Leviticus 17:11 , and was forfeited by sin, life eternal can be imparted only by the expiation made, in the giving up of the life by the sinless Savior. </p> <div> '''A — 2: αἱματεκχυσία ''' (Strong'S #130 — Noun [[Feminine]] — haimatekchusia — hahee-mat-ek-khoo-see'-ah ) </div> <p> denotes "shedding of blood," &nbsp;Hebrews 9:22 (haima, "blood," ekchuno, "to pour out, shed"). </p> <div> '''B — 1: αἱμορροέω ''' (Strong'S #131 — Verb — haimorrhoeo — hahee-mor-hreh'-o ) </div> <p> from haima, "blood," rheo, "to flow" (Eng., "hemorrhage"), signifies "to suffer from a flow of blood," &nbsp;Matthew 9:20 . </p> &nbsp;Mark 5:25&nbsp;Luke 8:43&nbsp;Acts 17:26&nbsp; Colossians 1:14&nbsp;Acts 28:8

<li> Blood used metaphorically to denote race (&nbsp;Acts 17:26 ), and as a symbol of slaughter (&nbsp;Isaiah 34:3 ). To "wash the feet in blood" means to gain a great victory (&nbsp;Psalm 58:10 ). Wine, from its red colour, is called "the blood of the grape" (&nbsp;Genesis 49:11 ). Blood and water issued from our Saviour's side when it was pierced by the Roman soldier (&nbsp;John 19:34 ). This has led pathologists to the conclusion that the proper cause of Christ's death was rupture of the heart. (Compare &nbsp;Psalm 69:20 .) <div> <p> '''Copyright Statement''' These dictionary topics are from M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Third Edition, published by [[Thomas]] Nelson, 1897. Public Domain. </p> <p> '''Bibliography Information''' Easton, Matthew George. Entry for 'Blood'. Easton's Bible Dictionary. https://www.studylight.org/dictionaries/eng/ebd/b/blood.html. 1897. </p> </div> </li>

<p> <strong> BLOOD </strong> . Among all primitive races the blood, especially of human beings, has been and is regarded with superstitious, or rather, to be just, religious awe. By the Hebrews also blood was Invested with peculiar sanctity as the seat of the soul ( <em> nephesh </em> ), that is of the principle of life (&nbsp; Leviticus 17:11 ‘the life [Heb. <em> nephesh </em> ] of the flesh is in the blood’). From this fundamental conception of blood as the vehicle of life may be derived all the manifold social and religious beliefs and practices with regard to it, which play so large a part in Scripture. See Atonement, Clean and Unclean, Covenant, Food, Propitiation, Sacrifice. </p> <p> A. R. S. Kennedy. </p>

<p> (דָּם, ''Dam; Αϊ'' v μα: both occasionally used, by Hebraism, in the plural with a sing. sense), the red fluid circulating in the veins of men and animals. The term is employed in Scripture in a variety of senses. </p> <p> '''1.''' ''As Food. —'' To blood is ascribed in Scripture the mysterious sacredness which belongs to life, and God reserved it to Himself when allowing man the dominion over and the use of the lower animals for food, etc. (See Thomson, ''Land And Book,'' i, 136.) In &nbsp;Genesis 9:4, where the use of animal food is allowed, it is first absolutely forbidden to eat "flesh with its soul, its blood;" which expression, were it otherwise obscure, is explained by the mode in which the same terms are employed in &nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:23. In the Mosaic law the prohibition is repeated with frequency and emphasis, although it is generally introduced in connection with sacrifices, as in &nbsp;Leviticus 3:7; &nbsp;Leviticus 7:26 (in both which places blood is coupled in the prohibition with ''The Fat'' of the victims); 17:10-14; 19:2; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 12:16-23; &nbsp;Deuteronomy 15:23. In cases where the prohibition is introduced in connection with the lawful and unlawful articles of diet, the reason which is generally assigned in the text is that " the blood is the soul," and it is ordered that it be poured on the ground like water. But where it is introduced in reference to the portions of the victim which were to be offered to the Lord, then the text, in addition to the former reason, insists that "the blood expiates by the soul" (&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11; Leviticus 12). This strict injunction not only applied to the Israelites, but even to the strangers residing among them. The penalty assigned to its transgression was the being "cut off from the people," by which the punishment of death appears to be intended (comp. &nbsp;Hebrews 10:28), although it is difficult to ascertain whether it was inflicted by the sword or by stoning. It is observed by Michaelis ''(Imos. Recht. 4:'' 45) that the blood of fishes does not appear to be interdicted. The words in &nbsp;Leviticus 7:26, only expressly mention that of birds and cattle. This accords, however, with the reasons assigned for the prohibition of blood, inasmuch as fishes could not be offered to the Lord, although they formed a significant offering in heathen religions. To this is to be added that the apostles and elders, assembled in council at Jerusalem, when desirous of settling the extent to which the ceremonial observances were binding upon the converts to Christianity, renewed the injunction to abstain from blood, and coupled it with things offered to idols (&nbsp;Acts 15:29). It is perhaps worthy of notice here that Mohammed, while professing to abrogate some of the dietary restrictions of the Jewish law (which he asserts were imposed on account of the sins of the Jews, Sura 4:158). still enforces, among others, abstinence from blood and from things offered to idols (Koran, Sur. v, 4; 6:146, ed. Flugel). </p> <p> In direct opposition to this emphatic prohibition of blood in the Mosaic law, the customs of uncivilized heathens sanctioned the cutting of slices from the living animal, and the eating of the flesh while quivering with life and dripping with blood. Even Saul's army committed this barbarity, as we read in &nbsp;1 Samuel 14:32; and the prophet also lays it to the charge of the Jews in &nbsp;Ezekiel 33:25. This practice, according to Bruce's testimony, exists at present among the Abyssinians. Moreover, pagan religions, and that of the Phoenicians among the rest, appointed the eating and drinking of blood, mixed with wine, as a rite of idolatrous worship, and especially in the ceremonial of swearing. To this the passage in &nbsp;Psalms 16:4 appears to allude (comp. Michaelis, Critisth. Colleg. p. 108, where several testimonies on this subject are collected). </p> <p> Among Christians different views have been entertained respecting the eating of blood, some maintaining that its prohibition in the [[Scriptures]] is to be regarded as merely ceremonial and temporary, while others contend that it is unlawful under any circumstances, and that Christians are as much bound to abstain from it now as were the Jews under the Mosaic economy. This they found on the facts that when animal food was originally granted to man, there was an express reservation in the article of the blood; that this grant was made to the new parents of the whole human family after the flood, consequently the tenure by which any of mankind are permitted to eat animals is in every case accompanied with this restriction; that there never was any reversal of the prohibition; that most express injunctions were given on the point in the Jewish code; and that in the New Testament, instead of there being the least hint intimating that we are freed from the obligation, it is deserving of particular notice that at the very time when the Holy Spirit declares by the apostles (Acts 15) that the [[Gentiles]] are free from the yoke of circumcision, abstinence from blood is explicitly enjoined, and the action thus prohibited is classed with idolatry and fornication. After the time of [[Augustine]] the rule began to be held merely as a temporary injunction. It was one of the grounds alleged by the early apologists against the calumnies of the enemies of Christianity that, so far were they from drinking human blood, it was unlawful for them to drink the blood even of irrational animals. Numerous testimonies to the same effect are found in after ages (Bingham, Orig. Eccl., bk. 17:ch. v, § 20). (See [[Food]]). </p> <p> '''2.''' ''Sacrificial. —'' It was a well-established rabbinical maxim (Mishna, ''Yoma,'' v, 1; ''Menachoth,'' xciii, 2) that the blood of a victim is essential to atonement (כפרה אלא בדם אין, i.e. "there is no expiation except by blood"), a principle recognised by the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews ''(Χωρὶς Αὶματεκχυσίας Οὐ Γίνσται Ἄφεσις, 9:'' 22). See Bahr, ''Symbol.'' ii, 201 sq. (See [[Expiation]]). The blood of sacrifices was caught by the Jewish priest from the neck of the victim in a basin, then sprinkled seven times (in the case of birds at once shed out) on the altar, i.e. on its horns, its base, or its four corners, or on its side above or below a line running round it, or on the mercy-seat, according to the quality and purpose of the offering; but that of the Passover on the lintel and door-posts (Exodus 12; &nbsp;Leviticus 4:5-7; &nbsp;Leviticus 16:14-19; Ugolini, ''Thes.'' vol. x and xiii). There was a drain from the [[Temple]] into the brook [[Cedron]] to carry off the blood (Maimon. ''Apud'' Cramer ''De A Ra Exter.'' Ugolini, viii). It sufficed to pour the animal's blood on the earth, or to bury it, as a solemn rendering of the life to God. (See Sacrifice). </p> <p> '''3.''' ''Homicidal. —'' In this respect " blood" is often used for ''Life:'' God " will require the blood of man;" he will punish murder in what manner soever committed (&nbsp;Genesis 9:5). " His blood be upon us" (&nbsp;Matthew 27:25), let the guilt of his death be imputed to us. "The voice of thy brother's blood crieth;" the murder committed on him crieth for vengeance (&nbsp;Genesis 4:10). "The avenger of blood;" he who is to avenge the death of his relative (&nbsp;Numbers 35:24; &nbsp;Numbers 35:27). The priests under the Mosaic law were constituted judges between "blood and blood," that is, in criminal matters, and when the life of man was at stake; they had to determine whether the murder were casual or voluntary, whether a crime deserved death or admitted of remission (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 17:8). In case of human bloodshed, a mysterious connection is observable between the curse of blood and the earth or land on which it is shed, which becomes polluted by it; and the proper expiation is the blood of the shedder, which every one had thus an interest in exacting, and was bound to seek (&nbsp;Genesis 4:10; &nbsp;Genesis 9:4-6; &nbsp;Numbers 35:33; &nbsp;Psalms 106:38). (See [[Avenger Of Blood]]). In the case of a dead body found and the death not accounted for, the guilt of blood attached to the nearest city, to be ascertained by measurement, until freed by prescribed rites of expiation (&nbsp;Deuteronomy 21:1-9). The guilt of murder is one for which a satisfaction" was forbidden (&nbsp;Numbers 35:31). (See [[Murder]]). </p> <p> '''4.''' In a slightly ''Metaphorical'' sense, " blood" sometimes means [[Race]] or nature, by virtue of relationship or consanguinity: God "hath made of one blood all nations of men" (&nbsp;Acts 17:26). It is also used as the symbol of slaughter and mortality (&nbsp;Isaiah 34:3; &nbsp;Ezekiel 14:19). It also denotes every kind of premature death (&nbsp;Ezekiel 32:6; &nbsp;Ezekiel 39:18). "The bold imager' of the prophet," says [[Archbishop]] Newcome, " is founded on the custom of invitations to feasts after sacrifices; kings, princes, and tyrants being expressed by rams, bulls, and he-goats." Blood is sometimes put for sanguinary purposes, as in &nbsp;Isaiah 33:15, "He that stoppeth his ears from hearing of blood," or, more properly, who stoppeth his ears to the proposal of bloodshed. To "wash the feet in blood" (&nbsp;Psalms 58:10) is to gain a victory with much slaughter. To "build a town with blood" (&nbsp;Habakkuk 2:12) is by causing the death of the oppressed laborers as slaves. </p> <p> Wine is called the blood of the grape; "He washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes" (&nbsp;Genesis 49:11). Here the figure is easily understood, as any thing of a red color may be compared to blood. See Wemyss, ''Symbol. Dict. S.V.'' [[Flesh]] AND BLOOD are placed in opposition to a superior or spiritual nature: " Flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven" (&nbsp;Matthew 16:17). Flesh and blood are also opposed to the glorified body: "Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God" (&nbsp;1 Corinthians 15:50). They are opposed to evil spirits: "We wrestle not against flesh and blood," against visible enemies composed of flesh and blood, "but against principalities and powers," etc. (&nbsp;Ephesians 6:12). (See [[Eucharist]]). </p>

<p> '''''blud''''' ( דּם , <i> '''''dām''''' </i> , probably from אדם , <i> ''''''ādham''''' </i> "to be red"; αἷμα , <i> '''''haı́ma''''' </i> ): Used in the Old Testament to designate the life principle in either animal or vegetable, as the blood of man or the juice of the grape (&nbsp;Leviticus 17:11 , et al.); in the New Testament for the blood of an animal, the atoning blood of Christ, and in both Old Testament and New Testament in a figurative sense for bloodshed or murder (&nbsp;Genesis 37:26; &nbsp;Hosea 4:2; &nbsp;Revelation 16:6 ). </p> 1. Primitive Ideas <p> Although the real function of the blood in the human system was not fully known until the fact of its circulation was established by [[William]] Harvey in 1615, nevertheless from the earliest times a singular mystery has been attached to it by all peoples. Blood rites, blood ceremonies and blood feuds are common among primitive tribes. It came to be recognized as the life principle long before it was scientifically proved to be. [[Naturally]] a feeling of fear, awe and reverence would be attached to the shedding of blood. With many uncivilized peoples scarification of the body until blood flows is practiced. Blood brotherhood or blood friendship is established by African tribes by the mutual shedding of blood and either drinking it or rubbing it on one another's bodies. Thus and by the inter-transfusion of blood by other means it was thought that a community of life and interest could be established. </p> 2. Hebrew and Old Testament Customs <p> [[Notwithstanding]] the ignorance and superstition surrounding this suggestively beautiful idea, it grew to have more than a merely human significance and application. For this crude practice of inter-transference of human blood there came to be a symbolic substitution of animal blood in sprinkling or anointing. The first reference in the Old Testament to blood (&nbsp;Genesis 4:10 ) is figurative, but highly illustrative of the reverential fear manifested upon the shedding of blood and the first teaching regarding it. </p> <p> The rite of circumcision is an Old Testament form of blood ceremony. Apart from the probable sanitary importance of the act is the deeper meaning in the establishment of a bond of friendship between the one upon whom the act is performed and Yahweh Himself. In order that Abraham might become "the friend of God" he was commanded that he should be circumcised as a token of the covenant between him and God (&nbsp;Genesis 17:10-11; see [[Circumcision]] ). </p> <p> It is significant that the eating of blood was prohibited in earliest Bible times (&nbsp;Genesis 9:4 ). The custom probably prevailed among heathen nations as a religious rite (compare &nbsp;Psalm 16:4 ). This and its unhygienic influence together doubtless led to its becoming taboo. The same prohibition was made under the Mosaic code (&nbsp;Leviticus 7:26; see Sacrifice ). </p> <p> Blood was commanded to be used also for purification or for ceremonial cleansing (&nbsp;Leviticus 14:5-7 , &nbsp;Leviticus 14:51 , &nbsp;Leviticus 14:52; &nbsp;Numbers 19:4 ), provided, however, that it be taken from a clean animal (see [[Purification]] ). </p> <p> In all probability there is no trace of the superstitious use of blood in the Old Testament, unless perchance in &nbsp;1 Kings 22:38 (see [[Bathing]] ); but everywhere it is vested with cleansing, expiatory, and reverently symbolic qualities. </p> 3. New Testament Teachings <p> As in the transition from ancient to Hebrew practice, so from the Old Testament to the New Testament we see an exaltation of the conception of blood and blood ceremonies. In Abraham's covenant his own blood had to be shed. Later an expiatory animal was to shed blood (&nbsp;Leviticus 5:6; see Atonement ), but there must always be a shedding of blood. "Apart from shedding of blood there is no remission" (&nbsp;Hebrews 9:22 ). The exaltation and dignifying of this idea finds its highest development then in the vicarious shedding of blood by Christ Himself (&nbsp;1 John 1:7 ). As in the Old Testament "blood" was also used to signify the juice of grapes, the most natural substitute for the drinking of blood would be the use of wine. Jesus takes advantage of this, and introduces the beautiful and significant custom (&nbsp;Matthew 26:28 ) of drinking wine and eating bread as symbolic of the primitive intertransfusion of blood and flesh in a pledge of eternal friendship (compare &nbsp;Exodus 24:6 , &nbsp;Exodus 24:7; &nbsp;John 6:53-56 ). This is the climactic observance of blood rites recorded in the Bible. </p> Literature <p> Trumbull, <i> The Blood Covenant and The [[Threshold]] Covenant </i> ; Westermarck, <i> The Origin and Development of the [[Moral]] Ideas </i> ; Robertson Smith, <i> Lectures on the [[Religion]] of the Semites </i> . </p>